What parts of PTSD are normal: Intrusion, avoidance, or arousal? Data from the Northridge, California, earthquake

Journal of Traumatic Stress

Volumn 13, Issue 1, 2000, Pages 57-75

  McMillen, J Curtis ^a   North, Carol S ^a   Smith, Elizabeth M ^a  

^a WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Comorbidity; Disaster; PTSD; Symptom criteria

Indexed keywords

ADULT; AROUSAL; ARTICLE; AVOIDANCE BEHAVIOR; DISASTER; DISTRESS SYNDROME; FEMALE; HUMAN; INTROVERSION; MALE; NORMAL HUMAN; POSTTRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER; SCORING SYSTEM;

ADULT; AGED; AROUSAL; ATTENTION; AVOIDANCE LEARNING; COMORBIDITY; FEMALE; FOLLOW-UP STUDIES; HUMANS; MALE; MIDDLE AGED; NATURAL DISASTERS; PSYCHIATRIC STATUS RATING SCALES; PSYCHOMETRICS; REFERENCE VALUES; RISK FACTORS; STRESS DISORDERS, POST-TRAUMATIC; SURVIVORS;

EID: 0034121349     PISSN: 08949867     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1023/A:1007768830246     Document Type: Article

References (53)

1. American Psychiatric Association (1987). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (3rd ed. rev.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.
2. American Psychiatric Association (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.
3. Andreason, N. C. (1980). Posttraumatic stress disorder. In H. I. Kaplan, A. M. Freedman, & B. J. Sadlock (Eds.), Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry (pp. 1517-1525). Baltimore, MD: Williams & Wilkins.
4. Blanchard, E. B., Hickling, E. J., Vollmer, A. J., Loos, W. R., Buckley, T. C., & Jaccard, J. (1995). Short-term follow-up of posttraumatic stress symptoms in motor vehicle accident survivors. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 4, 369-377.
5. Blank, A. S. (1993). The longitudinal course of posttraumatic stress disorder. In J. R. T. Davidson & E. B. Foa (Eds.), Post-traumatic stress disorder: DSM IV and beyond (pp. 3-22). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.
6. Breslau, N., Davis, C. G., Andreski, P., & Peterson, E. (1991). Traumatic events and post-traumatic stress disorder in an urban population of young adults. Archives of General Psychiatry, 48, 216-222.
7. Briefly; Insurance (1995). The Los Angeles Times, Sept. 14.
8. Conyer, R. C. T., Amor, J. S., Medina-Mora, E. M., Caraveo, J., & de la Fuente, J. R. (1987). Prevalence of post-traumatic stress syndrome in survivors of a natural disaster. Salud Publico de Mexico, 29, 405-111.
9. Davidson, J. R. T., & Foa, E. B. (1991). Diagnostic issues in posttraumatic stress disorder: Considerations for the DSM-IV. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 100, 346-355.
10. Davidson, J. R. T., Hughes, D., Blazer, D. G., & George, L. K. (1991). Post-traumatic stress disorder in the community: An epidemiological study. Psychological Medicine, 21, 713-721.
11. Foa, E. B., Riggs, D. S., & Gershuny, B.S. (1995). Arousal, numbing, and intrusion: Symptom structure of PTSD following assault. American Journal of Psychiatry, 152, 116-120.
12. Gibson, J. W. (1992). Compensating for missing data in social work research. Social Work Research and Abstracts, 28(2), 3-8.
13. Green, B. L. (1993a). Disasters and posttraumatic stress disorder. In J. R. T. Davidson & E. B. Foa (Eds.), Post-traumatic stress disorder: DSM IV and beyond (pp. 75-97). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.
14. Green, B. L. (1993b). Identifying survivors at risk: Trauma and stressors across events. In J. Wilson & B. Raphael (Eds.), International handbook of traumatic stress syndromes (pp. 135-144). New York: Plenum.
15. Green, B. L., Lindy, J. D., & Grace, M. C. (1985). Posttraumatic stress disorder: Toward DSM-IV. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 173, 406-411.
16. Helzer, J. E., Robins, L. N., & McEvoy, L. (1987). Posttraumatic stress disorder in the general populations: Findings of the Epidemiological Catchment Area Survey. New England Journal of Medicine, 317, 1630-1634.
17. Horowitz, M. J. (1976). Stress response syndromes (2nd ed.). New York: Jason Aronson.
18. Keane, T. M. (1993). Symptomatology of Vietnam veterans with posttrauamtic stress disorder. In J. R. T. Davidson & E. B. Foa (Eds.), Post-traumatic stress disorder: DSM IV and beyond. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.
19. Kessler, R. C., Sonega, A., Bromet, W. E., Hughes, M., & Nelson, C. B. (1995). Posttraumatic stress disorder in the National Comorbidity Study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 53, 1048-1060.
20. Kilpatrick, D. G., & Resnick, H. S. (1993). Posttraumatic stress disorder associated with exposure to criminal victimization in clinical and community populations. In J. R. T. Davidson & E. B. Foa (Eds.), Posttraumatic stress disorder: DSM IV and beyond. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.
21. King, D. W., Leskin, G. A., King, L. A., & Weathers, F. W. (1997). Confirmatory factor analysis of the Clinician Administered PTSD Scale. Paper presented at the American Psychological Society Convention, Washington, DC.
22. Kulka, R. A., Schlenger, W. E., Fairbank, J. A., Hough, R. L., Jordan, B. K., Marmar, C. R., & Weiss, D. S. (1990). The national Vietnam veterans adjustment study: Tables of findings and technical appendices. New York: Bruner/Mazel.
23. Maida, C. A., Gordon, N. S., Steinberg, A., & Gordon, G. (1989). Psychosocial impact of disasters: Victims of the Baldwin Hills fire. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 2, 37-48.
24. McCammon, S., Durham, T. W., Allison, E. J., & Williamson, J. E. (1988). Emergency workers' cognitive appraisal and coping with traumatic events. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 1, 353-372.
25. Mitchell, J. T., & Bray, G. (1990). Emergency services stress: Guidelines for preserving the health and careers of emergency services personnel. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
26. Norris, F. (1992). Epidemiology of trauma: Frequency and impact of different potentially traumatic events on different demographic groups. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 60, 409-418.
27. North, C. S. (1995). Human response to violent trauma. Bailliere's Clinical Psychiatry, 1, 225-245.
28. North, C. S., Smith, E. M., McCool, R. E., & Lightcap, P. E. (1989). Acute postdisaster coping and adjustment. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 2, 353-360.
29. North, C. S., Smith, E. M., McCool, R. E., & Shea, J. M. (1989). Short-term psychopathology in eyewitnesses to mass murder. Hospital and Community Psychiatry, 40, 1293-1295.
30. North, C. S., Smith, E. M., & Spitznagel, E. L. (1994). Posttraumatic stress disorder in survivors of a mass shooting. American Journal of Psychiatry, 15, 82-88.
31. North, C. S., Smith, E. M., & Spitznagel, E. L. (1997). One year follow-up of survivors of a mass shooting. American Journal of Psychiatry, 154, 1696-1702.
32. Ochberg, F. M. (1991). Posttraumatic therapy. Psychotherapy, 28, 5-19.
33. Raphael, B., & Wilson, J. P. (1993). Theoretical and intervention considerations in working with victims of disaster. In J. Wilson & B. Raphael (Eds.), International handbook of traumatic stress syndromes (pp. 105-117). New York: Plenum.
34. Reich, K. (1995). Study raises Northridge quake death toll to 72. Los Angeles Times, Dec. 20, A1.
35. Robins, L. N., Helzer, J. E., Croughan, J. L., Williamson, J. B. W., & Spitzer, R. L. (1981). NIMH Diagnostic Interview Schedule, Version III. Rockville, MD: NIMH, Public Health Service [publication ADM-T-42-3 (5-81, 8-81)].
36. Robins, L. N., & Smith, E. M. (1983). The Diagnostic Interview Schedule/Disaster Supplement. St. Louis, MO: Washington University School of Medicine.
37. Rothbaum, B. O., & Foa, E. B. (1993). Subtypes of post-traumatic stress disorder and duration of symptoms. In J. R. T. Davidson & E. B. Foa (Eds.), Post-traumatic stress disorder: DSM IV and beyond (pp. 23-35). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.
38. Sack, W. H., Seeley, J. R., & Clarke, G. N. (1997). Does PTSD transcend cultural barriers?: A study from the Khmer adolescent refugee project. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 49-54.
39. Schwarz, R. A., & Prout, M. F (1991). Integrated approaches in the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychotherapy, 28, 364-373.
40. Scott, W. J. (1990). PTSD in DSM III: A case in the politics of diagnosis and disease. Social Problems, 37, 294-310.
41. Shore, J. H., Tatum. E. L., & Vollmer, W. M. (1986). The Mount St. Helen's stress response syndrome. In J. H. Shore (Ed.), Disaster stress studies: New methods and findings (pp. 7-97). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.
42. Sloan, P. (1988). Posttraumatic stress in survivors of an airplane crash landing: A clinical and exploratory research intervention. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 1, 211-229.
43. Smith, E. M., & North, C. S. (1993). Posttraumatic stress disorder in natural disasters and technological accidents. In J. Wilson & B. Raphael (Eds.), International handbook of traumatic stress syndromes (pp. 405-119). New York: Plenum.
44. Smith, E. M., Robins, L. R., Pryzbeck, T. R., Goldring, E., & Solomon, S. D. (1986). Psychosocial consequences of a disaster. In J. H. Shore (Ed.), Disaster stress studies: New methods and findings (pp. 50-76). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.
45. Smith, E. M., North, C. S., McCool, R. E., & Shea, J. M. (1990). Acute postdisaster psychiatric disorders: Identification of persons at risk. American Journal of Psychiatry, 147, 202-206.
46. Smith, E. M., North, C. S., & Spitznagel, E. L. (1993). Posttraumatic stress in survivors of three disasters. In R. D. Allen (Ed.), Handbook of post disaster intervention. Journal of Social Behavior & Personality, 8(special edition), 353-368.
47. Solomon, S. D., & Canino, G. J. (1990). Appropriateness of DSM-III-R criteria for posttraumatic stress disorder. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 31(3), 227-237.
48. Stein, M. B., Walker, J. R., Hazen, A. L., & Forde, D. R. (1997). Full and partial post-traumatic stress disorder: Findings from a community survey. American Journal of Psychiatry, 154, 1114-1119.
49. Steinglass, P., & Gerrity, E. (1989). Natural disasters and posttraumatic stress disorder: Short-term vs. long-term recovery in two disaster affected communities. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 20, 1746-1765.
50. Weiss, D. S., Marmar, C. R., Schlenger, W. E., Fairbank, J. A., Jordan, B. K., Hough, R. L., & Kulka, R. A. (1992). The prevalence of lifetime and partial post-traumatic stress disorder in Vietnam theater veterans. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 5, 365-376.
51. Wilkinson, C. B. (1983). Aftermath of a disaster: The collapse of the Hyatt Regency hotel skywalks. American Journal of Psychiatry, 120, 1134-1139.
52. Yehuda, R., & McFarlane, A. C. (1995). Conflict between current knowledge about posttraumatic stress disorder and original conceptual basis. American Journal of Psychiatry, 152, 1705-1713.
53. Young, A. (1995). The harmony of illusions: Inventing posttraumatic stress disorder. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.