"A promise long deferred": Federal reclamation on the Colorado River Indian reservation

Pacific Historical Review

Volumn 69, Issue 2, 2000, Pages 193-215

  Caylor, Ann ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY; INDIGENOUS POPULATION; IRRIGATION SYSTEM; RECLAIMED LAND;

UNITED STATES;

EID: 0034121169     PISSN: 00308684     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/3641438     Document Type: Article

References (114)

1. Quote from Araquatha in the transcript of a general meeting with the Mohave in September 1912 (first page missing, date reasoned from position in the copy book), p. 209, vol. 6, box 183, Letters Sent file, Colorado River Agency, Bureau of Indian Affairs, Record Group 75 (hereafter RG 75), Federal Archives and Record Center, Laguna Niguel, California (hereafter LNRC).
2. Norris Hundley, jr., The Great Thirst: Californians and Water, 1770s-1990s (Berkeley, 1992), 207, 237-238; Donald J. Pisani, "Reclamation and Social Engineering in the Progressive Era," Agricultural History, 57 (1983), 57, 59; Michael C. Robinson, Water for the West: The Bureau of Reclamation, 1902-1977 (Chicago, 1979), 37-45.
3. Norris Hundley, jr., The Great Thirst: Californians and Water, 1770s-1990s (Berkeley, 1992), 207, 237-238; Donald J. Pisani, "Reclamation and Social Engineering in the Progressive Era," Agricultural History, 57 (1983), 57, 59; Michael C. Robinson, Water for the West: The Bureau of Reclamation, 1902-1977 (Chicago, 1979), 37-45.
4. Norris Hundley, jr., The Great Thirst: Californians and Water, 1770s-1990s (Berkeley, 1992), 207, 237-238; Donald J. Pisani, "Reclamation and Social Engineering in the Progressive Era," Agricultural History, 57 (1983), 57, 59; Michael C. Robinson, Water for the West: The Bureau of Reclamation, 1902-1977 (Chicago, 1979), 37-45.
5. The Arizona legislature predicted that Colorado River Indians would be "not only self-sustaining, but . . . produce largely for the market." Poston concurred, describing "a ready market for the surplus production at their very docks, [where] . . . the Colorado will bear it untaxed to market." Poston, The Congressional Globe (1865), 1320-1321.
6. Various other Indian groups had also settled periodically at the reservation site. The historically prominent and most permanent of these groups were the Chemehuevi who settled along the river in the latter eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries under the aegis of the Mohave.
7. The Act of March 3, 1865, set aside 75,000 acres; U.S. Statutes at Large, 13: 559. The reservation was subsequently enlarged by executive orders to a total of 242,711 acres.
8. Report of Chief Engineer Adolphus F. Waldemar in the Annual Report of the Superintendent of Indian Affairs for Arizona Territory (hereafter ARSIA) Charles D. Poston, in the Annual Report of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs (Washington, D.C., 1864; hereafter ARCIA with only the report year cited), 305.
9. Captain Charles Atchisson, Post Commander, Fort Mohave, N.M., to Colonel Robert Drum, Assistant Adjutant-General U.S. Army, San Francisco, Aug. 23, 1864, Defense Exhibits, Docket 351, Indian Claims Commission, Record Group 279, National Archives, Washington, D.C. (hereafter NA).
10. Herman Ehrenberg to the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, ARCIA (1865), 138-139.
11. Laurence F. Schmeckebier, The Office of Indian Affairs (Baltimore, 1927), 238. In fact, Poston emphasized historical precedents to Congress, remarking that "the system of irrigation is no new experiment." Poston, The Congressional Globe (1865), 1321.
12. Laurence F. Schmeckebier, The Office of Indian Affairs (Baltimore, 1927), 238. In fact, Poston emphasized historical precedents to Congress, remarking that "the system of irrigation is no new experiment." Poston, The Congressional Globe (1865), 1321.
13. Report of Waldemar, 305.
14. Waldemar to Arizona Superintendent of Indian Affairs G. W. Dent, ARCIA (1867), 203b, 203d.
15. March 2, 1867, U.S. Statutes at Large, 14: 492, 514-515 ($50,000); July 27, 1868, ibid., 15: 198, 222 ($50,000); May 29, 1872, ibid., 17: 165, 188 ($20,000).
16. March 2, 1867, U.S. Statutes at Large, 14: 492, 514-515 ($50,000); July 27, 1868, ibid., 15: 198, 222 ($50,000); May 29, 1872, ibid., 17: 165, 188 ($20,000).
17. March 2, 1867, U.S. Statutes at Large, 14: 492, 514-515 ($50,000); July 27, 1868, ibid., 15: 198, 222 ($50,000); May 29, 1872, ibid., 17: 165, 188 ($20,000).
18. ARSIA George W. Leihy, ARCIA (1865), 508.
19. Ibid. There is no information on the identity of the contributors. La Paz was abandoned by 1880.
20. Annual Report of Colorado River Agent (hereafter ARCRA) J. A. Tonner, ARCIA (1874), 289; C. A. Engle, "Proposed irrigation Project, Colorado River Indian Reservation," submitted Aug. 10, 1920. House of Representatives, Committee on Irrigation of Arid Lands, Hearings on a Bill to Provide for the Protection find Development of the Lower Colorado River Basin, H. R. 11449, 67 Cong., 2 sess., part 1, June 15, 16, 21, 1922, p. 56.
21. Annual Report of Colorado River Agent (hereafter ARCRA) J. A. Tonner, ARCIA (1874), 289; C. A. Engle, "Proposed irrigation Project, Colorado River Indian Reservation," submitted Aug. 10, 1920. House of Representatives, Committee on Irrigation of Arid Lands, Hearings on a Bill to Provide for the Protection find Development of the Lower Colorado River Basin, H. R. 11449, 67 Cong., 2 sess., part 1, June 15, 16, 21, 1922, p. 56.
22. ARCRA Tonner quoted by Commissioner of Indian Affairs Edward P. Smith in ARCIA (1875), 70.
23. ARCRA Tonner to the Board of Indian Commissioners, in ibid., 106; ARCRA George A. Allen, ibid. (1890), 1.
24. ARCRA Tonner to the Board of Indian Commissioners, in ibid., 106; ARCRA George A. Allen, ibid. (1890), 1.
25. ARCRA Charles F. Ashley, ibid. (1886), 35-36.
26. ARCRA Tonner, ibid. (1871), 780; ibid. (1872), 322. For other design errors, see Engle, "Proposed Irrigation Project," 56.
27. ARCRA Tonner, ibid. (1871), 780; ibid. (1872), 322. For other design errors, see Engle, "Proposed Irrigation Project," 56.
28. ARCRA Tonner, ibid. (1871), 780; ibid. (1872), 322. For other design errors, see Engle, "Proposed Irrigation Project," 56.
29. ARCRA Henry R. Mallory, ARCIA (1879), 111; ARCRA Mallory, ibid. (1880), 123. See also ARCRA John W. Clark, ibid. (1884), 2-3; ARCRA Charles F. Ashley, ibid. (1885), 1.
30. ARCRA Henry R. Mallory, ARCIA (1879), 111; ARCRA Mallory, ibid. (1880), 123. See also ARCRA John W. Clark, ibid. (1884), 2-3; ARCRA Charles F. Ashley, ibid. (1885), 1.
31. ARCRA Henry R. Mallory, ARCIA (1879), 111; ARCRA Mallory, ibid. (1880), 123. See also ARCRA John W. Clark, ibid. (1884), 2-3; ARCRA Charles F. Ashley, ibid. (1885), 1.
32. ARCRA Henry R. Mallory, ARCIA (1879), 111; ARCRA Mallory, ibid. (1880), 123. See also ARCRA John W. Clark, ibid. (1884), 2-3; ARCRA Charles F. Ashley, ibid. (1885), 1.
33. ARCRA Mallory, ibid. (1879), 110. The Mohave had traditionally practiced pot irrigation when flooding failed.
34. Derived from actual and estimated acreage summarized in the annual reports for the period.
35. Anthropologist George Fathauer maintained that the promise of individual allotments originally helped persuade the Mohave to settle at Colorado River. George H. Fathauer, "Mohave Social Organization with Special Emphasis Upon Age-Sex Categories" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Chicago, 1950), 58-62. The tribe's economy had traditionally centered around the cultivation of individual family farms whose boundaries were clearly defined. Kenneth M. Stewart, "Mojave Indian Agriculture," The Masterkey, 40 (Jan.-March 1966), 10-11. For an overview of allotment, see Leonard A. Carlson, Indians, Bureaucrats, and Land: The Dawes Act and the Decline of Indian Farming (Westport, Conn., 1981); David M. Holford, "The Subversion of the Indian Land Allotment System, 1887-1934," Indian Historian, 8 (Spring 1975), 11-21; Frederick E. Hoxie, A Final Promise: The Campaign to Assimilate the Indians, 1880-1920 (Cambridge, Eng., 1989), 70-81, passim; R. Douglas Hurt, Indian Agriculture in America: Prehistory to the Present (Lawrence, Kans., 1987), 92-95, 162-169;
36. Anthropologist George Fathauer maintained that the promise of individual allotments originally helped persuade the Mohave to settle at Colorado River. George H. Fathauer, "Mohave Social Organization with Special Emphasis Upon Age-Sex Categories" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Chicago, 1950), 58-62. The tribe's economy had traditionally centered around the cultivation of individual family farms whose boundaries were clearly defined. Kenneth M. Stewart, "Mojave Indian Agriculture," The Masterkey, 40 (Jan.-March 1966), 10-11. For an overview of allotment, see Leonard A. Carlson, Indians, Bureaucrats, and Land: The Dawes Act and the Decline of Indian Farming (Westport, Conn., 1981); David M. Holford, "The Subversion of the Indian Land Allotment System, 1887-1934," Indian Historian, 8 (Spring 1975), 11-21; Frederick E. Hoxie, A Final Promise: The Campaign to Assimilate the Indians, 1880-1920 (Cambridge, Eng., 1989), 70-81, passim; R. Douglas Hurt, Indian Agriculture in America: Prehistory to the Present (Lawrence, Kans., 1987), 92-95, 162-169;
37. Anthropologist George Fathauer maintained that the promise of individual allotments originally helped persuade the Mohave to settle at Colorado River. George H. Fathauer, "Mohave Social Organization with Special Emphasis Upon Age-Sex Categories" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Chicago, 1950), 58-62. The tribe's economy had traditionally centered around the cultivation of individual family farms whose boundaries were clearly defined. Kenneth M. Stewart, "Mojave Indian Agriculture," The Masterkey, 40 (Jan.-March 1966), 10-11. For an overview of allotment, see Leonard A. Carlson, Indians, Bureaucrats, and Land: The Dawes Act and the Decline of Indian Farming (Westport, Conn., 1981); David M. Holford, "The Subversion of the Indian Land Allotment System, 1887-1934," Indian Historian, 8 (Spring 1975), 11-21; Frederick E. Hoxie, A Final Promise: The Campaign to Assimilate the Indians, 1880-1920 (Cambridge, Eng., 1989), 70-81, passim; R. Douglas Hurt, Indian Agriculture in America: Prehistory to the Present (Lawrence, Kans., 1987), 92-95, 162-169;
38. Anthropologist George Fathauer maintained that the promise of individual allotments originally helped persuade the Mohave to settle at Colorado River. George H. Fathauer, "Mohave Social Organization with Special Emphasis Upon Age-Sex Categories" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Chicago, 1950), 58-62. The tribe's economy had traditionally centered around the cultivation of individual family farms whose boundaries were clearly defined. Kenneth M. Stewart, "Mojave Indian Agriculture," The Masterkey, 40 (Jan.-March 1966), 10-11. For an overview of allotment, see Leonard A. Carlson, Indians, Bureaucrats, and Land: The Dawes Act and the Decline of Indian Farming (Westport, Conn., 1981); David M. Holford, "The Subversion of the Indian Land Allotment System, 1887-1934," Indian Historian, 8 (Spring 1975), 11-21; Frederick E. Hoxie, A Final Promise: The Campaign to Assimilate the Indians, 1880-1920 (Cambridge, Eng., 1989), 70-81, passim; R. Douglas Hurt, Indian Agriculture in America: Prehistory to the Present (Lawrence, Kans., 1987), 92-95, 162-169;
39. Anthropologist George Fathauer maintained that the promise of individual allotments originally helped persuade the Mohave to settle at Colorado River. George H. Fathauer, "Mohave Social Organization with Special Emphasis Upon Age-Sex Categories" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Chicago, 1950), 58-62. The tribe's economy had traditionally centered around the cultivation of individual family farms whose boundaries were clearly defined. Kenneth M. Stewart, "Mojave Indian Agriculture," The Masterkey, 40 (Jan.-March 1966), 10-11. For an overview of allotment, see Leonard A. Carlson, Indians, Bureaucrats, and Land: The Dawes Act and the Decline of Indian Farming (Westport, Conn., 1981); David M. Holford, "The Subversion of the Indian Land Allotment System, 1887-1934," Indian Historian, 8 (Spring 1975), 11-21; Frederick E. Hoxie, A Final Promise: The Campaign to Assimilate the Indians, 1880-1920 (Cambridge, Eng., 1989), 70-81, passim; R. Douglas Hurt, Indian Agriculture in America: Prehistory to the Present (Lawrence, Kans., 1987), 92-95, 162-169;
40. Anthropologist George Fathauer maintained that the promise of individual allotments originally helped persuade the Mohave to settle at Colorado River. George H. Fathauer, "Mohave Social Organization with Special Emphasis Upon Age-Sex Categories" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Chicago, 1950), 58-62. The tribe's economy had traditionally centered around the cultivation of individual family farms whose boundaries were clearly defined. Kenneth M. Stewart, "Mojave Indian Agriculture," The Masterkey, 40 (Jan.-March 1966), 10-11. For an overview of allotment, see Leonard A. Carlson, Indians, Bureaucrats, and Land: The Dawes Act and the Decline of Indian Farming (Westport, Conn., 1981); David M. Holford, "The Subversion of the Indian Land Allotment System, 1887-1934," Indian Historian, 8 (Spring 1975), 11-21; Frederick E. Hoxie, A Final Promise: The Campaign to Assimilate the Indians, 1880-1920 (Cambridge, Eng., 1989), 70-81, passim; R. Douglas Hurt, Indian Agriculture in America: Prehistory to the Present (Lawrence, Kans., 1987), 92-95, 162-169;
41. J. P. Kinney, A Continent Lost - A Civilization Won: Indian Land Tenure in America (1937; New York, 1975); Janet A. McDonnell, The Dispossession of the American Indian, 1887-1934 (Bloomington, Ind., 1991), 43-70; D. S. Otis, The Dawes Act and the Allotment of Indian Lands, ed. by Francis Paul Prucha (Norman, Okla., 1973); Donald J. Pisani, "Irrigation, Water Rights, and the Betrayal of Indian Allotment," Environmental Review, 10 (1983), 157-176.
42. J. P. Kinney, A Continent Lost - A Civilization Won: Indian Land Tenure in America (1937; New York, 1975); Janet A. McDonnell, The Dispossession of the American Indian, 1887-1934 (Bloomington, Ind., 1991), 43-70; D. S. Otis, The Dawes Act and the Allotment of Indian Lands, ed. by Francis Paul Prucha (Norman, Okla., 1973); Donald J. Pisani, "Irrigation, Water Rights, and the Betrayal of Indian Allotment," Environmental Review, 10 (1983), 157-176.
43. J. P. Kinney, A Continent Lost - A Civilization Won: Indian Land Tenure in America (1937; New York, 1975); Janet A. McDonnell, The Dispossession of the American Indian, 1887-1934 (Bloomington, Ind., 1991), 43-70; D. S. Otis, The Dawes Act and the Allotment of Indian Lands, ed. by Francis Paul Prucha (Norman, Okla., 1973); Donald J. Pisani, "Irrigation, Water Rights, and the Betrayal of Indian Allotment," Environmental Review, 10 (1983), 157-176.
44. J. P. Kinney, A Continent Lost - A Civilization Won: Indian Land Tenure in America (1937; New York, 1975); Janet A. McDonnell, The Dispossession of the American Indian, 1887-1934 (Bloomington, Ind., 1991), 43-70; D. S. Otis, The Dawes Act and the Allotment of Indian Lands, ed. by Francis Paul Prucha (Norman, Okla., 1973); Donald J. Pisani, "Irrigation, Water Rights, and the Betrayal of Indian Allotment," Environmental Review, 10 (1983), 157-176.
45. The Act of April 21, 1904, authorized the granting of five-acre allotments at Colorado River; U.S. Statutes at Large, 33: 224. This was increased to ten-acre parcels by the Act of March 3, 1911, ibid., 36: 1063.
46. The Act of April 21, 1904, authorized the granting of five-acre allotments at Colorado River; U.S. Statutes at Large, 33: 224. This was increased to ten-acre parcels by the Act of March 3, 1911, ibid., 36: 1063.
47. For an overview of Indian water rights, see Norris Hundley, jr., "The Dark and Bloody Ground of Indian Water Rights: Confusion Elevated to Principle," Western Historical Quarterly, 9 (1978), 455-482; Hundley, "The 'Winters' Decision and Indian Water Rights: A Mystery Reexamined," ibid., 13 (1982), 17-42; Daniel McCool, Command of the Waters: Iron Triangles, Federal Water Development, and Indian Water (Berkeley, 1987), 36-65, passim; Donald J. Pisani, "Irrigation, Water Rights, and the Betrayal of Indian Allotment."
48. For an overview of Indian water rights, see Norris Hundley, jr., "The Dark and Bloody Ground of Indian Water Rights: Confusion Elevated to Principle," Western Historical Quarterly, 9 (1978), 455-482; Hundley, "The 'Winters' Decision and Indian Water Rights: A Mystery Reexamined," ibid., 13 (1982), 17-42; Daniel McCool, Command of the Waters: Iron Triangles, Federal Water Development, and Indian Water (Berkeley, 1987), 36-65, passim; Donald J. Pisani, "Irrigation, Water Rights, and the Betrayal of Indian Allotment."
49. For an overview of Indian water rights, see Norris Hundley, jr., "The Dark and Bloody Ground of Indian Water Rights: Confusion Elevated to Principle," Western Historical Quarterly, 9 (1978), 455-482; Hundley, "The 'Winters' Decision and Indian Water Rights: A Mystery Reexamined," ibid., 13 (1982), 17-42; Daniel McCool, Command of the Waters: Iron Triangles, Federal Water Development, and Indian Water (Berkeley, 1987), 36-65, passim; Donald J. Pisani, "Irrigation, Water Rights, and the Betrayal of Indian Allotment."
50. For an overview of Indian water rights, see Norris Hundley, jr., "The Dark and Bloody Ground of Indian Water Rights: Confusion Elevated to Principle," Western Historical Quarterly, 9 (1978), 455-482; Hundley, "The 'Winters' Decision and Indian Water Rights: A Mystery Reexamined," ibid., 13 (1982), 17-42; Daniel McCool, Command of the Waters: Iron Triangles, Federal Water Development, and Indian Water (Berkeley, 1987), 36-65, passim; Donald J. Pisani, "Irrigation, Water Rights, and the Betrayal of Indian Allotment."
51. Annual Report of Colorado River Superintendent (hereafter ARCRS) Omar L. Babcock, July 14, 1913, p. 155, vol. 17, box 189, Letters Sent file (hereafter 1913), Colorado River Agency, RG 75, LNRC.
52. Act of April 4, 1910, U.S. Statutes at Large, 36: 273.
53. Secretary of the Interior Robert A. Ballinger to Senator Moses E. Clapp, Feb. 24, 1910, cited in Chief Engineer W. H. Code to Secretary of the Interior, Aug. 9, 1911, pp. 4, 5, 7, 8, Subject File 757-D-5, Classified Central Files 341, Colorado River Agency, RG 75, NA.
54. Ibid., 4. This also reinforced aa earlier Justice Department filing on river water in state court; ibid., 6-7.
55. The Mohave received 422 allotments, the Chemehuevi 64. ARCRS Babcock (1913), 159. As they had done in the 1870s, most Chemehuevi left within a few years when the project faltered, although many returned after the mid-1920s. There was no specific agreement guaranteeing that water would be provided in exchange for Colorado River Indians accepting allotments.
56. Civil Engineer F. R. Macpherson to Babcock, June 30, 1915, attached to ARCRS Babcock, July 6, 1915, pp. 2-4, Classified Central Files 051 (hereafter 1915), Colorado River Agency, RG 75, LNRC; Porter J. Preston and Charles A. Engle, "Report of Advisors on Irrigation on Indian Reservations," submitted June 8, 1928, Senate, Committee on Indian Affairs, Subcommittee on Senate Resolution 79, Hearings, "Survey of Conditions of the Indians in the United States," 71 Cong., 2 sess., part 6, Jan. 21, 1930, p. 2362.
57. Civil Engineer F. R. Macpherson to Babcock, June 30, 1915, attached to ARCRS Babcock, July 6, 1915, pp. 2-4, Classified Central Files 051 (hereafter 1915), Colorado River Agency, RG 75, LNRC; Porter J. Preston and Charles A. Engle, "Report of Advisors on Irrigation on Indian Reservations," submitted June 8, 1928, Senate, Committee on Indian Affairs, Subcommittee on Senate Resolution 79, Hearings, "Survey of Conditions of the Indians in the United States," 71 Cong., 2 sess., part 6, Jan. 21, 1930, p. 2362.
58. Engle, "Proposed Irrigation Project," 48-49.
59. ARCRS Wilbur F. Haygood, 1922, p. 10, Classified Central Files 051 (hereafter 1922), Colorado River Agency, RG 75, LNRC. The situation had been partially relieved by the installation of an additional pump in 1918.
60. Preston and Engle, "Report of Advisors," 2362.
61. For controversies over problems with the terrain, see Ann Caylor, "Fed on Promises: The Indian and White Struggle for Reclamation on the Colorado River Indian Reservation" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California Los Angeles, 1996), 277-278.
62. CRS Babcock to C. C. Rogers, Jan. 3, 1914, p. 193, vol. 8, box 184, Letters Sent file, Colorado River Agency, RG 75, LNRC; ARCRS Leo Crane, 1923, p. 6, Central Classified Files 051, Colorado River Agency, RG 75, LNRC (hereafter 1923).
63. ARCRS Babcock (1915), 16; ARCRS Augustus F. Duclos, Oct. 18, 1916, p. 6, Central Classified Files 051, Colorado River Agency, RG 75, LNRC; ARCRS Duclos, July 9, 1919, p. 4, ibid. Statistics on farming in ARCIA (1916), 107, 112; ibid. (1917), 116, 121; ibid. (1918), 134; ibid. (1919), 120; ibid. (1920), 113, 118. It is hard to compare farming returns of Indians with non-Indians because the OIA reported lease payments rather than profits during this period.
64. ARCRS Babcock (1915), 16; ARCRS Augustus F. Duclos, Oct. 18, 1916, p. 6, Central Classified Files 051, Colorado River Agency, RG 75, LNRC; ARCRS Duclos, July 9, 1919, p. 4, ibid. Statistics on farming in ARCIA (1916), 107, 112; ibid. (1917), 116, 121; ibid. (1918), 134; ibid. (1919), 120; ibid. (1920), 113, 118. It is hard to compare farming returns of Indians with non-Indians because the OIA reported lease payments rather than profits during this period.
65. ARCRS Babcock (1915), 16; ARCRS Augustus F. Duclos, Oct. 18, 1916, p. 6, Central Classified Files 051, Colorado River Agency, RG 75, LNRC; ARCRS Duclos, July 9, 1919, p. 4, ibid. Statistics on farming in ARCIA (1916), 107, 112; ibid. (1917), 116, 121; ibid. (1918), 134; ibid. (1919), 120; ibid. (1920), 113, 118. It is hard to compare farming returns of Indians with non-Indians because the OIA reported lease payments rather than profits during this period.
66. ARCRS Babcock (1915), 16; ARCRS Augustus F. Duclos, Oct. 18, 1916, p. 6, Central Classified Files 051, Colorado River Agency, RG 75, LNRC; ARCRS Duclos, July 9, 1919, p. 4, ibid. Statistics on farming in ARCIA (1916), 107, 112; ibid. (1917), 116, 121; ibid. (1918), 134; ibid. (1919), 120; ibid. (1920), 113, 118. It is hard to compare farming returns of Indians with non-Indians because the OIA reported lease payments rather than profits during this period.
67. ARCRS Babcock (1915), 16; ARCRS Augustus F. Duclos, Oct. 18, 1916, p. 6, Central Classified Files 051, Colorado River Agency, RG 75, LNRC; ARCRS Duclos, July 9, 1919, p. 4, ibid. Statistics on farming in ARCIA (1916), 107, 112; ibid. (1917), 116, 121; ibid. (1918), 134; ibid. (1919), 120; ibid. (1920), 113, 118. It is hard to compare farming returns of Indians with non-Indians because the OIA reported lease payments rather than profits during this period.
68. ARCRS Wilbur F. Haygood (1922), 10.
69. For an overview of leasing, see Hoxie, A Final Promise, 67-72; Hurt, Indian Agriculture in America, 141-150, passim; Kinney, A Continent Lost, 221-225, 231, passim; McDonnell, The Dispossession of the American Indian, 43-70; Schmeckebier, The Office of Indian Affairs, 177-184, 448-458.
70. For an overview of leasing, see Hoxie, A Final Promise, 67-72; Hurt, Indian Agriculture in America, 141-150, passim; Kinney, A Continent Lost, 221-225, 231, passim; McDonnell, The Dispossession of the American Indian, 43-70; Schmeckebier, The Office of Indian Affairs, 177-184, 448-458.
71. For an overview of leasing, see Hoxie, A Final Promise, 67-72; Hurt, Indian Agriculture in America, 141-150, passim; Kinney, A Continent Lost, 221-225, 231, passim; McDonnell, The Dispossession of the American Indian, 43-70; Schmeckebier, The Office of Indian Affairs, 177-184, 448-458.
72. For an overview of leasing, see Hoxie, A Final Promise, 67-72; Hurt, Indian Agriculture in America, 141-150, passim; Kinney, A Continent Lost, 221-225, 231, passim; McDonnell, The Dispossession of the American Indian, 43-70; Schmeckebier, The Office of Indian Affairs, 177-184, 448-458.
73. For an overview of leasing, see Hoxie, A Final Promise, 67-72; Hurt, Indian Agriculture in America, 141-150, passim; Kinney, A Continent Lost, 221-225, 231, passim; McDonnell, The Dispossession of the American Indian, 43-70; Schmeckebier, The Office of Indian Affairs, 177-184, 448-458.
74. ARCRS Duclos, July 16, 1917, p. 3, Central Classified Files 051, Colorado River Agency, RG 75, LNRC; ARCIA (1918), 139; ibid. (1919), 126. Prior to this, only about 200 acres were leased.
75. ARCRS Duclos, July 16, 1917, p. 3, Central Classified Files 051, Colorado River Agency, RG 75, LNRC; ARCIA (1918), 139; ibid. (1919), 126. Prior to this, only about 200 acres were leased.
76. ARCRS Haygood (1922), 8.
77. ARCIA (1924), 21.
78. ARCRS Clyde H. Gensler (1925), 4; Preston and Engle, "Report of Advisors," 2349. In 1926 allottees farmed 2,305 acres and leased acreage had dropped to 3,615 acres.
79. ARCRS Clyde H. Gensler (1925), 4; Preston and Engle, "Report of Advisors," 2349. In 1926 allottees farmed 2,305 acres and leased acreage had dropped to 3,615 acres.
80. ARCIA (1925), 20.
81. CRS Babcock to F. M. Murphy, Sept. 24, 1914, Subject File 53317, Central Classified Files 308.1, Colorado River Agency, RG 75, NA.
82. R. M. Roberts to Murphy, Oct. 15, 1914, ibid.
83. Murphy to 2nd Assistant Commissioner of Indian Affairs C. F. Hauke, Oct. 28, 1914, ibid.
84. Parker Post, April 3, 1915, p. 1.
85. Parker Post, Oct. 14, 1916, p. 1. He noted the extensive use of wells on farms in the Palo Verde Valley just south of the reservation in his report; A. L. Harris, "Irrigation with Ground Water in Colorado River Indian Reservation," abstract in Clyde P. Ross, "The Lower Gila Region, Arizona: A Geographic, Geologic, and Hydrologic Reconnaissance with a Guide to Desert Watering Places," in United States Geological Survey, Water-Supply Paper 498 (Washington, D.C., 1923), 109.
86. Parker Post, Oct. 14, 1916, p. 1. He noted the extensive use of wells on farms in the Palo Verde Valley just south of the reservation in his report; A. L. Harris, "Irrigation with Ground Water in Colorado River Indian Reservation," abstract in Clyde P. Ross, "The Lower Gila Region, Arizona: A Geographic, Geologic, and Hydrologic Reconnaissance with a Guide to Desert Watering Places," in United States Geological Survey, Water-Supply Paper 498 (Washington, D.C., 1923), 109.
87. Parker Post, Oct. 14, 1916, p. 1. He noted the extensive use of wells on farms in the Palo Verde Valley just south of the reservation in his report; A. L. Harris, "Irrigation with Ground Water in Colorado River Indian Reservation," abstract in Clyde P. Ross, "The Lower Gila Region, Arizona: A Geographic, Geologic, and Hydrologic Reconnaissance with a Guide to Desert Watering Places," in United States Geological Survey, Water-Supply Paper 498 (Washington, D.C., 1923), 109.
88. Harris, "Irrigation with Ground Water," 113. He also noted problems with silting of canals and ditches.
89. Engle, "Proposed Irrigation Project," 112. Engle questioned, without adequately addressing, Harris's findings and suggested that further tests should be carried out; at the same time, he praised Harris as "one of the ablest engineers" in the region.
90. Although Colorado River allottees and lessees paid no water fees, the OIA began putting provisions for collecting irrigation construction charges into new leases in 1925. For complexities of irrigation debt, see Harris, "Irrigation with Ground Water," 114; Dorothy Lampen, Economic and Social Aspects of Federal Reclamation (Baltimore, 1930), 49-71, passim; McDonnell, The Dispossession of the American Indian, 76-86.
91. Although Colorado River allottees and lessees paid no water fees, the OIA began putting provisions for collecting irrigation construction charges into new leases in 1925. For complexities of irrigation debt, see Harris, "Irrigation with Ground Water," 114; Dorothy Lampen, Economic and Social Aspects of Federal Reclamation (Baltimore, 1930), 49-71, passim; McDonnell, The Dispossession of the American Indian, 76-86.
92. Although Colorado River allottees and lessees paid no water fees, the OIA began putting provisions for collecting irrigation construction charges into new leases in 1925. For complexities of irrigation debt, see Harris, "Irrigation with Ground Water," 114; Dorothy Lampen, Economic and Social Aspects of Federal Reclamation (Baltimore, 1930), 49-71, passim; McDonnell, The Dispossession of the American Indian, 76-86.
93. Commissioner of Indian Affairs Cato Sells to Senator H. F. Ashurst, July 12, 1917, Subject File 38548, Central Classified Files 308.1, Colorado River Agency, RG 75, NA. This, of course, did not take into account the enormous expense of providing storage by damming the Colorado north of the reservation.
94. ARCRS Crane, 1924, pp. 23-24, Central Classified Files 051, Colorado River Agency, RG 75, LNRC.
95. Preston and Engle, "Report of Advisors," 2362.
96. ARCIA (1917), 36.
97. Parker Post, June 3, 1916, p. 1. The Mohave endorsed selling only part of their surplus land. As early as 1913 Chief Manataba had expressed worry that "white men [would] come in and take up all of the surplus lands. " Minutes of a tribal meeting April 27, 1913, p. 35, Letter Book 17, box 189, Letters Sent file, Colorado River Agency, RG 75, LNRC.
98. Parker Post, June 3, 1916, p. 1. The Mohave endorsed selling only part of their surplus land. As early as 1913 Chief Manataba had expressed worry that "white men [would] come in and take up all of the surplus lands. " Minutes of a tribal meeting April 27, 1913, p. 35, Letter Book 17, box 189, Letters Sent file, Colorado River Agency, RG 75, LNRC.
99. ARCRS Crane, 1924, pp. 23-24, Central Classified Files 051,
100. ibid. Fathauer, "Mohave Social Organization," 58-62.
101. Operational difficulties probably also fueled opposition. For instance, troubles with water delivery began as early as 1915 when, as Babcock explained, there was "a feeling among the Indians that the water supply is insecure and for this reason their farming is none other than experimental and not to be taken seriously as a means of livelihood." ARCRS Babcock (1915), 12.
102. ARCRS Clyde H. Gensler, 1926, p. 15,
103. Central Classified Files 051, Colorado River Agency, RG 75, LNRC; Preston and Engle, "Report of Advisors," 2357.
104. Norris Hundley, jr., "The Politics of Reclamation: California, the Federal Government, and the Origins of the Boulder Canyon Act - A Second Look," California Historical Quarterly, 52 (1973), 295, 309-311, passim.
105. Other western engineers also underestimated the difficulty of building successful irrigation projects during this period. See Hundley, The Great Thirst, 80; Donald J. Pisani, From the Family Farm to Agribusiness: The Irrigation Crusade in California and the West, 1850-1931 (Berkeley, 1984), 106-120, passim. For obstacles in contemporary canal projects in the region, see Bradford Luckingham, Phoenix: The History of a Southwestern Metropolis (Tucson, 1989), 13-15, 43; Dean E. Mann, The Politics of Water in Arizona (Tucson, 1963), 29-36, passim; Karen L. Smith, The Magnificent Experiment: Building the Salt River Reclamation Project, 1890-1917 (Tucson, 1986), 1-7.
106. Other western engineers also underestimated the difficulty of building successful irrigation projects during this period. See Hundley, The Great Thirst, 80; Donald J. Pisani, From the Family Farm to Agribusiness: The Irrigation Crusade in California and the West, 1850-1931 (Berkeley, 1984), 106-120, passim. For obstacles in contemporary canal projects in the region, see Bradford Luckingham, Phoenix: The History of a Southwestern Metropolis (Tucson, 1989), 13-15, 43; Dean E. Mann, The Politics of Water in Arizona (Tucson, 1963), 29-36, passim; Karen L. Smith, The Magnificent Experiment: Building the Salt River Reclamation Project, 1890-1917 (Tucson, 1986), 1-7.
107. Other western engineers also underestimated the difficulty of building successful irrigation projects during this period. See Hundley, The Great Thirst, 80; Donald J. Pisani, From the Family Farm to Agribusiness: The Irrigation Crusade in California and the West, 1850-1931 (Berkeley, 1984), 106-120, passim. For obstacles in contemporary canal projects in the region, see Bradford Luckingham, Phoenix: The History of a Southwestern Metropolis (Tucson, 1989), 13-15, 43; Dean E. Mann, The Politics of Water in Arizona (Tucson, 1963), 29-36, passim; Karen L. Smith, The Magnificent Experiment: Building the Salt River Reclamation Project, 1890-1917 (Tucson, 1986), 1-7.
108. Other western engineers also underestimated the difficulty of building successful irrigation projects during this period. See Hundley, The Great Thirst, 80; Donald J. Pisani, From the Family Farm to Agribusiness: The Irrigation Crusade in California and the West, 1850-1931 (Berkeley, 1984), 106-120, passim. For obstacles in contemporary canal projects in the region, see Bradford Luckingham, Phoenix: The History of a Southwestern Metropolis (Tucson, 1989), 13-15, 43; Dean E. Mann, The Politics of Water in Arizona (Tucson, 1963), 29-36, passim; Karen L. Smith, The Magnificent Experiment: Building the Salt River Reclamation Project, 1890-1917 (Tucson, 1986), 1-7.
109. Other western engineers also underestimated the difficulty of building successful irrigation projects during this period. See Hundley, The Great Thirst, 80; Donald J. Pisani, From the Family Farm to Agribusiness: The Irrigation Crusade in California and the West, 1850-1931 (Berkeley, 1984), 106-120, passim. For obstacles in contemporary canal projects in the region, see Bradford Luckingham, Phoenix: The History of a Southwestern Metropolis (Tucson, 1989), 13-15, 43; Dean E. Mann, The Politics of Water in Arizona (Tucson, 1963), 29-36, passim; Karen L. Smith, The Magnificent Experiment: Building the Salt River Reclamation Project, 1890-1917 (Tucson, 1986), 1-7.
110. ARCRS Crane (1923), 4; Preston and Engle, "Report of Advisors," 2349-2351.
111. ARCRS Crane (1923), 4; Preston and Engle, "Report of Advisors," 2349-2351.
112. Donald C. Jackson, "Engineering in the Progressive Era: A New Look at Frederick Haynes Newell and the U.S. Reclamation Service," Technology and Culture, 34 (1993), 539-574; Smith, The Magnificent Experiment.
113. Donald C. Jackson, "Engineering in the Progressive Era: A New Look at Frederick Haynes Newell and the U.S. Reclamation Service," Technology and Culture, 34 (1993), 539-574; Smith, The Magnificent Experiment.
114. Donald C. Jackson, "Engineering in the Progressive Era: A New Look at Frederick Haynes Newell and the U.S. Reclamation Service," Technology and Culture, 34 (1993), 539-574; Smith, The Magnificent Experiment.