Foreign direct investment in British retailing, 1850-1962

Business History

Volumn 42, Issue 2, 2000, Pages 43-62

  Fletcher, S R ^a   Godley, A ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF READING   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

INVESTMENT; UNITED KINGDOM;

FOREIGN DIRECT INVESTMENT; HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY; INVESTMENT; RETAILING;

UNITED KINGDOM;

EID: 0034118857     PISSN: 00076791     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/00076790000000220     Document Type: Article

References (79)

1. Summarised in J. Dunning, The Globalitation of Business (London, 1993), pp.81-3.
2. J. Dunning, American Investment in British Manufacturing Industry (London, 1958).
3. F. Bostock and G. Jones, 'Foreign Multinationals in British Manufacturing, 1850-1962', Business History, Vol.36 (1994), pp.89-126; G. Jones and F. Bostock, 'U.S. Multinationals in British Manufacturing before 1962', Business History Review, Vol.70 (1996), pp.207-56; building on M. Wilkins, The Emergence of Multinational Enterprise (Cambridge, MA, 1970); and idem, The Maturing of Multinational Enterprise, 1914-1970 (Cambridge, MA, 1974)
4. F. Bostock and G. Jones, 'Foreign Multinationals in British Manufacturing, 1850-1962', Business History, Vol.36 (1994), pp.89-126; G. Jones and F. Bostock, 'U.S. Multinationals in British Manufacturing before 1962', Business History Review, Vol.70 (1996), pp.207-56; building on M. Wilkins, The Emergence of Multinational Enterprise (Cambridge, MA, 1970); and idem, The Maturing of Multinational Enterprise, 1914-1970 (Cambridge, MA, 1974)
5. F. Bostock and G. Jones, 'Foreign Multinationals in British Manufacturing, 1850-1962', Business History, Vol.36 (1994), pp.89-126; G. Jones and F. Bostock, 'U.S. Multinationals in British Manufacturing before 1962', Business History Review, Vol.70 (1996), pp.207-56; building on M. Wilkins, The Emergence of Multinational Enterprise (Cambridge, MA, 1970); and idem, The Maturing of Multinational Enterprise, 1914-1970 (Cambridge, MA, 1974)
6. F. Bostock and G. Jones, 'Foreign Multinationals in British Manufacturing, 1850-1962', Business History, Vol.36 (1994), pp.89-126; G. Jones and F. Bostock, 'U.S. Multinationals in British Manufacturing before 1962', Business History Review, Vol.70 (1996), pp.207-56; building on M. Wilkins, The Emergence of Multinational Enterprise (Cambridge, MA, 1970); and idem, The Maturing of Multinational Enterprise, 1914-1970 (Cambridge, MA, 1974)
7. G. Jones The Evolution of International Business: An Introduction (London, 1996), pp.55-6, 149-55; N. Alexander, International Retailing (Oxford, 1997); S. Hollander, Multinational Retailing (East Lansing, MI, 1970).
8. G. Jones The Evolution of International Business: An Introduction (London, 1996), pp.55-6, 149-55; N. Alexander, International Retailing (Oxford, 1997); S. Hollander, Multinational Retailing (East Lansing, MI, 1970).
9. G. Jones The Evolution of International Business: An Introduction (London, 1996), pp.55-6, 149-55; N. Alexander, International Retailing (Oxford, 1997); S. Hollander, Multinational Retailing (East Lansing, MI, 1970).
10. Corporate Intelligence on Retailing (CIOR), Cross-Border Retailing in Europe (London, 1991).
11. G. Jones, 'End of Award Report' to Economic and Social Research Council for grant R0000 23 2275.
12. Board of Trade, Report on the Census of Production, 1963 (London, 1967).
13. Dunning, American Investment; M. Wilkins, 'Comparative Hosts', Business History, Vol.36 (1994), pp.18-50; J. Dunning, Multinational Enterprises and the Global Economy (Wokingham, 1993), pp.20, 118.
14. Dunning, American Investment; M. Wilkins, 'Comparative Hosts', Business History, Vol.36 (1994), pp.18-50; J. Dunning, Multinational Enterprises and the Global Economy (Wokingham, 1993), pp.20, 118.
15. Dunning, American Investment; M. Wilkins, 'Comparative Hosts', Business History, Vol.36 (1994), pp.18-50; J. Dunning, Multinational Enterprises and the Global Economy (Wokingham, 1993), pp.20, 118.
16. Jones and Bostock, 'U.S. Manufacturers'.
17. A. Godley, 'Pioneering Foreign Direct Investment in British Manufacturing', Business History Review, Vol.73 (1999), pp.394-429.
18. Branch counts figure highly in all estimates of retailers' size. See P. Ford, Excessive Competition in the Retail Trades: Changes in the Number of Shops, 1901-31', Economic Journal, Vol.45 (1935); J.B. Jefferys, Retail Trading in Britain, 1850-1950 (Cambridge, 1954); and G. Shaw et al., 'Structural and Spatial Trends in British Retailing: The Importance of Firm-Level Studies', Business History, Vol.40 (1998), pp.79-93 for various examples. In fact entry and exit figures along with branch counts are often the only practically obtainable variables for a population of firms about which, save for the most famous, few historical data exist.
19. Branch counts figure highly in all estimates of retailers' size. See P. Ford, Excessive Competition in the Retail Trades: Changes in the Number of Shops, 1901-31', Economic Journal, Vol.45 (1935); J.B. Jefferys, Retail Trading in Britain, 1850-1950 (Cambridge, 1954); and G. Shaw et al., 'Structural and Spatial Trends in British Retailing: The Importance of Firm-Level Studies', Business History, Vol.40 (1998), pp.79-93 for various examples. In fact entry and exit figures along with branch counts are often the only practically obtainable variables for a population of firms about which, save for the most famous, few historical data exist.
20. Branch counts figure highly in all estimates of retailers' size. See P. Ford, Excessive Competition in the Retail Trades: Changes in the Number of Shops, 1901-31', Economic Journal, Vol.45 (1935); J.B. Jefferys, Retail Trading in Britain, 1850-1950 (Cambridge, 1954); and G. Shaw et al., 'Structural and Spatial Trends in British Retailing: The Importance of Firm-Level Studies', Business History, Vol.40 (1998), pp.79-93 for various examples. In fact entry and exit figures along with branch counts are often the only practically obtainable variables for a population of firms about which, save for the most famous, few historical data exist.
21. R. Vernon, 'International Investment and International Trade in the Product Cycle', Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol.80 (1966); J.P. Curhan, W.H. Davidson and R. Suri, Tracing the Multinationals (Cambridge, MA, 1977).
22. R. Vernon, 'International Investment and International Trade in the Product Cycle', Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol.80 (1966); J.P. Curhan, W.H. Davidson and R. Suri, Tracing the Multinationals (Cambridge, MA, 1977).
23. Jones and Bostock, 'U.S. Multinationals'.
24. Of particular use was Department, Chain and Co-Operative Store Annual (1939ff., variant titles after 1946). This listed retailers by type, size and contained much detail on origins. Kelly's Post Office Directory of London also helped to pinpoint entry dates and the growth of firms' branch networks. On the use of trade directories generally, see G. Shaw and A. Tipper, British Directories: A Bibliography and Guide to Directories published in England and Wales, 1850-1950, and in Scotland, 1773-1950 (London, 2nd edn. 1997).
25. S.R. Fletcher, 'Foreign Multinationals in UK Retailing, 1850-1962: Some New Data', University of Reading Discussion Papers in Economics, Series B, Vol.11 (1998), provides further details about the construction of the dataset.
26. Godley 'Pioneering'; idem, 'The Development of the UK Clothing Industry, 1850-1950: Output and Productivity Growth', Business History, Vol.37 (1995), pp.46-63; and idem, 'Singer in Britain: The Diffusion of Sewing Machine Technology and its Impact on the Clothing Industry in the UK, 1860-1905', Textile History, Vol.27 (1996), pp.59-76; idem, 'Immigrant Entrepreneurs and the Emergence of London's East End as an Industrial District', London Journal, Vol.21 (1996), pp.38-45; D. Jeremy, A Business History of Britain, 1900-1990s (Oxford, 1998), pp.366-67; Singer Sewing Machine Co. Ltd, 'Shops in Great Britain and Ireland, March, 1906', in Singer archive, State Historical Society of Wisconsin, Box 109/2 (hereafter SA).
27. Godley 'Pioneering'; idem, 'The Development of the UK Clothing Industry, 1850-1950: Output and Productivity Growth', Business History, Vol.37 (1995), pp.46-63; and idem, 'Singer in Britain: The Diffusion of Sewing Machine Technology and its Impact on the Clothing Industry in the UK, 1860-1905', Textile History, Vol.27 (1996), pp.59-76; idem, 'Immigrant Entrepreneurs and the Emergence of London's East End as an Industrial District', London Journal, Vol.21 (1996), pp.38-45; D. Jeremy, A Business History of Britain, 1900-1990s (Oxford, 1998), pp.366-67; Singer Sewing Machine Co. Ltd, 'Shops in Great Britain and Ireland, March, 1906', in Singer archive, State Historical Society of Wisconsin, Box 109/2 (hereafter SA).
28. Godley 'Pioneering'; idem, 'The Development of the UK Clothing Industry, 1850-1950: Output and Productivity Growth', Business History, Vol.37 (1995), pp.46-63; and idem, 'Singer in Britain: The Diffusion of Sewing Machine Technology and its Impact on the Clothing Industry in the UK, 1860-1905', Textile History, Vol.27 (1996), pp.59-76; idem, 'Immigrant Entrepreneurs and the Emergence of London's East End as an Industrial District', London Journal, Vol.21 (1996), pp.38-45; D. Jeremy, A Business History of Britain, 1900-1990s (Oxford, 1998), pp.366-67; Singer Sewing Machine Co. Ltd, 'Shops in Great Britain and Ireland, March, 1906', in Singer archive, State Historical Society of Wisconsin, Box 109/2 (hereafter SA).
29. Godley 'Pioneering'; idem, 'The Development of the UK Clothing Industry, 1850-1950: Output and Productivity Growth', Business History, Vol.37 (1995), pp.46-63; and idem, 'Singer in Britain: The Diffusion of Sewing Machine Technology and its Impact on the Clothing Industry in the UK, 1860-1905', Textile History, Vol.27 (1996), pp.59-76; idem, 'Immigrant Entrepreneurs and the Emergence of London's East End as an Industrial District', London Journal, Vol.21 (1996), pp.38-45; D. Jeremy, A Business History of Britain, 1900-1990s (Oxford, 1998), pp.366-67; Singer Sewing Machine Co. Ltd, 'Shops in Great Britain and Ireland, March, 1906', in Singer archive, State Historical Society of Wisconsin, Box 109/2 (hereafter SA).
30. Godley 'Pioneering'; idem, 'The Development of the UK Clothing Industry, 1850-1950: Output and Productivity Growth', Business History, Vol.37 (1995), pp.46-63; and idem, 'Singer in Britain: The Diffusion of Sewing Machine Technology and its Impact on the Clothing Industry in the UK, 1860-1905', Textile History, Vol.27 (1996), pp.59-76; idem, 'Immigrant Entrepreneurs and the Emergence of London's East End as an Industrial District', London Journal, Vol.21 (1996), pp.38-45; D. Jeremy, A Business History of Britain, 1900-1990s (Oxford, 1998), pp.366-67; Singer Sewing Machine Co. Ltd, 'Shops in Great Britain and Ireland, March, 1906', in Singer archive, State Historical Society of Wisconsin, Box 109/2 (hereafter SA).
31. Godley 'Pioneering'; idem, 'The Development of the UK Clothing Industry, 1850-1950: Output and Productivity Growth', Business History, Vol.37 (1995), pp.46-63; and idem, 'Singer in Britain: The Diffusion of Sewing Machine Technology and its Impact on the Clothing Industry in the UK, 1860-1905', Textile History, Vol.27 (1996), pp.59-76; idem, 'Immigrant Entrepreneurs and the Emergence of London's East End as an Industrial District', London Journal, Vol.21 (1996), pp.38-45; D. Jeremy, A Business History of Britain, 1900-1990s (Oxford, 1998), pp.366-67; Singer Sewing Machine Co. Ltd, 'Shops in Great Britain and Ireland, March, 1906', in Singer archive, State Historical Society of Wisconsin, Box 109/2 (hereafter SA).
32. A. Godley 'Jewish Soft Loan Societies in New York and London and Immigrant Entrepreneurship, 1880-1914', pp.101-16: and A. Godley and D. Ross, 'Banks, Networks and Small Firm Finance', pp.1-10, both in Business History, Vol.38 (1996).
33. A. Godley 'Jewish Soft Loan Societies in New York and London and Immigrant Entrepreneurship, 1880-1914', pp.101-16: and A. Godley and D. Ross, 'Banks, Networks and Small Firm Finance', pp.1-10, both in Business History, Vol.38 (1996).
34. C. Wilson, The History of Unilever: A Study in Economic Growth and Social Change (London, 1954); P. Mathias, Retailing Revolution: A History of Multiple Retailing in the Food Trades based upon the Allied Suppliers Group of Companies (London, 1967); idem, 'Manufacturers and Retailing in the Food Trades: The Struggle Over Marganne', in B. Supple (ed.). Essays in British Business History (Oxford, 1977).
35. C. Wilson, The History of Unilever: A Study in Economic Growth and Social Change (London, 1954); P. Mathias, Retailing Revolution: A History of Multiple Retailing in the Food Trades based upon the Allied Suppliers Group of Companies (London, 1967); idem, 'Manufacturers and Retailing in the Food Trades: The Struggle Over Marganne', in B. Supple (ed.). Essays in British Business History (Oxford, 1977).
36. C. Wilson, The History of Unilever: A Study in Economic Growth and Social Change (London, 1954); P. Mathias, Retailing Revolution: A History of Multiple Retailing in the Food Trades based upon the Allied Suppliers Group of Companies (London, 1967); idem, 'Manufacturers and Retailing in the Food Trades: The Struggle Over Marganne', in B. Supple (ed.). Essays in British Business History (Oxford, 1977).
37. SA, 'World Sales', microreel AP93-0444, and GB-Agency Sales', microreel AP93-0440. Woolworth sales inferred from J.B. Jefferys, The Distribution of Consumer Goods (Cambridge, 1950), p.130. Jefferys estimated average annual sales of £80, 000 per variety store outlet in Britain, as against only £6, 000 for other types of multiple shops. If Woolworth achieved this average, then sales in its 638 shops exceeded £50 million in 1938.
38. J. Winkler, Five and Ten: The Fabulous Life of F.W. Woolworth (London, 1941); F.W. Woolworth & Co., Woolworth's First 75 Years, 1879-1954 (London, 1954); Shaw et al., 'Structural and Spatial Trends'.
39. J. Winkler, Five and Ten: The Fabulous Life of F.W. Woolworth (London, 1941); F.W. Woolworth & Co., Woolworth's First 75 Years, 1879-1954 (London, 1954); Shaw et al., 'Structural and Spatial Trends'.
40. J. Winkler, Five and Ten: The Fabulous Life of F.W. Woolworth (London, 1941); F.W. Woolworth & Co., Woolworth's First 75 Years, 1879-1954 (London, 1954); Shaw et al., 'Structural and Spatial Trends'.
41. See 60 Years of Electrolux Quality, 1927-1987 (Luton, 1987); Electrolux News Jubilee Edition 1921-1971 (Luton. 1971); F. Hoover, Fabulous Dustpan: The Story of the Hoover (Cleveland and New York, 1955); N.A. Stacey and A. Wilson, The Changing Pattern of Distribution (Oxford, 1965), p.219; P. Seikman, 'Hoover's Well-Vacuumed World', Fortune, June 1964, pp.143-8; 'Britain: British Hoover Is Cleaning Up', Business Week, 19 Aug. 1972, pp.35-6; Economist, 17 March 1951, p.654 and Jefferys, Distribution, pp.297-8.
42. See 60 Years of Electrolux Quality, 1927-1987 (Luton, 1987); Electrolux News Jubilee Edition 1921-1971 (Luton. 1971); F. Hoover, Fabulous Dustpan: The Story of the Hoover (Cleveland and New York, 1955); N.A. Stacey and A. Wilson, The Changing Pattern of Distribution (Oxford, 1965), p.219; P. Seikman, 'Hoover's Well-Vacuumed World', Fortune, June 1964, pp.143-8; 'Britain: British Hoover Is Cleaning Up', Business Week, 19 Aug. 1972, pp.35-6; Economist, 17 March 1951, p.654 and Jefferys, Distribution, pp.297-8.
43. See 60 Years of Electrolux Quality, 1927-1987 (Luton, 1987); Electrolux News Jubilee Edition 1921-1971 (Luton. 1971); F. Hoover, Fabulous Dustpan: The Story of the Hoover (Cleveland and New York, 1955); N.A. Stacey and A. Wilson, The Changing Pattern of Distribution (Oxford, 1965), p.219; P. Seikman, 'Hoover's Well-Vacuumed World', Fortune, June 1964, pp.143-8; 'Britain: British Hoover Is Cleaning Up', Business Week, 19 Aug. 1972, pp.35-6; Economist, 17 March 1951, p.654 and Jefferys, Distribution, pp.297-8.
44. See 60 Years of Electrolux Quality, 1927-1987 (Luton, 1987); Electrolux News Jubilee Edition 1921-1971 (Luton. 1971); F. Hoover, Fabulous Dustpan: The Story of the Hoover (Cleveland and New York, 1955); N.A. Stacey and A. Wilson, The Changing Pattern of Distribution (Oxford, 1965), p.219; P. Seikman, 'Hoover's Well-Vacuumed World', Fortune, June 1964, pp.143-8; 'Britain: British Hoover Is Cleaning Up', Business Week, 19 Aug. 1972, pp.35-6; Economist, 17 March 1951, p.654 and Jefferys, Distribution, pp.297-8.
45. See 60 Years of Electrolux Quality, 1927-1987 (Luton, 1987); Electrolux News Jubilee Edition 1921-1971 (Luton. 1971); F. Hoover, Fabulous Dustpan: The Story of the Hoover (Cleveland and New York, 1955); N.A. Stacey and A. Wilson, The Changing Pattern of Distribution (Oxford, 1965), p.219; P. Seikman, 'Hoover's Well-Vacuumed World', Fortune, June 1964, pp.143-8; 'Britain: British Hoover Is Cleaning Up', Business Week, 19 Aug. 1972, pp.35-6; Economist, 17 March 1951, p.654 and Jefferys, Distribution, pp.297-8.
46. See 60 Years of Electrolux Quality, 1927-1987 (Luton, 1987); Electrolux News Jubilee Edition 1921-1971 (Luton. 1971); F. Hoover, Fabulous Dustpan: The Story of the Hoover (Cleveland and New York, 1955); N.A. Stacey and A. Wilson, The Changing Pattern of Distribution (Oxford, 1965), p.219; P. Seikman, 'Hoover's Well-Vacuumed World', Fortune, June 1964, pp.143-8; 'Britain: British Hoover Is Cleaning Up', Business Week, 19 Aug. 1972, pp.35-6; Economist, 17 March 1951, p.654 and Jefferys, Distribution, pp.297-8.
47. See 60 Years of Electrolux Quality, 1927-1987 (Luton, 1987); Electrolux News Jubilee Edition 1921-1971 (Luton. 1971); F. Hoover, Fabulous Dustpan: The Story of the Hoover (Cleveland and New York, 1955); N.A. Stacey and A. Wilson, The Changing Pattern of Distribution (Oxford, 1965), p.219; P. Seikman, 'Hoover's Well-Vacuumed World', Fortune, June 1964, pp.143-8; 'Britain: British Hoover Is Cleaning Up', Business Week, 19 Aug. 1972, pp.35-6; Economist, 17 March 1951, p.654 and Jefferys, Distribution, pp.297-8.
48. See 60 Years of Electrolux Quality, 1927-1987 (Luton, 1987); Electrolux News Jubilee Edition 1921-1971 (Luton. 1971); F. Hoover, Fabulous Dustpan: The Story of the Hoover (Cleveland and New York, 1955); N.A. Stacey and A. Wilson, The Changing Pattern of Distribution (Oxford, 1965), p.219; P. Seikman, 'Hoover's Well-Vacuumed World', Fortune, June 1964, pp.143-8; 'Britain: British Hoover Is Cleaning Up', Business Week, 19 Aug. 1972, pp.35-6; Economist, 17 March 1951, p.654 and Jefferys, Distribution, pp.297-8.
49. D.F. Dixon, 'The Development of the Solus System of Petrol Distribution in the United Kingdom, 1950-1960', Economica, Vol.42 (1962), pp.40-52.
50. Woolworth (F.W.) & Co. Ltd. reports for 1950s; D. Jeremy, 'The Hundred Largest Employers in the United Kingdom, in Manufacturing and Non-manufacturing Industries, in 1907, 1935 and 1955', Business History; Vol.33 (1990), pp.93-111, citing Statist, 14 Jan. 1956.
51. C. Fulop, Revolution in Retailing (London, 1961) claims several companies, including Max Factor, began leasing counters in the 1950s. Fulop was the editor of the trade journal Shops and Stores. On Weston's Fine Fare, see W.W. Rukeyser, 'The 44-Billion Business Garfield Weston Built', Fortune, 1 June 1967, and C. Davies, Bread Men: How the Westons Built an International Food Empire (Toronto, 1987).
52. C. Fulop, Revolution in Retailing (London, 1961) claims several companies, including Max Factor, began leasing counters in the 1950s. Fulop was the editor of the trade journal Shops and Stores. On Weston's Fine Fare, see W.W. Rukeyser, 'The 44-Billion Business Garfield Weston Built', Fortune, 1 June 1967, and C. Davies, Bread Men: How the Westons Built an International Food Empire (Toronto, 1987).
53. C. Fulop, Revolution in Retailing (London, 1961) claims several companies, including Max Factor, began leasing counters in the 1950s. Fulop was the editor of the trade journal Shops and Stores. On Weston's Fine Fare, see W.W. Rukeyser, 'The 44-Billion Business Garfield Weston Built', Fortune, 1 June 1967, and C. Davies, Bread Men: How the Westons Built an International Food Empire (Toronto, 1987).
54. S.R. Fletcher and A. Godley, 'Foreign Entry into UK Retailing 1850-1994', International Marketing Review, Vol.17 (2000 forthcoming); A. Godley and S.R. Fletcher, 'International Retailers in Britain, 1850-1994', Service Industries Journal Vol.21 (2001 forthcoming).
55. S.R. Fletcher and A. Godley, 'Foreign Entry into UK Retailing 1850-1994', International Marketing Review, Vol.17 (2000 forthcoming); A. Godley and S.R. Fletcher, 'International Retailers in Britain, 1850-1994', Service Industries Journal Vol.21 (2001 forthcoming).
56. W.J. Baxter, Chain Store Distribution and Management (New York, 1928), p.7; S. Merwin, Rise and Fight Againe: The Story of a Life-Long Friend (New York, 1935); The Dizzy Decline of United Drug: How Louis Liggett Lost his Head', Forbes, 15 Sept. 1967, pp.177-8; G. Lebhar, Chain Stores in America, 1859-1962 (New York, 3rd edn. 1963).
57. W.J. Baxter, Chain Store Distribution and Management (New York, 1928), p.7; S. Merwin, Rise and Fight Againe: The Story of a Life-Long Friend (New York, 1935); The Dizzy Decline of United Drug: How Louis Liggett Lost his Head', Forbes, 15 Sept. 1967, pp.177-8; G. Lebhar, Chain Stores in America, 1859-1962 (New York, 3rd edn. 1963).
58. W.J. Baxter, Chain Store Distribution and Management (New York, 1928), p.7; S. Merwin, Rise and Fight Againe: The Story of a Life-Long Friend (New York, 1935); The Dizzy Decline of United Drug: How Louis Liggett Lost his Head', Forbes, 15 Sept. 1967, pp.177-8; G. Lebhar, Chain Stores in America, 1859-1962 (New York, 3rd edn. 1963).
59. W.J. Baxter, Chain Store Distribution and Management (New York, 1928), p.7; S. Merwin, Rise and Fight Againe: The Story of a Life-Long Friend (New York, 1935); The Dizzy Decline of United Drug: How Louis Liggett Lost his Head', Forbes, 15 Sept. 1967, pp.177-8; G. Lebhar, Chain Stores in America, 1859-1962 (New York, 3rd edn. 1963).
60. Bostock and Jones, 'Foreign Multinationals', p.100.
61. Hollander, Multinational Retailing, pp. 14-54 details many 1960s ventures.
62. We concur here with A. Hagen, 'German Direct Investment in the United Kingdom, 1871-1918', Business History, Vol.41 (1999). Note Hagen includes sales agencies in her lists, which have been explicitly excluded from both our and Bostock and Jones' compilations.
63. B.S. Yamey, Resale Price Maintenance (London, 1966), see, e.g., p.5.
64. Jefferys, Retail Trading; S. Hollander, 'The Wheel of Retailing', Journal of Marketing, Vol.24 (1960), pp.37-42; Mathias, Retailing Revolution.
65. Jefferys, Retail Trading; S. Hollander, 'The Wheel of Retailing', Journal of Marketing, Vol.24 (1960), pp.37-42; Mathias, Retailing Revolution.
66. Jefferys, Retail Trading; S. Hollander, 'The Wheel of Retailing', Journal of Marketing, Vol.24 (1960), pp.37-42; Mathias, Retailing Revolution.
67. O.M. Westall, 'The Competitive Environment of British Business, 1850-1914', in M.W. Kirby and M.B. Rose (eds.), Business Enterprise in Modern Britain: From the Eighteenth to the Twentieth Century (London, 1994), pp.207-35; M. Winstanley, 'Competition and Concentration in the Retail Sector c. 1800-1990', in ibid., pp.236-62.
68. O.M. Westall, 'The Competitive Environment of British Business, 1850-1914', in M.W. Kirby and M.B. Rose (eds.), Business Enterprise in Modern Britain: From the Eighteenth to the Twentieth Century (London, 1994), pp.207-35; M. Winstanley, 'Competition and Concentration in the Retail Sector c. 1800-1990', in ibid., pp.236-62.
69. Jones and Bostock, 'U.S. Multinationals', pp.107-8.
70. A. Adburgham, Shopping in Style: London from the Restoration to Edwardian Elegance (London, 1979), identifies other entrants which predate our start-point.
71. C. Ehrlich, The Piano: A History (London, 1976).
72. P.J. Buckley and M. Casson, The Economic Theory of the Multinational Enterprise (London, 1985); O. Williamson, Markets and Hierarchies (New York, 1975).
73. P.J. Buckley and M. Casson, The Economic Theory of the Multinational Enterprise (London, 1985); O. Williamson, Markets and Hierarchies (New York, 1975).
74. Jefferys, Retail Trading; G.C. Allen, The Industrial Development of Birmingham and the Black Country, 1860-1927 (London, 1929), pp.344-72; A.E. Harrison, The Origins and Growth of the UK Cycle Industry to 1900', Journal of Transport History, 3rd ser., Vol.6 (1985), pp.41-70.
75. Jefferys, Retail Trading; G.C. Allen, The Industrial Development of Birmingham and the Black Country, 1860-1927 (London, 1929), pp.344-72; A.E. Harrison, The Origins and Growth of the UK Cycle Industry to 1900', Journal of Transport History, 3rd ser., Vol.6 (1985), pp.41-70.
76. Jefferys, Retail Trading; G.C. Allen, The Industrial Development of Birmingham and the Black Country, 1860-1927 (London, 1929), pp.344-72; A.E. Harrison, The Origins and Growth of the UK Cycle Industry to 1900', Journal of Transport History, 3rd ser., Vol.6 (1985), pp.41-70.
77. S.R. Fletcher, '"Czech Ford" or "Unknown Dictator"?: Tomas Bata and his Enemies in Interwar Europe', Business and Economic History, Vol.28 (1999) and the sources cited there; P. Wilsher, 'C & A's £225 million family shop', Sunday Times, 12 April 1964 and Anon., 'The C&A story', Drapery and Fashion Weekly, 5 Dec. 1959, p.9, both in clipping file 1126, 'Specialty Chains', International Association of Department Stores, Paris.
78. S.R. Fletcher, '"Czech Ford" or "Unknown Dictator"?: Tomas Bata and his Enemies in Interwar Europe', Business and Economic History, Vol.28 (1999) and the sources cited there; P. Wilsher, 'C & A's £225 million family shop', Sunday Times, 12 April 1964 and Anon., 'The C&A story', Drapery and Fashion Weekly, 5 Dec. 1959, p.9, both in clipping file 1126, 'Specialty Chains', International Association of Department Stores, Paris.
79. S.R. Fletcher, '"Czech Ford" or "Unknown Dictator"?: Tomas Bata and his Enemies in Interwar Europe', Business and Economic History, Vol.28 (1999) and the sources cited there; P. Wilsher, 'C & A's £225 million family shop', Sunday Times, 12 April 1964 and Anon., 'The C&A story', Drapery and Fashion Weekly, 5 Dec. 1959, p.9, both in clipping file 1126, 'Specialty Chains', International Association of Department Stores, Paris.