Identity politics and economic reform: Examining industry-state relations in the Czech and Slovak Republics

Europe - Asia Studies

Volumn 52, Issue 1, 2000, Pages 111-131

  Appel, Hilary ^b   Gould, John ^b  

^a Claremont Institute   (United States)

^b NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ECONOMIC REFORM; POLICY MAKING; STATE-BUSINESS RELATIONS; TRANSITIONAL ECONOMY;

CZECH REPUBLIC; SLOVAKIA;

EID: 0034102098     PISSN: 09668136     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/09668130098299     Document Type: Article

References (102)

1. In this article we refer to managers, managerial elite, and enterprise directors interchangeably. Managers as a set of actors may attempt to influence government policy individually or through industrial associations. We will specify when we are referring to organised interest group pressure by managers.
2. For details see Aleš Čapek, 'The Split of Czechoslovakia and the Specific Features of the Slovak Economy', in J. Křovák (ed.), Current Economics and the Politics of (ex)-Czechoslovakia (Jericho, NY, New Science Publishers, 1991), p. 53; see also Oldřich Dedek et al., The Break-up of Czechoslovakia: An In Depth Analysis (Aldershot, Avebury, 1996), pp. 54-56; and John Gould, 'Seeding Slovakia for Secession: The Sociological and Economic Effects of Socialist Industrialization', paper presented to the annual conference of the North Eastern Political Science Association, Philadelphia, PA, 14 November 1997.
3. For details see Aleš Čapek, 'The Split of Czechoslovakia and the Specific Features of the Slovak Economy', in J. Křovák (ed.), Current Economics and the Politics of (ex)-Czechoslovakia (Jericho, NY, New Science Publishers, 1991), p. 53; see also Oldřich Dedek et al., The Break-up of Czechoslovakia: An In Depth Analysis (Aldershot, Avebury, 1996), pp. 54-56; and John Gould, 'Seeding Slovakia for Secession: The Sociological and Economic Effects of Socialist Industrialization', paper presented to the annual conference of the North Eastern Political Science Association, Philadelphia, PA, 14 November 1997.
4. For details see Aleš Čapek, 'The Split of Czechoslovakia and the Specific Features of the Slovak Economy', in J. Křovák (ed.), Current Economics and the Politics of (ex)-Czechoslovakia (Jericho, NY, New Science Publishers, 1991), p. 53; see also Oldřich Dedek et al., The Break-up of Czechoslovakia: An In Depth Analysis (Aldershot, Avebury, 1996), pp. 54-56; and John Gould, 'Seeding Slovakia for Secession: The Sociological and Economic Effects of Socialist Industrialization', paper presented to the annual conference of the North Eastern Political Science Association, Philadelphia, PA, 14 November 1997.
5. In the late 1980s a series of measures - including the State Enterprise Act of 1988 (breaking down large enterprises into smaller industrial units) and the Law on External Economic Relations (easing restrictions on enterprises wishing to engage in foreign trade) - extended the powers of management. At the end of 1990 the Federal Assembly passed the Competence Law, further decentralising industrial decision making. Despite limited decentralisation, these changes gave both Czech and Slovak managers equivalent control over the resources at their disposal. OECD Economic Survey: The Czech and Slovak Federal Republic (Paris, OECD, 1994), p. 26.
6. Strikes were more frequent in 1990 during small-scale privatisation. On these strikes see Lidové noviny, 27 September 1990, p. 1. Also see Mladá fronta Dnes, 27 September 1990; CTK, 2 October 1990.
7. Strikes were more frequent in 1990 during small-scale privatisation. On these strikes see Lidové noviny, 27 September 1990, p. 1. Also see Mladá fronta Dnes, 27 September 1990; CTK, 2 October 1990.
8. Strikes were more frequent in 1990 during small-scale privatisation. On these strikes see Lidové noviny, 27 September 1990, p. 1. Also see Mladá fronta Dnes, 27 September 1990; CTK, 2 October 1990.
9. Dokument: Ze Scenáře Ekonomické Reformy', Lidové noviny, 4 September 1990, p. 2.
10. Josef Kotrba, 'Privatization Process in the Czech Republic: Players and Winners', The Czech Republic and Economic Transition in Eastern Europe (San Diego, CA, Academic Press, 1995), p. 165.
11. For further discussion of the selection of projects, see Joshua Charap & Alena Zemplinerová, 'Management Buy-outs in the Privatisation Programme of the Czech Republic', Management and Employee Buy-outs in the Context of Privatization (OECD Special Report, 1, 3, 1994).
12. Interview with Eva Klvačová, former economist in the Ministry of Privatisation and editor of EKONOM, Prague, Czech Republic, 2 November 1995. NB. All interviews cited in this article were conducted by Hilary Appel or John Gould in Prague or Bratislava. Although dates are specified, it should be noted that these interviews were for the most part conducted during two overlapping field research visits by the authors, in which they interviewed over 100 participants in the Czech and Slovak economic reform process.
13. On the controversy over making the process of submitting privatisation projects competitive, see 'Další kolo konfliktu Klaus - Ježek', Rudé právo, 16 November 1991, pp. 1, 2. Also see interview with former Czech Privatization Minister Tomáš Ježek in 'Pochod Údolím Smrti', Mladý svět, 28 October 1991, pp. 10, 11.
14. On the controversy over making the process of submitting privatisation projects competitive, see 'Další kolo konfliktu Klaus - Ježek', Rudé právo, 16 November 1991, pp. 1, 2. Also see interview with former Czech Privatization Minister Tomáš Ježek in 'Pochod Údolím Smrti', Mladý svět, 28 October 1991, pp. 10, 11.
15. See Charap & Zemplinerová, 'Management Buy-outs ...'. For comparisons between the first and second waves of voucher privatisation see Michael Mejstrik et al., 'Privatization and the Opening of the Capital Market in the Czech and Slovak Republics', CERGE-EI Working Papers, Prague, April 1994; and Roland Egerer, 'Investment Funds and Corporate Governance in Emerging Markets: An Assessment of the Top Ten Voucher Funds in the Czech Republic', draft World Bank Report, December 1994.
16. See Charap & Zemplinerová, 'Management Buy-outs ...'. For comparisons between the first and second waves of voucher privatisation see Michael Mejstrik et al., 'Privatization and the Opening of the Capital Market in the Czech and Slovak Republics', CERGE-EI Working Papers, Prague, April 1994; and Roland Egerer, 'Investment Funds and Corporate Governance in Emerging Markets: An Assessment of the Top Ten Voucher Funds in the Czech Republic', draft World Bank Report, December 1994.
17. On the Finance Ministry's interactions with management, the former Minister of Industry and Trade explained that he had 'started discussions with Fiat and Mercedes about joint ventures [with Tatra Koprivnice] and these discussions lasted about four or five months. And when the discussions were almost concluded [Deputy Minister of Finance, Dušan] Tříska went there and told them [the managers] explicitly that they should submit the whole firm to vouchers because then they would have many unorganised owners and they would be uncontrolled. The result was they took Tříska's advice and now they are almost bankrupt'. Interview with former Minister of Industry and Trade, Jan Vrba, Prague, Czech Republic, 16 January 1996.
18. Interview with Deputy Minister of Finance Dušan Tříska, Prague, Czech Republic, 29 February 1996.
19. Karla Brom & Mitchell Orenstein, 'The Privatised Sector in the Czech Republic: Government and Bank Control in a Transitional Economy', Europe-Asia Studies, 46, 6, 1994, pp. 907-908.
20. Jarko Fidrmuc & Ming Xie, 'The Slovak Republic: New Country, Old Problems', mimeo, p. 19.
21. Interview with Jiří Nosál, Patria Finance (Czech investment company), Prague, Czech Republic, 7 November 1995.
22. 'Petice svazu průmyslu ČR a SR Federálnímu shromáždění CSFR', Hospodářské noviny, 28 February 1991.
23. OECD Economic Survey: The Czech and Slovak Federal Republic (Paris, OECD, 1991).
24. OECD Economic Survey: Czech and Slovak Republics (Paris, OECD, 1994), pp. 87-92; Filip Kořínek, 'The Privatization/Insolvencies/Bankruptcies Market', American Embassy, Prague, Czech Republic, May 1994; Daniela Zemanovičová & Lucia Žitňanská, 'Comparative Report of Bankruptcy Regulation: The Czech Republic and Slovakia', Centre for Economic Development, Bratislava, Slovakia, June 1996.
25. OECD Economic Survey: Czech and Slovak Republics (Paris, OECD, 1994), pp. 87-92; Filip Kořínek, 'The Privatization/Insolvencies/Bankruptcies Market', American Embassy, Prague, Czech Republic, May 1994; Daniela Zemanovičová & Lucia Žitňanská, 'Comparative Report of Bankruptcy Regulation: The Czech Republic and Slovakia', Centre for Economic Development, Bratislava, Slovakia, June 1996.
26. OECD Economic Survey: Czech and Slovak Republics (Paris, OECD, 1994), pp. 87-92; Filip Kořínek, 'The Privatization/Insolvencies/Bankruptcies Market', American Embassy, Prague, Czech Republic, May 1994; Daniela Zemanovičová & Lucia Žitňanská, 'Comparative Report of Bankruptcy Regulation: The Czech Republic and Slovakia', Centre for Economic Development, Bratislava, Slovakia, June 1996.
27. Fidrmuc & Xie attribute the increase in fiscal spending in 1993 to less fiscal discipline by an inexperienced government. Mikloš, by contrast, attributes it to the one-time costs of setting up an independent state. Whatever the reason, by spring 1993 Slovakia underwent a significant run on the new Slovak crown, forcing the Mečiar government to adopt the fiscal discipline of its federal predecessor. After Mečiar took office a third time in December 1994, however, he engaged in a costly infrastructure building project that required significant domestic and foreign borrowing. See Fidrmuc & Xie, 'New Country, Old Problems'; Ivan Mikloš, 'Economic Transition and the Emergence of Clientalist Structures in Slovakia', in Sońa Szomolányi & John Gould (eds), Slovakia: Problems of Democratic Consolidation and the Struggle for the Rules of the Game (Bratislava, Friedrich Ebert Stiftung/Slovak Political Science Association, 1997), p. 61.
28. Fidrmuc & Xie attribute the increase in fiscal spending in 1993 to less fiscal discipline by an inexperienced government. Mikloš, by contrast, attributes it to the one-time costs of setting up an independent state. Whatever the reason, by spring 1993 Slovakia underwent a significant run on the new Slovak crown, forcing the Mečiar government to adopt the fiscal discipline of its federal predecessor. After Mečiar took office a third time in December 1994, however, he engaged in a costly infrastructure building project that required significant domestic and foreign borrowing. See Fidrmuc & Xie, 'New Country, Old Problems'; Ivan Mikloš, 'Economic Transition and the Emergence of Clientalist Structures in Slovakia', in Sońa Szomolányi & John Gould (eds), Slovakia: Problems of Democratic Consolidation and the Struggle for the Rules of the Game (Bratislava, Friedrich Ebert Stiftung/Slovak Political Science Association, 1997), p. 61.
29. Fidrmuc & Xie attribute the increase in fiscal spending in 1993 to less fiscal discipline by an inexperienced government. Mikloš, by contrast, attributes it to the one-time costs of setting up an independent state. Whatever the reason, by spring 1993 Slovakia underwent a significant run on the new Slovak crown, forcing the Mečiar government to adopt the fiscal discipline of its federal predecessor. After Mečiar took office a third time in December 1994, however, he engaged in a costly infrastructure building project that required significant domestic and foreign borrowing. See Fidrmuc & Xie, 'New Country, Old Problems'; Ivan Mikloš, 'Economic Transition and the Emergence of Clientalist Structures in Slovakia', in Sońa Szomolányi & John Gould (eds), Slovakia: Problems of Democratic Consolidation and the Struggle for the Rules of the Game (Bratislava, Friedrich Ebert Stiftung/Slovak Political Science Association, 1997), p. 61.
30. On Czech monetary policy see OECD Economic Surveys: The Czech Republic (Paris, OECD, 1996), p. 27.
31. Interview with Rudolf Lachovič, Chief of the Board of Directors, Global Brokers, Bratislava, Slovakia, 23 June 1997;
32. Mitchell Orenstein, 'Voucher Privatization and Restructuring in Slovakia', Prague: Institute for East West Studies, July 1994.
33. AZZZ, '5. Výročie AZZZ SR, 1991-1996',
34. Spravodaj AZZZ Extra, Bratislava, March 1996;
35. interview with Ľudovít Černák, Bratislava, Slovakia, 2 April 1997. Analysts politically opposed to Mečiar provide specific evidence highlighting the role of AZZZ as a strong 'industrial lobby' with 'enormous influence over the economic and privatisation policy of the Mečiar coalition and government' that was crucial in gaining its leading members favourable treatment in privatisation decisions. For further recent evidence see Ivan Mikloš, 'Privatizácia', in Martin Bútora & Michal Ivantyšin (eds), Slovensko, 1997:
36. Súhrnná správa o stave spoločnosti a trendoch na rok 1998 (Bratislava, Inštitút pre Verejné Otázky, 1998), pp. 418-420;
37. Ivan Mikloǎ, 'Privatization Process in Slovakia: Backstage Interests', Mapping and Promoting Privatization in Slovakia, Seminar Bulletin IX, Centre for Economic Development, Bratislava, 12 December 1995, p. 7.
38. As AZZZ President Michal Lǎch explained, 'the privatisation philosophy assumed by the government has been formulated jointly' (with the employers unions). See Slovenská Republika, 21 June 1995, as cited in Mikloš, 'Economic transition', p. 65.
39. Interview with Peter Staněk, Economic Adviser to the Prime Minister, 16 January 1997; public debate between Peter Magvaši and Deputy Minister of Finance Peter Stanek, ' Spectrum Live', hosted by The Slovak Spectator, Bratislava, Slovakia, 13 June 1997.
40. Interview with Peter Staněk, Economic Adviser to the Prime Minister, 16 January 1997; public debate between Peter Magvaši and Deputy Minister of Finance Peter Stanek, ' Spectrum Live', hosted by The Slovak Spectator, Bratislava, Slovakia, 13 June 1997.
41. AZZZ, '5. Výročie AZZZ SR'; see also the interview with Ministry of Economy plenipotentiary for the motor industry in Slovakia, Alfred Richter, in Samuel Bibza, 'Velké Plány', MOT, August 1998, pp. 4-8; interview with Ján Lesinský, President, Slovak Society of Automotive Engineers, Bratislava, Slovakia, 10 August 1998.
42. AZZZ, '5. Výročie AZZZ SR'; see also the interview with Ministry of Economy plenipotentiary for the motor industry in Slovakia, Alfred Richter, in Samuel Bibza, 'Velké Plány', MOT, August 1998, pp. 4-8; interview with Ján Lesinský, President, Slovak Society of Automotive Engineers, Bratislava, Slovakia, 10 August 1998.
43. AZZZ, '5. Výročie AZZZ SR'; see also the interview with Ministry of Economy plenipotentiary for the motor industry in Slovakia, Alfred Richter, in Samuel Bibza, 'Velké Plány', MOT, August 1998, pp. 4-8; interview with Ján Lesinský, President, Slovak Society of Automotive Engineers, Bratislava, Slovakia, 10 August 1998.
44. In spring 1998 the government borrowed domestically at nominal rates reaching as high as 28%. The government's domestic borrowing was particularly troublesome because it worsened the credit squeeze on Slovakia's already strapped enterprises. In 1997 the proportion of liabilities that enterprises outside of the financial sector could no longer meet grew by 25.4% over the previous year and totaled 18.2% of GDP. Non-performing assets grew an additional 2.3% in the first quarter of 1998. M.E.S.A 10, Slovak Monthly Report, May 1998, pp. 1-2; M.E.S.A. 10, Slovak Monthly Report, July 1998, p. 2.
45. In spring 1998 the government borrowed domestically at nominal rates reaching as high as 28%. The government's domestic borrowing was particularly troublesome because it worsened the credit squeeze on Slovakia's already strapped enterprises. In 1997 the proportion of liabilities that enterprises outside of the financial sector could no longer meet grew by 25.4% over the previous year and totaled 18.2% of GDP. Non-performing assets grew an additional 2.3% in the first quarter of 1998. M.E.S.A 10, Slovak Monthly Report, May 1998, pp. 1-2; M.E.S.A. 10, Slovak Monthly Report, July 1998, p. 2.
46. Mitchell Orenstein, Out of the Red: Building Capitalism and Democracy in Post-Communist Europe (Ann Arbor, University of Michigan Press, forthcoming), Chapters 3-4; Mitchell Orenstein, 'The Political Success of Neo-Liberalism in the Czech Republic', CERGE-EI Working Paper no. 68, June 1994;
47. Mitchell Orenstein, Out of the Red: Building Capitalism and Democracy in Post-Communist Europe (Ann Arbor, University of Michigan Press, forthcoming), Chapters 3-4; Mitchell Orenstein, 'The Political Success of Neo-Liberalism in the Czech Republic', CERGE-EI Working Paper no. 68, June 1994;
48. Peter Rutland, 'Thatcherism, Czech Style: Transition to Capitalism in the Czech Republic', Telos, 25, 4, 1992, pp. 103-129.
49. Several theorists seeking to explain both political and economic differences point to economic conditions, whether trying to explain institutional development or relative economic performance after initial reforms, etc. On the latter see Pavel Mertlík, 'Czechoslovakian Economic Reform', Milan Sojka (ed.), What Markets Can and Cannot Do (Prague, Nova Spes, 1992). For this approach in Polish economic reform see Leszek Balcerowicz, Socialism, Capitalism, Transformation (Budapest, CEU Press, 1995), p. 97. On economic conditions and political institutional development see Herbert Kitschelt, 'Formation of Party Cleavages in Post-Communist Democracies', Party Politics, 1, 2, October 1995, pp. 447-472.
50. Several theorists seeking to explain both political and economic differences point to economic conditions, whether trying to explain institutional development or relative economic performance after initial reforms, etc. On the latter see Pavel Mertlík, 'Czechoslovakian Economic Reform', Milan Sojka (ed.), What Markets Can and Cannot Do (Prague, Nova Spes, 1992). For this approach in Polish economic reform see Leszek Balcerowicz, Socialism, Capitalism, Transformation (Budapest, CEU Press, 1995), p. 97. On economic conditions and political institutional development see Herbert Kitschelt, 'Formation of Party Cleavages in Post-Communist Democracies', Party Politics, 1, 2, October 1995, pp. 447-472.
51. Several theorists seeking to explain both political and economic differences point to economic conditions, whether trying to explain institutional development or relative economic performance after initial reforms, etc. On the latter see Pavel Mertlík, 'Czechoslovakian Economic Reform', Milan Sojka (ed.), What Markets Can and Cannot Do (Prague, Nova Spes, 1992). For this approach in Polish economic reform see Leszek Balcerowicz, Socialism, Capitalism, Transformation (Budapest, CEU Press, 1995), p. 97. On economic conditions and political institutional development see Herbert Kitschelt, 'Formation of Party Cleavages in Post-Communist Democracies', Party Politics, 1, 2, October 1995, pp. 447-472.
52. Zora Bútorová et al., Aktuálné problémy Česko-Slovensko, január 1992: Záverečná správa zo sociologického prieskumu (Bratislava, Centrum pre sociálnu analýzi, 1992), Appendix 2.
53. Labour Economist Randall Filer explains that Central European labour statistics are notably unreliable prior to 1993 (authors' electronic correspondence with Randall Filer, Centre for Economic Research and Graduate Education, CERGE, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic, 17 March 1999). Bearing in mind Filer's caveat, we include these data here, however, because they are the same data that were available to politicians, policy makers and industrial managers during the period of our study and thus have informed debates on appropriate reform policies.
54. See note 31.
55. For further discussion of this idea see Hilary Appel, Mass Privatization in Post-Communist States: Ideas, Interests and Economic Regime Change, Dissertation, University of Pennsylvania, 1998, pp. 209-214.
56. For a basic statement on these beliefs see Petr Pithart, 'Toward a Shared Freedom', and Sharon Wolchik, 'The Politics of Transition and the Break-up of Czechoslovakia', in Jiří Musil (ed.), The End of Czechoslovakia (Budapest, CEU Press, 1995).
57. For a basic statement on these beliefs see Petr Pithart, 'Toward a Shared Freedom', and Sharon Wolchik, 'The Politics of Transition and the Break-up of Czechoslovakia', in Jiří Musil (ed.), The End of Czechoslovakia (Budapest, CEU Press, 1995).
58. Interview with former Deputy Finance Minister, Dušan Tříska, Prague, Czech Republic, 13 February 1996.
59. Orenstein, 'Out of the Red', p. 105; see Aleš Čapek & Pavel Mertlík, 'Organizational and Financial Restructuring in Czech manufacturing Enterprises, 1990-1995', in Barbara Blaszcyk & Richard Woodward (eds), Privatization in Post-Communist Countries (Warsaw, Centre for Social and Economic Research, 1996), p. 270.
60. Orenstein, 'Out of the Red', p. 105; see Aleš Čapek & Pavel Mertlík, 'Organizational and Financial Restructuring in Czech manufacturing Enterprises, 1990-1995', in Barbara Blaszcyk & Richard Woodward (eds), Privatization in Post-Communist Countries (Warsaw, Centre for Social and Economic Research, 1996), p. 270.
61. Vojtech Cepl, 'Lustration in the CSFR', East European Constitutional Review, Spring 1992; Jiřina Šiklová, 'Lustration or the Czech Way of Screening', East European Constitutional Review, Winter 1996, pp. 57-62.
62. Vojtech Cepl, 'Lustration in the CSFR', East European Constitutional Review, Spring 1992; Jiřina Šiklová, 'Lustration or the Czech Way of Screening', East European Constitutional Review, Winter 1996, pp. 57-62.
63. Ibid.; Interview with Jozef Uhrík, Devínská Nová Ves, Slovakia, 14 January 1997.
64. Ibid.; Interview with Jozef Uhrík, Devínská Nová Ves, Slovakia, 14 January 1997.
65. For an assessment of post-revolutionary managerial turnover in specific enterprises see Čapek & Mertlik, 'Organizational and Financial Restructuring', p. 270; and Ed Clark & Anna Soulsby, 'The Re-formation of the Managerial Elite in the Czech Republic', Europe-Asia Studies, 48, 2, 1996, pp. 285-303.
66. For an assessment of post-revolutionary managerial turnover in specific enterprises see Čapek & Mertlik, 'Organizational and Financial Restructuring', p. 270; and Ed Clark & Anna Soulsby, 'The Re-formation of the Managerial Elite in the Czech Republic', Europe-Asia Studies, 48, 2, 1996, pp. 285-303.
67. See Appel, Mass Privatization in Post-Communist States, pp. 206-209.
68. Mitchell Orenstein, 'The Czech Tripartite Council and its Contribution to Social Peace', in Attila Agh & Gabriella Ilonszki (eds), Parliaments and Organized Interests: The Second Steps (Budapest, Hungarian Centre for Democracy Studies, 1996).
69. Interview with Dušan Tříska, Prague, Czech Republic, 13 February 1996.
70. The desire to join Europe and break with the country's past in the Eastern bloc is made explicit in Klaus' policy statements as early as November 1989 when he drafted the 'Programmatic Principles'. A 'Return to Europe' became a highly successful campaign slogan for Civic Forum in the June 1990 elections. Subsequently, we can see the importance Klaus placed on a European identity in major and minor speeches throughout his political career. It featured importantly when he ran for the chairmanship of Civic Forum, when he formed the Inter-parliamentary Group of the Democratic Right Wing (a parliamentary club or a sub-group of Civic Forum) (CTK National News Wire, 31 October 1990), when he co-founded the Civic Democratic Party (ODS) (CTK National News Wire, 1 March 1991) and when he campaigned for the parliamentary elections in 1992, 1996 and 1998 - not to mention several times in between.
71. CTK Business News, 27 May 1994.
72. Jan Šubert, 'Ministr vnitra Jan Ruml zadal analuzu informaci k prombelmatice privatizace a restruckturalizace petrochemickeho prumyslu', Jan Šubert, spokesman, Ministry of the Interior of the Czech Republic, Prague, press release, 27 June 1994.
73. Mladá fronta Dnes, 27 July 1994.
74. CTK National News Wire, 22 July 1994.
75. CTK National News Wire, 5 August 1994.
76. CTK National News Wire, 11 August 1994.
77. 'Eastern European Refining Sector: Valuation Comparison', ING Barings, January 1997, pp. 13-15.
78. See Appel, Mass Privatization in Post-Communist States, p. 252.
79. As one prominent Czech sociologist, Ladislav Holý, writes, 'the proclaimed goal of the post-communist government is admission to the European Union, and it is doing everything in its power to achieve this. For example it makes sure that all new legislation passed by the Czech parliament is in line with the European Commission's rules and regulations'. Ladislav Holý, The Little Czech and the Great Czech Nation (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1996), p. 202.
80. Two good histories of the events covered here are Carol Skalnik Leff, National Conflict in Czechoslovakia: The Making and Remaking of a State, 1918-1987 (Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1988) and H. Gordon Skilling, Czechoslovakia's Interrupted Revolution (Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1976).
81. Two good histories of the events covered here are Carol Skalnik Leff, National Conflict in Czechoslovakia: The Making and Remaking of a State, 1918-1987 (Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1988) and H. Gordon Skilling, Czechoslovakia's Interrupted Revolution (Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1976).
82. Pithart, 'Toward a Shared Freedom'; Wolchik, 'The Politics of Transition'; Kevin Krause, 'Different but not That Different: History and Public Opinion in the Slovak and Czech Republics', Mimeo.
83. Pithart, 'Toward a Shared Freedom'; Wolchik, 'The Politics of Transition'; Kevin Krause, 'Different but not That Different: History and Public Opinion in the Slovak and Czech Republics', Mimeo.
84. Pithart, 'Toward a Shared Freedom'; Wolchik, 'The Politics of Transition'; Kevin Krause, 'Different but not That Different: History and Public Opinion in the Slovak and Czech Republics', Mimeo.
85. See Abby Innes, 'The Breakup of Czechoslovakia: The Impact of Party Development on the Separation of the State', East European Politics and Societies, 11, 3, Fall 1997, pp. 393-435.
86. See David Begg, 'Economic Reform in Czechoslovakia: Should we Believe in Santa Klaus?', Economic Policy: A European Forum 14, 6, 2, October 1991, pp. 243-286; interview with Mikuláš Sedlák, President, Association of Independent Economists of Slovakia (NEZES), Bratislava, Slovakia, 12 March 1997.
87. See David Begg, 'Economic Reform in Czechoslovakia: Should we Believe in Santa Klaus?', Economic Policy: A European Forum 14, 6, 2, October 1991, pp. 243-286; interview with Mikuláš Sedlák, President, Association of Independent Economists of Slovakia (NEZES), Bratislava, Slovakia, 12 March 1997.
88. Hence managers supported Mečiar's creation of a separate Slovak foreign policy apparatus to represent particular Slovak cultural and economic interests abroad.
89. Interview with Jozef Uhrík, Devínská Nová Ves, Slovakia, 14 January 1997; confidential interview with ex-defence industry executive, Žilina, Slovakia, 22 July 1998.
90. Interview with Jozef Uhrík, Devínská Nová Ves, Slovakia, 14 January 1997; confidential interview with ex-defence industry executive, Žilina, Slovakia, 22 July 1998.
91. Mikloš, 'Economic Transition ...', p. 60.
92. KDH, 'Alternativy d'alšiého postupu ekonomické reformy', Hospodářské noviny, 19 March 1991, p. 4.
93. NEZES, 'NEZES k reforme a hospodárskej nezávislosti Slovenska', Hospodářské noviny, 19 March 1991, p. 3.
94. Indeed, when he ran the Slovak Ministry of the Interior for VPN in early 1990, far from 'sweeping' the ministry clean of former apparatchiks and STB collaborators, Mečiar apparently sought their support and loyalty-only to become outraged when his successor from the KDH proved a more zealous reformer. Innes, 'The Breakup of Czechoslovakia', p. 409.
95. 'Slovak Meeting Studies Economic Problems', FBIS, 17 August 1990. Miloš Žíak, 'Privatizácia Na Slovensko, 1', Domino (February 28, 1997).
96. 'Slovak Meeting Studies Economic Problems', FBIS, 17 August 1990. Miloš Žíak, 'Privatizácia Na Slovensko, 1', Domino (February 28, 1997).
97. Innes, 'The Breakup of Czechoslovakia'; Hilary Appel, 'Politico-Ideological Determinants of Liberal Economic Reform: The Case of Privatization', paper presented to the annual conference of the North Eastern Political Science Association, Philadelphia, PA, 15 November 1997; Miklos, 'Economic Transition ...', p. 65.
98. Innes, 'The Breakup of Czechoslovakia'; Hilary Appel, 'Politico-Ideological Determinants of Liberal Economic Reform: The Case of Privatization', paper presented to the annual conference of the North Eastern Political Science Association, Philadelphia, PA, 15 November 1997; Miklos, 'Economic Transition ...', p. 65.
99. Innes, 'The Breakup of Czechoslovakia'; Hilary Appel, 'Politico-Ideological Determinants of Liberal Economic Reform: The Case of Privatization', paper presented to the annual conference of the North Eastern Political Science Association, Philadelphia, PA, 15 November 1997; Miklos, 'Economic Transition ...', p. 65.
100. Sona Szomolányi, 'Identifying Slovakia's Emerging regime', in Szomolanyi & Gould (eds) Slovakia, p. 27; CTK National News Wire, 3 December 1997.
101. Sona Szomolányi, 'Identifying Slovakia's Emerging regime', in Szomolanyi & Gould (eds) Slovakia, p. 27; CTK National News Wire, 3 December 1997.
102. The government boasted of privatising only to domestic businessmen in order to create a national entrepreneurial class that would be more likely to conduct business in the interests of Slovakia. Most of the beneficiaries of this rhetoric were AZZZ members. Interview with Oto Bologh, Press Spokesman, Fund for National Property of the Slovak Republic, Bratislava, Slovakia, 22 April 1998; Mikloš, 'Privatizácia ...', pp. 405-432.