Dark ages and dark areas: Global deforestation in the deep past

Journal of Historical Geography

Volumn 26, Issue 1, 2000, Pages 28-46

  Williams, Michael ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

DEFORESTATION; ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT; HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY; MAN-ENVIRONMENT RELATIONS; MIDDLE AGES;

EID: 0034097729     PISSN: 03057488     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1006/jhge.1999.0189     Document Type: Article

References (165)

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13. W. Denevan, The pristine myth: the landscape of the Americas in 1492, Annals of the Association of American Geographers 82 (1992) 369-85; M. Williams, The Americans and Their Forests (New York 1989) 32-49.
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15. J. Hart, Loss and abandonment of cleared farm land in the Eastern United States, Annals of the Association of American Geographers 58 (1968) 417-40; M. Williams, The death and regrowth of the American forest: clearing and reversion in the United States, 1900-1980, in J. Richards and R. Tucker (Eds), World Deforestation in the Twentieth Century (Durham, NC 1988) 211-29.
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23. W. Abel, Agakonjuntur, in E. von Beckenrath et al. (Eds), Hand wörterbuchen der Sozialwissenschaften (Stuttgart 1956) 49-59; H. Pohlendt, Die Verbreitung der mittelalterlichen Wüstungen in Deutschland (Göttingen geographische Abhandlungen 3) (Göttingen 1950); H. Jäger, Die Entwicklung der Kulturlandschaft im Kriese Hofgeismar (Göttingen geograpische Abhandlung 8) (Göttingen 1950); H. Jäger, Zur Entstehung der heutigen grossen Forsten in Deutschland, Berichte zur deutschen Landeskunde 13 (1954) 156-71.
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30. J. Fairhead and M. Leach, Misreading the African Landscape: Society and Ecology in a Forest-Savanna Mosaic (Cambridge 1996) 55-85, 261-78; J. Fairhead and M. Leach, Rethinking the forest-savanna mosaic, in M. Leach and R. Mearns (Eds), The Lie of the Land: Challanging Received Wisdom on the African Environment (Oxford 1966) 105-22. A. Gomez-Pompa, J. Flores and V. Sosa, The "Pet Kot": a man-made tropical forest of the Maya, Interciencia 12 (1987) 10-5.
31. M. Williams, Forests and tree-cover, in W. Meyer and B. Turner, II (Eds), Changes in Land Use and Land Cover: A Global Perspective (Cambridge 1994) 97.
32. Ibid., 100.
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38. S. Pine, Vestal Fire: An Environmental History, told through Fire, of Europe and Europe's Encounter with the World (Seattle 1997); O. Stewart, Fire as the first great force employed by man, in Thomas op. cit. 115-33; P. Mellars, Fire ecology, animal populations and man: a study of some ecological relationships in prehistory, Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 42 (1976) 15-45.
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67. See, inter alia, D. Posey, Indigenous management of tropical forest ecosystems: the case of the Kayapo Indians of the Brazilian Amazon, Agroforestry Systems 3 (1989) 139-58; W. Balée, Indigenous transformation of Amazonian forests: an example from Maranhāro, L'Homme 33 126-8, xxxiii (1993) 2-4, 235-58; A. Roosevelt, Resource management in Amazonia before the Conquest: beyond ethnographic projection, in D. Posey and W. Balée (Eds), Resource Management in Amazonia: Indigenous and Folk Strategies - Advances in Economic Botany, Vol. 7, 30-62.
68. See, inter alia, D. Posey, Indigenous management of tropical forest ecosystems: the case of the Kayapo Indians of the Brazilian Amazon, Agroforestry Systems 3 (1989) 139-58; W. Balée, Indigenous transformation of Amazonian forests: an example from Maranhāro, L'Homme 33 126-8, xxxiii (1993) 2-4, 235-58; A. Roosevelt, Resource management in Amazonia before the Conquest: beyond ethnographic projection, in D. Posey and W. Balée (Eds), Resource Management in Amazonia: Indigenous and Folk Strategies - Advances in Economic Botany, Vol. 7, 30-62.
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71. G. Day, The Indian as an ecological factor in the Northeastern forest, Ecology 34 (1953) 329-46; H. Maxwell, The use and abuse of forests by the Virginia Indians, William and Mary College Historical Magazine 19 (1910) 73-103. For a thorough review of the literature see M. Williams, Americans and Their Forests, 32-49.
72. G. Day, The Indian as an ecological factor in the Northeastern forest, Ecology 34 (1953) 329-46; H. Maxwell, The use and abuse of forests by the Virginia Indians, William and Mary College Historical Magazine 19 (1910) 73-103. For a thorough review of the literature see M. Williams, Americans and Their Forests, 32-49.
73. G. Day, The Indian as an ecological factor in the Northeastern forest, Ecology 34 (1953) 329-46; H. Maxwell, The use and abuse of forests by the Virginia Indians, William and Mary College Historical Magazine 19 (1910) 73-103. For a thorough review of the literature see M. Williams, Americans and Their Forests, 32-49.
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81. Darby, op.cit., 184-6; J. Hughes and J. Thirgood, Deforestation, erosion and forest management in ancient Greece and Rome, Journal of Forest History 26 (1982) 60-75; J. Hughs, Pan's Travail: Environmental Problems of the Ancient Greeks and Romans (Baltimore 1994) 169-80; V. Thirgood, Man and the Mediterranean Forest: A History of Resource Depletion (London 1981).
82. Darby, op.cit., 184-6; J. Hughes and J. Thirgood, Deforestation, erosion and forest management in ancient Greece and Rome, Journal of Forest History 26 (1982) 60-75; J. Hughs, Pan's Travail: Environmental Problems of the Ancient Greeks and Romans (Baltimore 1994) 169-80; V. Thirgood, Man and the Mediterranean Forest: A History of Resource Depletion (London 1981).
83. Sophocles, Antigone, 362.
84. Homer, Illiad, XVI, 794-7; Horace, Satires, Epistles, and Ars Poetica, Epistles, II: 2, 185-8; Virgil, The Georgics, Vol. 2, 177.
85. Homer, Illiad, XVI, 794-7; Horace, Satires, Epistles, and Ars Poetica, Epistles, II: 2, 185-8; Virgil, The Georgics, Vol. 2, 177.
86. Homer, Illiad, XVI, 794-7; Horace, Satires, Epistles, and Ars Poetica, Epistles, II: 2, 185-8; Virgil, The Georgics, Vol. 2, 177.
87. Homer quoted in Darby, op cit., 184-5; Lucretius, Titi Lucreti Cari de Rerum Natura Libri Sex, in C. Bailey (Ed.), Lucreti de Rerum Natura Libri Sex, with Prolegomena, Critical Apparatus, Translation and Commentary (Oxford 1947) Vol. V, 505.
88. Homer quoted in Darby, op cit., 184-5; Lucretius, Titi Lucreti Cari de Rerum Natura Libri Sex, in C. Bailey (Ed.), Lucreti de Rerum Natura Libri Sex, with Prolegomena, Critical Apparatus, Translation and Commentary (Oxford 1947) Vol. V, 505.
89. Starbo, Geography, 5.4.5; Livy, History of Rome, 9.36.1; C. Nicolet, Economy and society, 133-43 BC, in J. Cook, A. Lintott and E. Rawson (Eds), The Cambridge Ancient History: Vol. 9 - The Last Age of the Roman Republic, 146-43 BC (Cambridge 1994) 609, 611.
90. Starbo, Geography, 5.4.5; Livy, History of Rome, 9.36.1; C. Nicolet, Economy and society, 133-43 BC, in J. Cook, A. Lintott and E. Rawson (Eds), The Cambridge Ancient History: Vol. 9 - The Last Age of the Roman Republic, 146-43 BC (Cambridge 1994) 609, 611.
91. Starbo, Geography, 5.4.5; Livy, History of Rome, 9.36.1; C. Nicolet, Economy and society, 133-43 BC, in J. Cook, A. Lintott and E. Rawson (Eds), The Cambridge Ancient History: Vol. 9 - The Last Age of the Roman Republic, 146-43 BC (Cambridge 1994) 609, 611.
92. T. Wertime, Cypriot metallurgy against the backdrop of Mediterranean pyrotechnology: energy reconsidered, in J. Muhly, R. Maddin and V. Karageorghis (Eds), Early Metallurgy in Cyprus, 4000-500 BC (Nicosia 1982) 351-62; Idem., The furnace versus the goat: the pyrotechnologic industries and Mediterranean deforestation in antiquity, Journal of Field Archaeology 10 (1983) 445-52. For heating baths, see F. Kretzschmer, Der Betriebsversuch an einem Hypokaustum de Saalburg, Germania 31 (1953) 64-7 and T. Rook, The development and operation of Roman hypocaustic baths, Journal of Archaeological Science 5 (1978) 269-82.
93. T. Wertime, Cypriot metallurgy against the backdrop of Mediterranean pyrotechnology: energy reconsidered, in J. Muhly, R. Maddin and V. Karageorghis (Eds), Early Metallurgy in Cyprus, 4000-500 BC (Nicosia 1982) 351-62; Idem., The furnace versus the goat: the pyrotechnologic industries and Mediterranean deforestation in antiquity, Journal of Field Archaeology 10 (1983) 445-52. For heating baths, see F. Kretzschmer, Der Betriebsversuch an einem Hypokaustum de Saalburg, Germania 31 (1953) 64-7 and T. Rook, The development and operation of Roman hypocaustic baths, Journal of Archaeological Science 5 (1978) 269-82.
94. T. Wertime, Cypriot metallurgy against the backdrop of Mediterranean pyrotechnology: energy reconsidered, in J. Muhly, R. Maddin and V. Karageorghis (Eds), Early Metallurgy in Cyprus, 4000-500 BC (Nicosia 1982) 351-62; Idem., The furnace versus the goat: the pyrotechnologic industries and Mediterranean deforestation in antiquity, Journal of Field Archaeology 10 (1983) 445-52. For heating baths, see F. Kretzschmer, Der Betriebsversuch an einem Hypokaustum de Saalburg, Germania 31 (1953) 64-7 and T. Rook, The development and operation of Roman hypocaustic baths, Journal of Archaeological Science 5 (1978) 269-82.
95. T. Wertime, Cypriot metallurgy against the backdrop of Mediterranean pyrotechnology: energy reconsidered, in J. Muhly, R. Maddin and V. Karageorghis (Eds), Early Metallurgy in Cyprus, 4000-500 BC (Nicosia 1982) 351-62; Idem., The furnace versus the goat: the pyrotechnologic industries and Mediterranean deforestation in antiquity, Journal of Field Archaeology 10 (1983) 445-52. For heating baths, see F. Kretzschmer, Der Betriebsversuch an einem Hypokaustum de Saalburg, Germania 31 (1953) 64-7 and T. Rook, The development and operation of Roman hypocaustic baths, Journal of Archaeological Science 5 (1978) 269-82.
96. R. Meiggs, Trees and Timber in the Ancient Mediterranean World (Oxford 1982).
97. e siècle), Annales. Economies, Sociétés, Civilisations 14 (1959) 23-54.
98. e siècle), Annales. Economies, Sociétés, Civilisations 14 (1959) 23-54.
99. R. Tomaselli, Degradation of the Mediterranean maquis, in UNESCO, Mediterranean Forests and Maquis: Ecology, Conservation and Management (MAB Technical Notes 2) (Paris 1977) 33-72.
100. Quoted in A. Toynbee, Greek Historical Thought from Homer to the Age of Heraclius (London 1924) 169; J. Bradford, Ancient Landscapes in Europe and Asia: Studies in Archaeology and Photography (Oxford 1965); J. Bintliff, New approaches to human geography: prehistoric Greece, a case study, in F. Carter (Ed.), An Historical Geography of the Balkans (London 1986) 59-114.
101. Quoted in A. Toynbee, Greek Historical Thought from Homer to the Age of Heraclius (London 1924) 169; J. Bradford, Ancient Landscapes in Europe and Asia: Studies in Archaeology and Photography (Oxford 1965); J. Bintliff, New approaches to human geography: prehistoric Greece, a case study, in F. Carter (Ed.), An Historical Geography of the Balkans (London 1986) 59-114.
102. Quoted in A. Toynbee, Greek Historical Thought from Homer to the Age of Heraclius (London 1924) 169; J. Bradford, Ancient Landscapes in Europe and Asia: Studies in Archaeology and Photography (Oxford 1965); J. Bintliff, New approaches to human geography: prehistoric Greece, a case study, in F. Carter (Ed.), An Historical Geography of the Balkans (London 1986) 59-114.
103. F. Osborn, The Limits of Earth (Boston 1953) 11-2; C. Wickam, European forests in the early middle ages: landscape and land clearance, in L'ambiente vegetale nell'alto medieovo: Setimane di studio del Centro italiano di studi sull'alto medioevo, Vol. 37 (1990) 533-5. For the Venetian exploitation of woodlands, see F. Lane, Venetian Ships and Shipbuilders (Baltimore 1934), 225-50 and R. Albion, Forests and Seapower: The Timber Problem of the Royal Navy, 1652-1862 (Cambridge, MA 1926) 183-4.
104. F. Osborn, The Limits of Earth (Boston 1953) 11-2; C. Wickam, European forests in the early middle ages: landscape and land clearance, in L'ambiente vegetale nell'alto medieovo: Setimane di studio del Centro italiano di studi sull'alto medioevo, Vol. 37 (1990) 533-5. For the Venetian exploitation of woodlands, see F. Lane, Venetian Ships and Shipbuilders (Baltimore 1934), 225-50 and R. Albion, Forests and Seapower: The Timber Problem of the Royal Navy, 1652-1862 (Cambridge, MA 1926) 183-4.
105. F. Osborn, The Limits of Earth (Boston 1953) 11-2; C. Wickam, European forests in the early middle ages: landscape and land clearance, in L'ambiente vegetale nell'alto medieovo: Setimane di studio del Centro italiano di studi sull'alto medioevo, Vol. 37 (1990) 533-5. For the Venetian exploitation of woodlands, see F. Lane, Venetian Ships and Shipbuilders (Baltimore 1934), 225-50 and R. Albion, Forests and Seapower: The Timber Problem of the Royal Navy, 1652-1862 (Cambridge, MA 1926) 183-4.
106. F. Osborn, The Limits of Earth (Boston 1953) 11-2; C. Wickam, European forests in the early middle ages: landscape and land clearance, in L'ambiente vegetale nell'alto medieovo: Setimane di studio del Centro italiano di studi sull'alto medioevo, Vol. 37 (1990) 533-5. For the Venetian exploitation of woodlands, see F. Lane, Venetian Ships and Shipbuilders (Baltimore 1934), 225-50 and R. Albion, Forests and Seapower: The Timber Problem of the Royal Navy, 1652-1862 (Cambridge, MA 1926) 183-4.
107. J. McNeill, The Mountains of the Mediterranean World (Cambridge 1992) esp. 272-350.
108. e siècle, in Agricultura e mondo rurale in Occidente nell'alto medioevo: setimane di studio del centro italiano di studi sull'alto medioevo, Vol. 13 (1966) 343-98, esp. 398.
109. Wickam, op. cit., 488-90.
110. The term 'cultural climate' is taken from L. White, Cultural climates and technological advance in the Middle Ages, Viator: Medieval and Renaissance Studies 2 (1971) 171-201.
111. C. Glacken, Traces on the Rhodian Shore: Nature and Culture in Western Thought since Ancient Times to the End of the Eighteenth Century (Berkeley 1967) 288-351, quotation on p. 351; L. White, Medieval Technology and Social Change (Oxford 1962) 56-7; White, Cultural climates, 199-200.
112. C. Glacken, Traces on the Rhodian Shore: Nature and Culture in Western Thought since Ancient Times to the End of the Eighteenth Century (Berkeley 1967) 288-351, quotation on p. 351; L. White, Medieval Technology and Social Change (Oxford 1962) 56-7; White, Cultural climates, 199-200.
113. C. Glacken, Traces on the Rhodian Shore: Nature and Culture in Western Thought since Ancient Times to the End of the Eighteenth Century (Berkeley 1967) 288-351, quotation on p. 351; L. White, Medieval Technology and Social Change (Oxford 1962) 56-7; White, Cultural climates, 199-200.
114. N. Pounds, Economic History of Medieval Europe (London 1974) 97.
115. J. Russell, Population in Europe, 36.
116. A. Lewis, The closing of the Medieval frontier, 1250-1350, Speculum 33 (1958) 475-83.
117. R. Koebner, The settlement and colonization of Europe, in J. Clapham and E. Power (Eds), The Cambridge Economic History of Europe: Vol. I - Agrarian Life in the Middle Ages (Cambridge 1941) 1-88; J. Thompson, An Economic and Social History of the Middle Ages (300-1300) (New York 1928); and Idem., Feudal Germany (Chicago 1928).
118. R. Koebner, The settlement and colonization of Europe, in J. Clapham and E. Power (Eds), The Cambridge Economic History of Europe: Vol. I - Agrarian Life in the Middle Ages (Cambridge 1941) 1-88; J. Thompson, An Economic and Social History of the Middle Ages (300-1300) (New York 1928); and Idem., Feudal Germany (Chicago 1928).
119. R. Koebner, The settlement and colonization of Europe, in J. Clapham and E. Power (Eds), The Cambridge Economic History of Europe: Vol. I - Agrarian Life in the Middle Ages (Cambridge 1941) 1-88; J. Thompson, An Economic and Social History of the Middle Ages (300-1300) (New York 1928); and Idem., Feudal Germany (Chicago 1928).
120. Boserup, op.cit.; G. Duby, The Early Growth of the European Economy: Warriors and Peasants from the Seventh to the Twelfth century (Ithaca 1974) 13.
121. Boserup, op.cit.; G. Duby, The Early Growth of the European Economy: Warriors and Peasants from the Seventh to the Twelfth century (Ithaca 1974) 13.
122. W. TeBrake, Medieval Frontier: Culture and Ecology in Rijnland (College Station, Texas 1985).
123. W. Cooter, Ecological dimensions of Medieval agrarian systems, Agricultural History 52 (1978) 458-77.
124. The following paragraphs are based on L. White, Medieval Technology and Social Change (Oxford 1962) 57-63; L. White, The expansion of technology, 500-1500, in Cipolla, op.cit., 149-53; C. Parain, Evolution of agricultural technique, in Clapham and Power, op.cit., 132-5; and G. Duby, Medieval agriculture, 900-1500, in Cipolla, op. cit., 175-220.
125. The following paragraphs are based on L. White, Medieval Technology and Social Change (Oxford 1962) 57-63; L. White, The expansion of technology, 500-1500, in Cipolla, op.cit., 149-53; C. Parain, Evolution of agricultural technique, in Clapham and Power, op.cit., 132-5; and G. Duby, Medieval agriculture, 900-1500, in Cipolla, op. cit., 175-220.
126. The following paragraphs are based on L. White, Medieval Technology and Social Change (Oxford 1962) 57-63; L. White, The expansion of technology, 500-1500, in Cipolla, op.cit., 149-53; C. Parain, Evolution of agricultural technique, in Clapham and Power, op.cit., 132-5; and G. Duby, Medieval agriculture, 900-1500, in Cipolla, op. cit., 175-220.
127. The following paragraphs are based on L. White, Medieval Technology and Social Change (Oxford 1962) 57-63; L. White, The expansion of technology, 500-1500, in Cipolla, op.cit., 149-53; C. Parain, Evolution of agricultural technique, in Clapham and Power, op.cit., 132-5; and G. Duby, Medieval agriculture, 900-1500, in Cipolla, op. cit., 175-220.
128. R. A. Donkin, The Cistercians: Studies in the Geography of Medieval England and Wales (Toronto 1978); H.-J. Nitz. The church as colonist: the Benedictine abbey of Lorsch and planned waldhufen colonization in the Oldenwald, Journal of Historical Geography 9 (1983) 105-23.
129. R. A. Donkin, The Cistercians: Studies in the Geography of Medieval England and Wales (Toronto 1978); H.-J. Nitz. The church as colonist: the Benedictine abbey of Lorsch and planned waldhufen colonization in the Oldenwald, Journal of Historical Geography 9 (1983) 105-23.
130. TeBrake, op.cit., 50.
131. Glacken, op.cit., 289, 313-4; Koebner, op.cit., 4-5; R. Bechmann, Trees and Men: The Forest in the Middle Ages (New York 1990) 295 et seq.
132. Glacken, op.cit., 289, 313-4; Koebner, op.cit., 4-5; R. Bechmann, Trees and Men: The Forest in the Middle Ages (New York 1990) 295 et seq.
133. Glacken, op.cit., 289, 313-4; Koebner, op.cit., 4-5; R. Bechmann, Trees and Men: The Forest in the Middle Ages (New York 1990) 295 et seq.
134. Duby, The Early Growth, 12-3.
135. See, inter alia, H. Aubin, Medieval society in its prime: the lands east of the Elbe, in Clapham and Power, op. cit., 361-97; Bechmann, op.cit.; M. Bloch, French Rural History: An Essay on its Basic Characteristics (Berkeley 1970) 5-20; Darby, op.cit., 182-216; M. Dèveze, 'Forêts français et fôrets allemandes: étude historique comparée', Revue Historique 479 (1966) 347-80, 47-68; G. Duby, Rural Economy and Country Life in the Medieval West (London 1962) 65-85, 141-56, and idem, Early Growth of the European Economy (London 1974) 199-213; Glacken, op.cit., 288-351; Koebner, op cit., 1-88; O. Schlüter, Die Siedlungsräume Mittleuropas in frühgeschichtlicher Zeit: Part I - Forschungen zur Deutschen Landeskunde, Vol. 61 (Hamburg 1952); Thompson, Economic and Social History, 517-39, 603-46, 756-8; and Idem., Feudal Germany, 451-670.
136. See, inter alia, H. Aubin, Medieval society in its prime: the lands east of the Elbe, in Clapham and Power, op. cit., 361-97; Bechmann, op.cit.; M. Bloch, French Rural History: An Essay on its Basic Characteristics (Berkeley 1970) 5-20; Darby, op.cit., 182-216; M. Dèveze, 'Forêts français et fôrets allemandes: étude historique comparée', Revue Historique 479 (1966) 347-80, 47-68; G. Duby, Rural Economy and Country Life in the Medieval West (London 1962) 65-85, 141-56, and idem, Early Growth of the European Economy (London 1974) 199-213; Glacken, op.cit., 288-351; Koebner, op cit., 1-88; O. Schlüter, Die Siedlungsräume Mittleuropas in frühgeschichtlicher Zeit: Part I - Forschungen zur Deutschen Landeskunde, Vol. 61 (Hamburg 1952); Thompson, Economic and Social History, 517-39, 603-46, 756-8; and Idem., Feudal Germany, 451-670.
137. See, inter alia, H. Aubin, Medieval society in its prime: the lands east of the Elbe, in Clapham and Power, op. cit., 361-97; Bechmann, op.cit.; M. Bloch, French Rural History: An Essay on its Basic Characteristics (Berkeley 1970) 5-20; Darby, op.cit., 182-216; M. Dèveze, 'Forêts français et fôrets allemandes: étude historique comparée', Revue Historique 479 (1966) 347-80, 47-68; G. Duby, Rural Economy and Country Life in the Medieval West (London 1962) 65-85, 141-56, and idem, Early Growth of the European Economy (London 1974) 199-213; Glacken, op.cit., 288-351; Koebner, op cit., 1-88; O. Schlüter, Die Siedlungsräume Mittleuropas in frühgeschichtlicher Zeit: Part I - Forschungen zur Deutschen Landeskunde, Vol. 61 (Hamburg 1952); Thompson, Economic and Social History, 517-39, 603-46, 756-8; and Idem., Feudal Germany, 451-670.
138. See, inter alia, H. Aubin, Medieval society in its prime: the lands east of the Elbe, in Clapham and Power, op. cit., 361-97; Bechmann, op.cit.; M. Bloch, French Rural History: An Essay on its Basic Characteristics (Berkeley 1970) 5-20; Darby, op.cit., 182-216; M. Dèveze, 'Forêts français et fôrets allemandes: étude historique comparée', Revue Historique 479 (1966) 347-80, 47-68; G. Duby, Rural Economy and Country Life in the Medieval West (London 1962) 65-85, 141-56, and idem, Early Growth of the European Economy (London 1974) 199-213; Glacken, op.cit., 288-351; Koebner, op cit., 1-88; O. Schlüter, Die Siedlungsräume Mittleuropas in frühgeschichtlicher Zeit: Part I - Forschungen zur Deutschen Landeskunde, Vol. 61 (Hamburg 1952); Thompson, Economic and Social History, 517-39, 603-46, 756-8; and Idem., Feudal Germany, 451-670.
139. See, inter alia, H. Aubin, Medieval society in its prime: the lands east of the Elbe, in Clapham and Power, op. cit., 361-97; Bechmann, op.cit.; M. Bloch, French Rural History: An Essay on its Basic Characteristics (Berkeley 1970) 5-20; Darby, op.cit., 182-216; M. Dèveze, 'Forêts français et fôrets allemandes: étude historique comparée', Revue Historique 479 (1966) 347-80, 47-68; G. Duby, Rural Economy and Country Life in the Medieval West (London 1962) 65-85, 141-56, and idem, Early Growth of the European Economy (London 1974) 199-213; Glacken, op.cit., 288-351; Koebner, op cit., 1-88; O. Schlüter, Die Siedlungsräume Mittleuropas in frühgeschichtlicher Zeit: Part I - Forschungen zur Deutschen Landeskunde, Vol. 61 (Hamburg 1952); Thompson, Economic and Social History, 517-39, 603-46, 756-8; and Idem., Feudal Germany, 451-670.
140. See, inter alia, H. Aubin, Medieval society in its prime: the lands east of the Elbe, in Clapham and Power, op. cit., 361-97; Bechmann, op.cit.; M. Bloch, French Rural History: An Essay on its Basic Characteristics (Berkeley 1970) 5-20; Darby, op.cit., 182-216; M. Dèveze, 'Forêts français et fôrets allemandes: étude historique comparée', Revue Historique 479 (1966) 347-80, 47-68; G. Duby, Rural Economy and Country Life in the Medieval West (London 1962) 65-85, 141-56, and idem, Early Growth of the European Economy (London 1974) 199-213; Glacken, op.cit., 288-351; Koebner, op cit., 1-88; O. Schlüter, Die Siedlungsräume Mittleuropas in frühgeschichtlicher Zeit: Part I - Forschungen zur Deutschen Landeskunde, Vol. 61 (Hamburg 1952); Thompson, Economic and Social History, 517-39, 603-46, 756-8; and Idem., Feudal Germany, 451-670.
141. See, inter alia, H. Aubin, Medieval society in its prime: the lands east of the Elbe, in Clapham and Power, op. cit., 361-97; Bechmann, op.cit.; M. Bloch, French Rural History: An Essay on its Basic Characteristics (Berkeley 1970) 5-20; Darby, op.cit., 182-216; M. Dèveze, 'Forêts français et fôrets allemandes: étude historique comparée', Revue Historique 479 (1966) 347-80, 47-68; G. Duby, Rural Economy and Country Life in the Medieval West (London 1962) 65-85, 141-56, and idem, Early Growth of the European Economy (London 1974) 199-213; Glacken, op.cit., 288-351; Koebner, op cit., 1-88; O. Schlüter, Die Siedlungsräume Mittleuropas in frühgeschichtlicher Zeit: Part I - Forschungen zur Deutschen Landeskunde, Vol. 61 (Hamburg 1952); Thompson, Economic and Social History, 517-39, 603-46, 756-8; and Idem., Feudal Germany, 451-670.
142. See, inter alia, H. Aubin, Medieval society in its prime: the lands east of the Elbe, in Clapham and Power, op. cit., 361-97; Bechmann, op.cit.; M. Bloch, French Rural History: An Essay on its Basic Characteristics (Berkeley 1970) 5-20; Darby, op.cit., 182-216; M. Dèveze, 'Forêts français et fôrets allemandes: étude historique comparée', Revue Historique 479 (1966) 347-80, 47-68; G. Duby, Rural Economy and Country Life in the Medieval West (London 1962) 65-85, 141-56, and idem, Early Growth of the European Economy (London 1974) 199-213; Glacken, op.cit., 288-351; Koebner, op cit., 1-88; O. Schlüter, Die Siedlungsräume Mittleuropas in frühgeschichtlicher Zeit: Part I - Forschungen zur Deutschen Landeskunde, Vol. 61 (Hamburg 1952); Thompson, Economic and Social History, 517-39, 603-46, 756-8; and Idem., Feudal Germany, 451-670.
143. See, inter alia, H. Aubin, Medieval society in its prime: the lands east of the Elbe, in Clapham and Power, op. cit., 361-97; Bechmann, op.cit.; M. Bloch, French Rural History: An Essay on its Basic Characteristics (Berkeley 1970) 5-20; Darby, op.cit., 182-216; M. Dèveze, 'Forêts français et fôrets allemandes: étude historique comparée', Revue Historique 479 (1966) 347-80, 47-68; G. Duby, Rural Economy and Country Life in the Medieval West (London 1962) 65-85, 141-56, and idem, Early Growth of the European Economy (London 1974) 199-213; Glacken, op.cit., 288-351; Koebner, op cit., 1-88; O. Schlüter, Die Siedlungsräume Mittleuropas in frühgeschichtlicher Zeit: Part I - Forschungen zur Deutschen Landeskunde, Vol. 61 (Hamburg 1952); Thompson, Economic and Social History, 517-39, 603-46, 756-8; and Idem., Feudal Germany, 451-670.
144. See, inter alia, H. Aubin, Medieval society in its prime: the lands east of the Elbe, in Clapham and Power, op. cit., 361-97; Bechmann, op.cit.; M. Bloch, French Rural History: An Essay on its Basic Characteristics (Berkeley 1970) 5-20; Darby, op.cit., 182-216; M. Dèveze, 'Forêts français et fôrets allemandes: étude historique comparée', Revue Historique 479 (1966) 347-80, 47-68; G. Duby, Rural Economy and Country Life in the Medieval West (London 1962) 65-85, 141-56, and idem, Early Growth of the European Economy (London 1974) 199-213; Glacken, op.cit., 288-351; Koebner, op cit., 1-88; O. Schlüter, Die Siedlungsräume Mittleuropas in frühgeschichtlicher Zeit: Part I - Forschungen zur Deutschen Landeskunde, Vol. 61 (Hamburg 1952); Thompson, Economic and Social History, 517-39, 603-46, 756-8; and Idem., Feudal Germany, 451-670.
145. See, inter alia, H. Aubin, Medieval society in its prime: the lands east of the Elbe, in Clapham and Power, op. cit., 361-97; Bechmann, op.cit.; M. Bloch, French Rural History: An Essay on its Basic Characteristics (Berkeley 1970) 5-20; Darby, op.cit., 182-216; M. Dèveze, 'Forêts français et fôrets allemandes: étude historique comparée', Revue Historique 479 (1966) 347-80, 47-68; G. Duby, Rural Economy and Country Life in the Medieval West (London 1962) 65-85, 141-56, and idem, Early Growth of the European Economy (London 1974) 199-213; Glacken, op.cit., 288-351; Koebner, op cit., 1-88; O. Schlüter, Die Siedlungsräume Mittleuropas in frühgeschichtlicher Zeit: Part I - Forschungen zur Deutschen Landeskunde, Vol. 61 (Hamburg 1952); Thompson, Economic and Social History, 517-39, 603-46, 756-8; and Idem., Feudal Germany, 451-670.
146. See, inter alia, H. Aubin, Medieval society in its prime: the lands east of the Elbe, in Clapham and Power, op. cit., 361-97; Bechmann, op.cit.; M. Bloch, French Rural History: An Essay on its Basic Characteristics (Berkeley 1970) 5-20; Darby, op.cit., 182-216; M. Dèveze, 'Forêts français et fôrets allemandes: étude historique comparée', Revue Historique 479 (1966) 347-80, 47-68; G. Duby, Rural Economy and Country Life in the Medieval West (London 1962) 65-85, 141-56, and idem, Early Growth of the European Economy (London 1974) 199-213; Glacken, op.cit., 288-351; Koebner, op cit., 1-88; O. Schlüter, Die Siedlungsräume Mittleuropas in frühgeschichtlicher Zeit: Part I - Forschungen zur Deutschen Landeskunde, Vol. 61 (Hamburg 1952); Thompson, Economic and Social History, 517-39, 603-46, 756-8; and Idem., Feudal Germany, 451-670.
147. Schlüter, op.cit. It should be emphasized that Figures 3 and 4 show the reconstruction of forest as physical land cover based on botanical, soil, pollen, documentary and place name evidence. They are not directly comparable to Figure 2 which is a reconstruction of the forest as a legal entity.
148. For examples in England, see C. Young, The Royal Forests of Medieval England (Pennsylvania 1979); J. Birrell, Common rights in the Medieval forest, Past and Present 117 (1987) 22-49. For a general overview of English forests see, inter alia, O. Rackham, Trees and Woodland in the British Landscape (London 1976); idem, The History of the Countryside (London 1986) 62-154.
149. For examples in England, see C. Young, The Royal Forests of Medieval England (Pennsylvania 1979); J. Birrell, Common rights in the Medieval forest, Past and Present 117 (1987) 22-49. For a general overview of English forests see, inter alia, O. Rackham, Trees and Woodland in the British Landscape (London 1976); idem, The History of the Countryside (London 1986) 62-154.
150. For examples in England, see C. Young, The Royal Forests of Medieval England (Pennsylvania 1979); J. Birrell, Common rights in the Medieval forest, Past and Present 117 (1987) 22-49. For a general overview of English forests see, inter alia, O. Rackham, Trees and Woodland in the British Landscape (London 1976); idem, The History of the Countryside (London 1986) 62-154.
151. For examples in England, see C. Young, The Royal Forests of Medieval England (Pennsylvania 1979); J. Birrell, Common rights in the Medieval forest, Past and Present 117 (1987) 22-49. For a general overview of English forests see, inter alia, O. Rackham, Trees and Woodland in the British Landscape (London 1976); idem, The History of the Countryside (London 1986) 62-154.
152. White, Medieval Technology and Social Change, 77-8.
153. White, The expansion of technology, 143.
154. Mencius, Mencius (Harmondsworth) 164-5
155. R. Murphey, Deforestation in modern China, in R. Tucker and J. Richards (Eds), Global Deforestation and the Nineteenth Century World Economy (Durham, NC 1983) 111-28, quotation on p. 111; S. Adshead, Timber as a factor in Chinese history: problems, sources, and hypotheses, Proceedings of the First International Symposium on Asian Studies: Vol. I (China) (Hong Kong 1979) 1-6.
156. R. Murphey, Deforestation in modern China, in R. Tucker and J. Richards (Eds), Global Deforestation and the Nineteenth Century World Economy (Durham, NC 1983) 111-28, quotation on p. 111; S. Adshead, Timber as a factor in Chinese history: problems, sources, and hypotheses, Proceedings of the First International Symposium on Asian Studies: Vol. I (China) (Hong Kong 1979) 1-6.
157. F. Bray, Agriculture, in J. Needham (Ed.), Science and Civilization in China: Vol. 6 - Biology and Biological Technology (Part II - Agriculture) (Cambridge 1984) 91.
158. N. Menzies, Forest and Land Management in Imperial China (New York 1994).
159. R. Hartwell, A Revolution in the Chinese iron and coal industries during the Northern Sung, 960-1126 AD, Journal of Asian Studies 21 (1961) 153-62; Idem., A cycle of economic change in Imperial China: coal and iron in northeast China, 750-1350, Journal of Economic and Social History of the Orient 10 (1967) 102-59; idem, Markets, technology, and the structure of enterprise in the development of the eleventh-century Chinese iron industry, Journal of Economic History 26 (1966) 29-58.
160. R. Hartwell, A Revolution in the Chinese iron and coal industries during the Northern Sung, 960-1126 AD, Journal of Asian Studies 21 (1961) 153-62; Idem., A cycle of economic change in Imperial China: coal and iron in northeast China, 750-1350, Journal of Economic and Social History of the Orient 10 (1967) 102-59; idem, Markets, technology, and the structure of enterprise in the development of the eleventh-century Chinese iron industry, Journal of Economic History 26 (1966) 29-58.
161. R. Hartwell, A Revolution in the Chinese iron and coal industries during the Northern Sung, 960-1126 AD, Journal of Asian Studies 21 (1961) 153-62; Idem., A cycle of economic change in Imperial China: coal and iron in northeast China, 750-1350, Journal of Economic and Social History of the Orient 10 (1967) 102-59; idem, Markets, technology, and the structure of enterprise in the development of the eleventh-century Chinese iron industry, Journal of Economic History 26 (1966) 29-58.
162. P. Perdue, Exhausting the Earth: State and Peasant in Hunan, 1500-1850 (Cambridge, MA 1987) 41-58; E. Rawski, Agricultural development in the Han river highlands, Ch'ing-shih wen-t'-i 3 (1975) 63-81.
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