Slow transit constipation: A model of human gut dysmotility. Review of possible aetiologies

Neurogastroenterology and Motility

Volumn 12, Issue 2, 2000, Pages 181-196

  Knowles, C H ^a   Martin, J E ^a,b  

^a ST BARTHOLOMEW S HOSPITAL   (United Kingdom)

^b ROYAL LONDON HOSPITAL   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Aetiology; Enteric nervous system; Intestinal motility; Slow transit constipation; Smooth muscle

Indexed keywords

LAXATIVE; NEUROTRANSMITTER;

ARTICLE; COLON MOTILITY; CONSTIPATION; HUMAN; IMMUNOHISTOCHEMISTRY; INTESTINE CONTRACTION; INTESTINE FUNCTION DISORDER; INTESTINE INNERVATION; INTESTINE MOTILITY; INTESTINE MUSCLE; INTESTINE TRANSIT TIME; PRIORITY JOURNAL; SILVER STAINING;

ADULT; AUTOIMMUNE DISEASES; CATHARTICS; CELL LINEAGE; CELL SIZE; COLON; CONSTIPATION; ENTERIC NERVOUS SYSTEM; FEMALE; GASTROINTESTINAL MOTILITY; GONADAL STEROID HORMONES; HUMANS; INFECTION; INTESTINAL ABSORPTION; INTESTINE, SMALL; MODELS, BIOLOGICAL; MUSCLE CONTRACTION; MUSCLE, SMOOTH; NEURAL CREST; NEURONS; NEUROPEPTIDES; OPIOID PEPTIDES; PARASYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM; STAINING AND LABELING; VAGUS NERVE;

EID: 0034073327     PISSN: 13501925     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2982.2000.00198.x     Document Type: Article

References (190)

1. 1 Whitehead WE, Chaussade S, Corazziari E, Kumar D. Report of an international workshop on management of constipation. Gastroenterol Int 1991; 4: 99-113.
2. 2 Sonnenberg A, Koch TR. Epidemiology of constipation in the United States. Dis Colon Rectum 1989; 32: 1-8.
3. 3 Camilleri M, Thompson WG, Fleshman JW, Pemberton JH. Clinical management of intractable constipation. Ann Intern Med 1994; 121: 520-8.
4. 4 Hinton JM, Lennard-Jones JE, Young AC. A new method for studying gut transit times using radioopaque markers. Br J Surg 1969; 10: 842-7.
5. 111In] DTPA scintigraphic assessment of colonic transit in constipated subjects. Dig Dis Sci 1993; 8: 1032-9.
6. 6 de Graaf EJ, Gilberts EC, Schouten WR. Role of segmental colonic transit time studies to select patients with slow transit constipation for partial left-sided or subtotal colectomy. Br J Surg 1996; 83: 648-51.
7. 7 Nyam DC, Pemberton JH, Ilstrup DM, Rath DM. Long-term results of surgery for chronic constipation. Dis Colon Rectum 1997; 40: 273-9.
8. 8 Preston DM, Hawley PR, Lennard-Jones JE, Todd IP. Results of colectomy for severe idiopathic constipation in women (Arbuthnot Lane's Disease). Br J Surg 1984; 71: 547-52.
9. 9 Preston DM, Lennard-Jones JE. Severe chronic constipation of young women: 'Idiopathic slow transit constipation'. Br J Surg 1986; 27: 41-8.
10. 10 Waldron D, Bowes KL, Kingma YJ, Cote KR. Colonic and anorectal motility in young women with severe idiopathic constipation. Gastroenterology 1988; 95: 1388-94.
11. 11 Roe AM, Bartolo DCC, Mortenson NJ, McC. Slow transit constipation. Comparision between patients with or without previous hysterectomy. Dig Dis Sci 1988; 3: 1159-63.
12. 12 MacDonald A, Baxter JN, Bessent RG, Gray HW, Finlay IG. Gastric emptying in patients with constipation following childbirth and due to idiopathic slow transit. Br J Surg 1997; 84: 1141-3.
13. 13 MacDonald A, Baxter JN, Finlay IG. Idiopathic slow-transit constipation. Br J Surg 1993; 80: 1107-11.
14. 14 Vierhout ME, Schreuder HW, Veen HF. Severe slow-transit constipation following radical hysterectomy. Gynecol Oncol 1993; 51: 401-3.
15. 15 Bassotti G, Chiarioni G, Imbimbo BP et al. Impaired colonic motor response to cholinergic stimulation in patients with severe chronic idiopathic (slow transit type) constipation. Dig Dis Sci 1993; 38: 1040-5.
16. 16 Bassotti G, Chiarioni G, Vantini I, Fusaro C, Pelli MA, Morelli A. Anorectal manometric abnormalities and colonic propulsive impairment in patients with severe chronic idiopathic constipation. Dig Dis Sci 1994; 39: 1558-64.
17. 17 Bassotti G, Chiarioni G, Vantini I, Morelli A, Whitehead WE. Effect of different doses of erythromycin on colonic motility in patients with slow transit constipation. Z Gastroenterol 1998; 36: 209-13.
18. 18 Kamm MA, Lennard-Jones JE, Thompson DG, Sobnack R, Garvie NW, Granowska M. Dynamic scanning defines a colonic defect in severe idiopathic constipation. Gut 1988; 29: 1085-92.
19. 19 Bassotti G, Germani U, Fiorelli S, Roselli P, Brunori P, Whitehead WE. Intact colonic motor response to sudden awakening from sleep in patients with chronic idiopathic (slow-transit) constipation. Dis Colon Rectum 1999; 41: 1550-6.
20. 20 Kamm MA, Lennard-Jones JE. Rectal mucosal electrosensory testing-evidence for a rectal sensory neuropathy in idiopathic constipation. Dis Colon Rectum 1990; 33: 419-23.
21. 21 Miller R, Duthie GS, Bartolo DCC, Roe AM, Locke-Edmunds J, Mortenson NJ, McC. Anismus in patients with normal and slow transit constipation. Br J Surg 1991; 78: 690-2.
22. 22 Ferrara A, Pemberton JH, Grotz RL, Hanson RB. Prolonged ambulatory recording of anorectal motility in patients with slow-transit constipation. Am J Surg 1994; 167: 73-9.
23. 23 Preston DM, Lennard-Jones JE. Pelvic motility and response to intraluminal bisacodyl in slow-transit constipation. Dig Dis Sci 1985; 30: 289-94.
24. 24 Reynolds JC, Ouyang A, Lee CA, Baker L, Sunshine AG, Cohen S. Chronic severe constipation. Prospective motility studies in 25 consecutive patients. Gastroenterology 1987; 92: 414-20.
25. 25 Kamm MA, van Der Sijp JRM, Lennard-Jones JE. Observations on the characteristics of stimulated defaecation in severe idiopathic constipation. Int J Colorect Dis 1992; 7: 197-201.
26. 26 Hoyle CHV, Kamm MA, Lennard-Jones JE, Burnstock G. An in vitro electrophysiological study of the colon from patients with idiopathic chronic constipation. Clin Anton Res 1992; 2: 327-33.
27. 27 Slater BJ, Varma JS, Gillespie JI. Abnormalities in the contractile properties of colonic smooth muscle in idiopathic slow transit constipation. Br J Surg 1997; 84: 181-4.
28. 28 Burleigh DE. Evidence for a functional cholinergic deficit in human tissue resected for constipation. J Pharm Pharmacol 1988; 40: 55-7.
29. 29 Mitolo-Chieppa D, Mansi G, Rinaldi R et al. Cholinergic stimulation and nonadrenergic, noncholinergic relaxation of human colonic circular muscle in idiopathic chronic constipation. Dig Dis Sci 1998; 43: 2719-26.
30. 30 Redmond JM, Smith GW, Barofsky I, Ratych RE, Goldsborough DC, Schuster MM. Physiological tests to predict long-term outcome of total abdominal colectomy for intractable constipation. Am J Gastroenterol 1995; 90: 748-53.
31. 31 van der Sijp JR, Kamm MA, Nightingale JM et al. Disturbed gastric and small bowel transit in severe idiopathic constipation. Dig Dis Sci 1993; 38: 837-44.
32. 32 Bassotti G, Stanghellini V, Chiarioni G et al. Upper gastrointestinal motor activity in patients with slow-transit constipation. Further evidence for an enteric neuropathy. Dig Dis Sci 1996; 4: 1999-2005.
33. 33 Panagamuwa B, Kumar D, Ortiz J, Keighley MRB. Motor abnormalities in the terminal ileum of patients with chronic idiopathic constipation. Br J Surg 1994; 81: 1685-8.
34. 34 Hemingway D, Neilly JB, Finlay IG. Biliary dyskinesia in idiopathic slow-transit constipation. Dis Colon Rectum 1996; 39: 1303-7.
35. 35 Watier A, Devroede G, Duranceau A et al. Constipation with colonic inertia. A manifestation of systemic disease? Dig Dis Sci 1983; 28: 1025-33.
36. 36 Knowles CH, Scott SM, Wellmer AC, Pilot M-A, Williams NS, Anand P. Sensory and autonomic neuropathy in patients with idiopathic slow transit constipation. Br J Surg 1999; 86: 54-60.
37. 37 Bharucha AE, Camilleri M, Lynn Caron B, Low PA. Autonomic dysfunction in gastrointestinal motility disorders. Gut 1993; 34: 397-401.
38. 38 Hughes ES, McDermott FT, Johnson WR, Poglase AC. Surgery for constipation. Aust N Z J Surg 1981; 51: 144-8.
39. 39 Walsh PV, Peebles-Brown DA, Watkinson G. Colectomy for slow transit constipation. Ann R Coll Surg Engl 1987; 69: 71-5.
40. 40 Ghosh S, Papachrysostomou M, Batool M, Eastwood MA. Long-term results of sub-total colectomy and evidence of noncolonic involvement in patients with idiopathic slow-transit constipation. Scand J Gastroenterol 1996; 31: 1083-91.
41. 41 Kamm MA, Hawley PR, Lennard-Jones JE. Outcome of colectomy for severe idiopathic constipation. Gut 1988; 29: 969-73.
42. 42 Pluta H, Bowes KL, Jewell LD. Long-term results of total abdominal colectomy for chronic idiopathic constipation. Value of preoperative assessment. Dis Colon Rectum 1996; 39: 160-6.
43. 43 Smith B. Myenteric plexus in Hirschsprung's disease. Gut 1967; 8: 308.
44. 44 Dyer NH, Dawson AM, Smith BF, Todd IP. Obstruction of the bowel due to a lesion in the myenteric plexus. BMJ 1969; I: 686-9.
45. 45 Smith B, Grace RH, Todd IP. Organic constipation in adults. Br J Surg 1977; 64: 313-4.
46. 46 Sninksy CA, Davis RH, Clench MH et al. Severe idiopathic intestinal constipation: comparison of histology and gastrointestinal tracing in human subjects (Abstract). Gastroenterology 1984; 86: 1259.
47. 47 Yoshioka K, Keighley MRB. Clinical results of colectomy for severe constipation. Br J Surg 1989; 76: 600-4.
48. 48 Krishmanurthy S, Schuffler MD, Rohrmann CA, Pope CEII. Severe idiopathic constipation is associated with a distinctive abnormality of the colonic myenteric plexus. Gastroenterology 1985; 88: 26-34.
49. 49 Preston DM, Butler P, Smith B, Lennard-Jones JE. The neuropathology of slow-transit constipation. (Abstract). Gut 1984; 24: A997.
50. 50 Zenilman ME, Dunnegan DL, Soper NJ, Becker JM. Successful surgical treatment of idiopathic colonic dysmotility. The role of preoperative evaluation of coloanal motor function. Arch Surg 1989; 124: 947-51.
51. 51 Pemberton JH, Rath DM, Ilstrup DM. Evaluation and surgical treatment of severe chronic constipation. Ann Surg 1991; 214: 403-11.
52. 52 Schouten WR, ten Kate FJ, de Graaf EJ, Gilberts EC, Simons JL. Visceral neuropathy in slow transit constipation: an immunohistochemical investigation with monoclonal antibodies against neurofilament. Dis Colon Rectum 1993; 36: 1112-7.
53. 53 Benson MJ, Kumar D, Roberts J et al. Colonic neural and smooth muscle abnormalities in slow transit constipation (STC) (Abstract). Gastroenterology 1992; 102: A424.
54. 54 Park HJ, Kamm MA, Abbasi M, Talbot IC. Immunohistochemical study of the colonic muscle and innervation in idiopathic chronic constipation. Dis Colon Rectum 1995; 38: 509-13.
55. 55 Porter AJ, Wattchow DA, Hunter A, Costa M. Abnormalities of nerve fibres in the circular muscle of patients with slow transit constipation. Int J Colorect Dis 1998; 13: 208-16.
56. 56 Romanska HM, Bishop AE, Lee JC, Walsh FS, Spitz L, Polak JM. Idiopathic constipation is not associated with increased NCAM expression on intestinal muscle. Dig Dis Sci 1996; 41: 1298-302.
57. 57 Koch TR, Carney JA, Go L, Go VL. Idiopathic chronic constipation is associated with decreased colonic VIP. Gastroenterology 1988; 94: 300-10.
58. 58 Milner P, Crowe R, Kamm MA, Lennard-Jones JE, Bumstock G. VIP levels in sigmoid colon in idiopathic constipation and diverticular disease. Gastroenterology 1990; 99: 666-75.
59. 59 Cortesini C, Cianchi F, Infantino A, Lise M. Nitric oxide synthase and VIP distribution in enteric nervous system in idiopathic constipation. Dig Dis Sci 1995; 40: 2450-5.
60. 60 Tzavella K, Riepl RL, Klauser AG, Voderholzer WA, Schindlbeck NE, Muller-Lissner SA. Decreased substance P levels in rectal biopsies from patients with slow transit constipation. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 1996; 8: 1207-11.
61. 61 Dolk A, Broden G, Holmstrom B, Johansson C, Schultz-berg M. Slow transit constipation (Arbuthnot Lane's disease). An immunohistochemical study of neuropeptide-containing nerves in resected specimens from the large bowel. Int J Colorectal Dis 1990; 5: 181-7.
62. 62 Sjolund K, Fasth S, Ekman R et al. Neuropeptides in idiopathic chronic constipation (slow transit constipation). Neurogastroenterol Motil 1997; 9: 143-50.
63. 63 Goldin E, Karmeli F, Selinger Z, Rachmilewitz D. Colonic SP levels are increased in ulcerative colitis and decreased in chronic severe constipation. Dig Dis Sci 1989; 34: 754-7.
64. 64 Grider JR, Foxx-Orenstein AE, Jin J-G. 5-hydroxytryptamine-4 receptor agonists initiate the peristaltic reflex in human, rat and guinea pig intestine. Gastroenterology 1998; 115: 370-80.
65. 65 Lincoln J, Crowe R, Kamm MA, Burnstock G, Lennard-Jones JE. Serotonin and 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid are increased in the sigmoid colon in severe idiopathic constipation. Gastroenterology 1990; 98: 1219-25.
66. 66 Smith B. The effect of irritant purgatives on the myenteric plexus in man and the mouse. Gut 1968; 9: 139-43.
67. 67 Smith B. Pathological changes in the colon produced by anthraquinone purgatives. Dis Colon Rectum 1973; 16: 455-8.
68. 68 Reimann JF, Schmidt H, Zimmermann W. The fine structure of colonic submucosal nerves in patients with chronic laxative abuse. Scand J Gastroenterol 1980; 15: 761-8.
69. 69 Milner P, Belai A, Tomlinson A, Hoyle CH, Sarner S, Burnstock G. Effects of long-term laxative treatment on neuropeptides in rat mesenteric vessels and caecum. J Pharm Pharmacol 1992; 44: 777-9.
70. 70 Tzavella K, Schenkirsch G, Riepl RL, Odenthal KP, Leng-Peschlow E, Muller-Lissner SA. Effects of long-term treatment with anthranoids and sodium picosulphate on the contents of VIP, somatostatin and substance P in the rat colon. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 1995; 7: 13-20.
71. 71 Gomes OA, Desouza RR, Liberti EA. A preliminary investigation of the effects of aging on the nerve cell number in the myenteric ganglia of the human colon. Gerontology 1997; 43: 210-7.
72. 72 Chapple CR, Milner P, Burnstock G. Loss of sensory neuropeptides in the obstructed human bladder. Br J Urol 1992; 70: 373-81.
73. 73 Schuffler MD, Jonak Z. Chronic idiopathic intestinal pseudoobstruction caused by a degenerative disorder of the myenteric plexus: the use of Smith's method to define the neuropathology. Gastroenterology 1982; 82: 476-86.
74. 74 Porter AJ, Wattchow DA, Brookes SJH, Costa M. The neurochemical coding and projections of circular muscle motor neurons in the human colon. Gastroenterology 1997; 113: 1916-23.
75. 75 Wattchow DA, Porter AJ, Brookes SJH, Costa M. The polarity of neurochemically defined myenteric neurons in the human colon. Gastroenterology 1997; 113: 497-506.
76. 76 De Groat WC, Krier J. The central control of the lumbar sympathetic pathway to the large intestine of the cat. J Physiol (Lond) 1979; 289: 449-68.
77. 77 Brugére HB, Ferré J-P, Ruckebusch Y. Colonic motility and transit after intermesenteric nerve transection and mesenteric ganglionectomy in dogs. J Gastrointest Mot 1991; 3: 107-16.
78. 78 Dapoigny M, Cowles VE, Zhu Y-R, Condon RE. Vagal influence on colonic motor activity in conscious non-human primates. Am J Physiol 1992; 262 (Suppl. 25): G231-G236.
79. 79 Esser MJ, Cowles VE, Robinson JC, Schulte WJ, Gleysteen JJ, Condon RE. Effects of vagal cryo-interruption on colon contractions in monkeys. Surgery 1989; 106: 139-46.
80. 80 Collman PI, Grundy D, Scratchard T. Vagal control of colonic motility in the anaesthetized ferret: evidence for a non-cholinergic excitatory innervation. J Physiol (Lond) 1984; 348: 35-42.
81. 81 Hines JR, Geurkink RE, Kornmesser TA, Wikholm L, Davis RP. Vagotomy and double pyloroplasty for peptic ulcer. Ann Surg 1975; 181: 40-5.
82. 82 Christensen J, Stiles MJ, Rick GA, Sutherland J. Comparative anatomy of the myenteric plexus of the distal colon in eight mammals. Gastroenterology 1984; 86: 706-13.
83. 83 Christensen J, Rick GA. Nerve cell density on the sub-mucous plexus throughout the gut of the cat and opossum. Gastroenterology 1985; 89: 1064-9.
84. 84 Fukai K, Fukuda H. The intramural pelvic nerves in the colon of dogs. J Physiol (Lond) 1984; 354: 89-98.
85. 85 Christensen J. Gross and microscopic anatomy of the large intestine. In: Phillips SF, Pemberton JH, Shorter RG, eds. The Large intestine: Physiology, Pathophysiology, and Disease New York: Raven Press, 1991: 13-35.
86. 86 Christensen J, Rick GA. Distribution of myelinated nerves in ascending nerves and myenteric plexus of the cat. Am J Anat 1987; 178: 250-8.
87. 87 Scott SM, Pilot M-A, Barnett TG, Williams NS. Prolonged ambulatory canine colonic motility. Am J Physiol 1995; 268: G650-G662.
88. 88 Matsushima Y. Studies on colonic motor correlates of spontaneous defecation in conscious dogs. Nippon Heikatsukin Gakkai Zasshi 1989; 25: 137-46.
89. 89 Narducci F, Bassotti G, Gaburri M, Morelli A. Twenty four hour manometric recording of colonic motor activity in healthy man. Gut 1987; 28: 17-25.
90. 90 Bassotti G, Gaburri M, Imbimbo BP, Rossi L, Farroni F, Pelli MA, Morelli A. Colonic mass movements in idiopathic chronic constipation. Gut 1988; 29: 1173-9.
91. 91 Ishikawa M, Mibu R, Iwamoto T, Knomi H, Oohata Y, Tanaka M. Change in colonic motility after extrinsic autonomic denervation in dogs. Dig Dis Sci 1997; 42: 1950-6.
92. 92 Devroede G, Arhan P, Duguay C, Tetreault L, Akoury H, Perey B. Traumatic constipation. Gastroenterology 1979; 77: 1258-67.
93. 93 Smith AN, Varma JS, Binnie NR. Disordered colorectal motility in intractable constipation following hysterectomy. Br J Surg 1990; 77: 1361-5.
94. 94 De Groat WC, Kawatani M. Reorganisation of sympathetic preganglionic connections in cat bladder ganglia following parasympathetic denervation. J Physiol (Lond) 1989; 409: 431.
95. 95 Klauser AG, Voderholzer WA, Heinrich CA, Schindlbeck NE, Muller-Lissner SA. Behavioural modification of colonic function. Can constipation be learned? Dig Dis Sci 1990; 35: 1271-5.
96. 96 Tjeerdsma HC, Smout AJ, Akkermans LM. Voluntary suppression of defecation delays gastric emptying. Dig Dis Sci 1993; 38: 832-6.
97. 97 Youle MS, Read NW. Effect of painless rectal distension on gastrointestinal transit of solid meal. Dig Dis Sci 1984; 29: 902-6.
98. 98 Pearcy JF, van Liere EJ. Studies on the visceral nervous system. XVII. Reflexes from the colon. I. Reflexes to the stomach. Am J Physiol 1926; 78: 64-73.
99. 99 Kreulen DL, Szurszewski JH. Reflex pathways in the abdominal prevertebral ganglia: evidence for a colocolonic inhibitory reflex. J Physiol 1979; 295: 21-32.
100. 100 Smith VV, Milla PJ. Histological phenotypes of enteric smooth muscle disease causing functional intestinal obstruction in childhood. Histopathology 1997; 31: 112-22.
101. 101 Martin JE, Smith VV, Domizio P. Myopathies of the gastro-intestinal tract. In: Lowe J, Underwood JC. eds. Recent Advances in Histopathology 18th edn. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone, 1999: 43-62.
102. 102 Schuffler MD, Lowe MC, Bill AH. Studies of idiopathic intestinal pseudoobstruction. I. Hereditary hollow visceral myopathy: clinical and pathological studies. Gastroenterology 1977; 73: 327-38.
103. 103 Martin JE, Swash M, Kamm MA, Mather K, Cox EL, Grey A. Myopathy of internal anal sphincter with polyglucosan inclusions. J Pathol 1990; 161: 221-6.
104. 104 Smith VV, Lake BD, Kamm MA, Nicholls JR. Intestinal Pseudo-obstruction with deficient smooth muscle alpha actin. Histopathology 1992; 21: 535-42.
105. 105 Ariza A, Coll J, Fernandez-Figueras MT et al. Desmin myopathy: a multisystem disorder involving skeletal, cardiac and smooth muscle. Hum Pathol 1995; 26: 1032-7.
106. 106 Fogel SP, DeTar MW, Shimada H, Chandrasoma PT. Sporadic visceral myopathy with inclusion bodies. Am J Surg Path 1993; 17: 473-81.
107. 107 Kamiya S, Suzuki Y, Sugimura M. Polyglucosan bodies in the digestive tract of the aged dog. Acta Neuropathol (Berl) 1983; 60: 297-300.
108. 108 Duchen LW, Anjorin A, Watkins PJ, Mackay JD. Pathology of autonomic neuropathy in diabetes mellitus. Ann Intern Med 1980; 92: 301-3.
109. 109 Moscoso GJ, Driver M, Guy RGC. A form of necrobiosis and atrophy of smooth muscle in diabetic gastric autonomic neuropathy. Path Res Pract 1986; 181: 188-94.
110. 110 Schuchardt A, D'Agati V, Larson-Blomberg L et al. Defects in the kidney and and enteric nervous system of mice lacking the tyrosine kinase receptor Ret. Nature 1994; 367: 380-3.
111. 111 Gershon MD. Genes and lineages in the formation of the enteric nervous system. Curr Opin Neurobiol 1997; 7: 101-9.
112. 112 Chalazonitis A, Rothman TP, Chen J, Vinson A, MacLennan J, Gershon MD. Promotion of the development of enteric neurons and glia by neuropoietic cytokines: interactions with NT3. Dev Biol 1998; 198: 343-65.
113. 113 Lyonnet S, Bolino A, Pelet A et al. A gene for Hirschsprung's disease maps to the proximal long arm of chromosome 10. Nature Genet 1993; 4: 346-50.
114. 114 Salomon R, Attie T, Pelet A et al. Germline mutations of the RET ligand GDNF are not sufficient to cause Hirschsprung's disease. Nature Genet 1996; 14: 345-7.
115. 115 Puffenberger EG, Hosada K, Washington SS et al. A missense mutation of the endothelin-B receptor gene in multigenic Hirschsprung's disease. Cell 1994; 79: 1257-66.
116. 116 Hofstra RM, Osinga J, Sindhunata GT et al. A homozygous mutation in the endothelin-3 gene associated with a combined Waardenburg type 2 and Hirschsprung phenotype. Nat Genet 1996; 12: 445-7.
117. 117 Auricchio A, Brancolini V, Casari G et al. The locus for a novel syndromic form of neuronal intestinal pseudoobstruction maps to Xq28. Am J Hum Genet 1996; 58: 743-8.
118. 118 Montgomery RK, Mulberg AE, Grand RJ. Development of the human gastrointestinal tract: twenty years of progress. Gastroenterology 1999; 116: 702-31.
119. 119 Roberts DJ, Johnson RL, Burke AC, Nelson CE, Morgan BA, Tabin C. Sonic hedgehog is an endodermal signal inducing Bmp-4 and Hox genes during induction and regionalization of the chick hindgut. Development 1995; 121: 3163-74.
120. 120 Mitros FA, Schuffler MD, Teja K, Anuras S. Pathologic features of familial visceral myopathy. Hum Pathol 1982; 13: 825-33.
121. 121 Burnstock G. Autonomic neuromuscular junctions: current developments and future directions. J Anat 1986; 146: 1-30.
122. 122 Cajal SR. Sur les ganglions et plexus nerveux de l'intestin. CR Soc Biol (Paris) 1893; 45: 217-23.
123. 123 Stach W. Der plexus entericus extremus des Dickdarmes und seine Beziehungen zu den interstitiellen Zellen (Cajal). Z Mikrosk Anat Forsch 1972; 85: 245-72.
124. 124 Sanders KM. A case for interstitial cells of Cajal as pacemakers and mediators of neurotransmission in the gastrointestinal tract. Gastroenterology 1996; 111: 492-515.
125. 125 Huizinga JD, Ambrous K, Der-Silaphet T. Co-operation between neural and myogenic mechanisms in the control of distension-induced peristalsis in the mouse small intestine. J Physiol (Lond) 1998; 506: 843-56.
126. 126 Stevens RJ, Publicover NG, Smith TK. Induction and organisation of Ca2+ waves by enteric neural reflexes. Nature 1999; 399: 62-6.
127. 127 Vandervinden JM, Rumessen JJ, Liu H, De Deschamps D, Laet MH, Vanderhaegen JJ. Interstitial cells of Cajal in human colon and in Hirschsprung's disease. Gastroenterology 1996; 111: 901-10.
128. 128 Kenny SE, Vandervinden JM, Rintala RJ, Connell MG, Lloyd DA, De Vanderhaegen JJ, Laet MH. Delayed maturation of the interstitial cells of Cajal: a new di agnosis for transient neonatal pseudoobstruction. Report of 2 cases. J Paediatr Surg 1998; 33: 94-8.
129. 129 Kenny SE, Connell MG, Rintala RJ, Vaillant C, Edgar DH, Lloyd DA. Abnormal colonic interstitial cells of Cajal in chilren with anorectal malformations. J Paediatr Surg 1998; 33: 130-2.
130. 130 Malik N, Hagger R, Syrris P, Carter N, Murday V, Kumar D. Are there C-KITgene mutations in chronic idiopathic constipation? (Abstract). Gastroenterology 1998; 114: A797.
131. 131 He CL, Pemberton JH, Burgart LJ et al. Alteration in interstitial cell of Cajal Volume in patients with severe constipation (Abstract). Neurogastroenterol Motil 1998.
132. 132 Hagger R, Finlayson C, Kumar D. Are interstitial cells of Cajal abnormally distributed in chronic idiopathic constipation. Gut 1997; 41 (Suppl. 3): A10.
133. 133 Lennon VA, Sas DF, Busk MF, Scheithauer B, Malagelada JR, Camilleri M, Miller LJ. Enteric neuronal autoantibodies in pseudoobstruction with small-cell lung carcinoma. Gastroenterology 1991; 100: 137-42.
134. 134 Smith W, Gregson N, Foggensteiner L, Neale G, Milla PJ. Acquired intestinal aganglionosis and circulating autoantibodies without neoplasia or other neural involvement. Gastroenterology 1997; 112: 1366-71.
135. 135 Howe S, Eaker EY, Sallustio JE, Peebles C, Tan EM, Williams RC Jr. Antimyenteric neuronal antibodies in scleroderma. J Clin Invest 1994; 94: 761-70.
136. 136 Basilisco G, Barbera R, Vanoli M, Bianchi P. Anorectal dysfunction and delayed colonic transit in patients with progressive systemic sclerosis. Dig Dis Sci 1993; 38: 1525-9.
137. 137 Lindberg G, Glia A, Nyberg B, Veress B. Lymphocytic Epithelioganglionitis - A new entity causing severe motility disorders of the gut. Gastroenterology. (Abstract); G4476., 1999.
138. 138 de Oliveira RB, Troncon LE, Dantas RO, Menghelli UG. Gastrointestinal manifestations of Chagas' disease. Am J Gastroenterol 1998; 93: 884-9.
139. 139 Debinski HS, Kamm MA, Talbot IC, Khan G, Kangro HO, Jeffries DJ. DNA viruses in the pathogenesis of sporadic chronic idiopathic intestinal pseudo-obstruction. Gut 1997; 41: 100-6.
140. 140 Vassallo M, Camilleri M, Caron L, Low P. Gastrointestinal motor dysfunction in acquired selective cholinergic dysautonomia associated with infectious mononucleosis. Gastroenterology 1991; 100: 252-8.
141. 141 Chang AE, Joung NA, Reddick RL et al. Small bowel obstruction as a complication of disseminated varicella-zoster infection. Surgery 1978; 83: 371-4.
142. 142 Sonsino E, Muoy R, Foucaud P et al. Intestinal pseudo-obstruction related to cytomegalovirus infection of the myenteric plexus. N Engl J Med 1984; 311: 196-7.
143. 143 Robertson CS, Martin BA, Atkinson M. Varicella-zoster virus DNA in the oesophageal myenteric plexus in achalasia. Gut 1993; 34: 299-302.
144. 144 Kaufman PN, Krevsky K, Malmud LS et al. Role of opiate receptors in the regulation of colonic transit. Gastroenterology 1988; 94: 1351-6.
145. 145 Frantzides CT, Cowles VE, Salaymeh B, Tekin E, Condon RE. Morphine effects on human colonic myoelectric activity in the postoperative period. Am J Surg 1992; 163: 144-9.
146. 146 Sykes NP. Oral naloxone in opioid-associated constipation. Lancet 1991; 337: 1475.
147. 147 Polak JM, Bloom SR, Sullivan SN, Facer P, Pearse AGE. Enkephalin-like immunoreactivity in the human gastrointestinal tract. Lancet 1977; I: 972-4.
148. 148 Ahmad S, Allescher H-D, Kwan C-Y. Receptors for neuropeptides; ligand binding studies. In: Daniel EE. eds. Neuropeptide Function in the Gastrointestinal Tract Baton Rouge, FL: CRC Press, 1990: 209-30.
149. 149 Porreca F, Mosberg HI, Hurst R, Hruby VJ, Burks TF. Roles of mu, delta, and kappa opioid receptors in spinal and supraspinal mediation of gastrointestinal transit effects and hot-plate analgesia in the mouse. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1984; 230: 341.
150. 150 Hoyle CHV, Kamm MA, Burnstock G, Lennard-Jones JE. Enkephalins modulate inhibitory neuromuscular transmission in circular muscle of human colon via delta-opioid receptors. J Physiol (Lond) 1990; 431: 465-78.
151. 151 Bueno L, Fiormonti J. Action of opiates on gastrointestinal function. Clin Gastroenterol 1988; 2: 123-39.
152. 152 Hoyle CHV, Kamm MA, Burnstock G, Lennard-Jones JE. Reduced activity of enkephalins in the colon of patients with idiopathic constipation (Abstract). Gut 1989; 30: A709.
153. 153 Fotherby KJ, Hunter JO. Idiopathic slow transit constipation: whole gut transit times measured by a new simplified method, are not shortened by opioid antagonists. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 1987; 1: 331-8.
154. 154 Heilbrun N. Róentgen evidence suggesting enterocolitis associated with prolonged cathartic abuse. Radiology 1943; 41: 486-91.
155. 155 Muller-Lissner SA. What has happened to the cathartic colon? Gut 1996; 39: 486-8.
156. 156 Byers RJ, Marsh P, Parkinson D, Haboubi NY. Melanosis coli is associated with an increase in colonic epithelial apoptosis and not with laxative use. Histopathology 1997; 30: 160-4.
157. 157 Mengs U, Rudolph RL. Light and electron microscopical changes in the guinea pig after treatment with anthranoid and non-anthranoid laxatives. Pharmacology 1993; 47 (Suppl. 1): 172-7.
158. 158 Dufour P, Gendre P. Long-term mucosal alterations by sennosides and related compounds. Pharmacology 1988; 36 (Suppl. 1): 194-202.
159. 159 Dufour P, Gendre P. Ultrastructure of the mouse intestinal mucosa and changes observed after long term anthraquinone administration. Gut 1984; 25: 1358-63.
160. 160 Case MT, Smith JK, Nelson RA. Acute mouse and chronic dog toxicity studies of danthron, dioctyl sodium sulfosuccinate, poloxalkol and combinations. Drug Chem Toxicol 1977; 1: 89-101.
161. 161 Riecken EO, Zeitz M, Emde C et al. A prospective study on the effect of anthraquinone-containing laxatives on the ultrastructure of colonic nerves. Gastroenterology 1987; 92: 1595.
162. 162 Gebboes K, Nijs G, Mengs U, Geboes KPJ, Van Damme A, De Witte P. Effects of 'contact laxatives' on intestinal and colonic epithelial cell proliferation. Pharmacology 1993; 47 (Suppl. 1): 187-95.
163. 163 Wald A, Hinds JP, Camana BJ. Psychological and physiological characteristics of patients with severe idiopathic constipation. Gastroenterology 1989; 97: 932-7.
164. 164 Grotz RL, Pemberton JH, Talley NJ, Rath DM, Zinsmeister AR. Discriminant value of psychological distress, symptom profiles, and segmental colonic dysfunction in outpatients with severe idiopathic constipation. Gut 1994; 35: 798-802.
165. 165 Whitehead WE, Crowell MD, Robinson JC, Heller BR, Schuster MM. Effects of stressful life events on bowel symptoms: subjects with irritable bowel syndrome compared with subjects without bowel dysfunction. Gut 1992; 33: 825-30.
166. 166 Leroi A-M, Berkelmans I, Denis P, Hemond M, Devroede G. Anismus as a marker of sexual abuse. Consequences of abuse on anorectal motility. Dig Dis Sci 1995; 40: 1411-6.
167. 167 Karlbom U, Pahlman L, Nilsson S, Graf W. Relationships between defecographic findings, rectal emptying, and colonic transit time in constipated patients. Gut 1995; 36: 907-12.
168. 168 Sonnenberg A, Tsou VT, Muller AD. The institutional colon: a frequent colonic dysmotility in psychiatric and neurologic disease. Am J Gastroenterol 1994; 89: 62-6.
169. 169 Wright D, Barrow S, Fisher AD, Horsley SD, Jayson MI. Influence of physical, psychological and behavioural factors on consultations for back pain. Br J Rheumatol 1995; 34: 156-61.
170. 170 Whitehead WE. Illness behaviour. In: Kamm MA, Lennard-Jones JE. eds. Constipation Petersfield, UK: Wrightson Biomedical Publishing, 1994: 95-100.
171. 171 Read NW, Timms JM. Defecation and the pathophysiology of constipation. Clin Gastroenterol 1986; 15: 937-965.
172. 172 Izzo AA, Gaginella TS, Capasso F. The osmotic and intrinsic mechanisms of the pharmacological laxative action of oral high doses of magnesium sulphate. Importance of the release of digestive polypeptides and nitric oxide. Magnes Res 1996; 9: 133-8.
173. 173 Nava G, Ferrari B, Liani M. Les échanges hydroélectrolytiques au niveau du clon distal dans la constipation. Acta Gastroenterol Belg 1973; 28: 896-903.
174. 174 Devroede G, Soffie M. Colonic absorption in idiopathic constipation. Gastroenterology 1973; 64: 552-61.
175. 175 Iser JH, Dowling RH, Murphy GM, de Ponz Leon M, Mitropoulos KA. Congenital bile salt deficiency associated with 28 years of intractable constipation. In: Paumgartner P, Stiehl A. eds. Bile Acid Metabolism in Health and Disease Lancaster, UK: MTP Press, 1977: 231-4.
176. 176 Hepner WH, Hofmann AF. Cholic acid therapy for constipation. Mayo Clin Proc 1973; 48: 356-8.
177. +-dependent bile acid transport in the ileum: The balance between diarrhoea and constipation. Gastroenterology 1990; 98: 25-32.
178. 178 Hosie KB, Davie RJ, Panagamuwa B, Grobler S, Keighley MRB, Birch NJ. Ileal mucosal absoption of bile acid in man: validation of a miniature flux chamber technique. Gut 1992; 33: 490-6.
179. 179 Renny A, Snape WJ Jr, Sun EA, London R, Cohen S. Role of cholecystokinin in the gastrocolonic response to a fat meal. Gastroenterology 1983; 85: 17-21.
180. 180 Preston DM, Adrian TE, Christofides ND, Lennard-Jones TE, Bloom SR. Positive correlation between symptoms and circulating motilin, pancreatic polypeptide and gastrin concentrations in functional bowel disorders. Gut 1985; 26: 1059-64.
181. 181 Sjolund K, Ekman R, Akre F, Lindner P. Motilin in chronic idiopathic constipation. Scand J Gastroenterol 1986; 21: 914-8.
182. 182 van der Sijp JR, Kamm MA, Nightingale JM et al. Circulating gastrointestinal hormone abnormalities in patients with severe idiopathic constipation. Am J Gastroenterol 1998; 93: 1351-6.
183. 183 Baron TH, Ramirez B, Richter JE. Gastrointestinal motility disorders during pregnancy. Ann Intern Med 1993; 118: 366-75.
184. 184 Heitkemper MM, Jarrett M. Pattern of gastrointestinal and somatic symptoms across the menstrual cycle. Gastroenterology 1992; 102: 505-13.
185. 185 Gill RC, Bowes KL, Kingma YJ. Effects of progesterone on canine colonic smooth muscle. Gastroenterology 1985; 88: 1941-7.
186. 186 Ryan JP, Bhojwani A. Colonic transit in rats: effect of ovariectomy, sex steroid hormones, and pregnancy. Am J Physiol 1986; 251: G46-50.
187. 187 Kumar D. In vitro inhibitory effect of progesterone on extra-uterine human smooth muscle. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1962; 84: 1300-4.
188. 188 Kamm MA, Farthing MJG, Lennard-Jones JE, Perry JE, Chard T. Steroid hormone abnormalities in women with severe idiopathic constipation. Gut 1991; 32: 80-4.
189. 189 Wald A, Van Thiel DH, Hoechstetter L et al. Gastrointestinal transit: the effect of the menstrual cycle. Gastroenterology 1981; 80: 1497-500.
190. 190 Turnbull GK, Thompson DG, Day S, Martin JE, Walker E, Lennard-Jones JE. Relationships between symptoms, menstrual cycle and orocaecal transit in normal and constipated women. Gut 1989; 30: 30-4.