Geopolitics, Patagonian Toothfish and living resource regulation in the Southern Ocean

Third World Quarterly

Volumn 21, Issue 2, 2000, Pages 229-246

  Dodds, Klaus ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF LONDON   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

GEOPOLITICS; MARINE POLICY; NATURE CONSERVATION; OVERFISHING;

SOUTHERN OCEAN;

EID: 0034061596     PISSN: 01436597     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/01436590050004337     Document Type: Article

References (58)

1. See Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), Recent Trends in Global Aquacultural Production 1984-1995, Rome: FAO, 1997.
2. See J Barton & D Staniford "Net deficits and the case for aquacultural geography', Area, 30, 1998, pp: 145-155.
3. See G Lugten 'The rise and fall of the Patagonian Toothfish: food for thought', Environment Policy and Law, 27, 1997, pp 401-407.
4. Speech by the Hon Simon Upton, Associate Minister of Foreign Affairs and Trade "Illegal Antarctic fishing worries New Zealand', Press release by the New Zealand Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade, Wellington, 29 April 1997.
5. Statement by Minister for Defence, Ian McLachlan, on illegal fishing in the Southern Ocean, Press release by the Australian Department for Defence, Canberra, 25 February 1998.
6. On environmental management and risk management, see M Gandy 'Rethinking the ecological leviathan: environmental regulation in an age of risk'. Global Environmental Change, 9, 1999, pp 59-69.
7. See the recent review by M Paterson, 'Interpreting trends in global environmental governance', International Affairs, 75, 1999, pp 793-802.
8. For reviews concerning Antarctica, see C Joyner, Governing the Frozen Commons, Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press. 1998 and J Vogler, The Global Commons, Chichester: Wiley, 1995.
9. For reviews concerning Antarctica, see C Joyner, Governing the Frozen Commons, Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press. 1998 and J Vogler, The Global Commons, Chichester: Wiley, 1995.
10. The Southern Ocean is defined by the British Admirality's Antarctic Pilot (London: Admirality, 1974) as a body of water lying north of the Antarctic continent, the northern limit of which is roughly 55° degrees S. The Antarctic Convergence refers to the region where the warmer waters of the Indian, Pacific and Atlantic Oceans collide with the colder waters of the Antarctic. According to marine biologists, this expanse of water is extremely rich in living organisms such as whales, krill, fish and marine birds.
11. On the role of the IWC, see M Peterson 'Whalers, cetologists, environmentalists and the international management of whaling', International Organization, 46, 1993, pp 147-186. In 1994 the IWC declared a Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary which banned all forms of commercial whaling for the next 50 years.
12. The UNCLOS III negotiations between 1973 and 1982 produced some important obligations for coastal states, such as Article 61 of the final convention, which requires states to conserve resources in EEZS, and Article 177, which imposes responsibilities on states to protect the resources of the high seas.
13. For further details see C Joyner, 'Maritime zones in the Southern Ocean: problems concerning correspondence of natural and legal maritime zones', Applied Geography, 10, 1990, pp 307-325.
14. Ibid.
15. R Barston 'UN Conference on Straddling and Highly Migratory Fishing Stocks', Marine Policy, 19, 1995, pp 159-166. The quote is taken from page 163.
16. B Davis 'The legitimacy of CCAMLR', in O Stokke & D Vidas (eds), Governing the Antarctic, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1996. pp 233-245.
17. For a critical assessment of CCAMLR, see L Elliot, International Environmental Politics; Protecting the Antarctic, London: Macmillan, 1994; and J Vogler, Global Commons: A Regime Analysis, Chichester. Wiley, 1995.
18. For a critical assessment of CCAMLR, see L Elliot, International Environmental Politics; Protecting the Antarctic, London: Macmillan, 1994; and J Vogler, Global Commons: A Regime Analysis, Chichester. Wiley, 1995.
19. A point made by K Kock, Antarctic Fish and Fisheries, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992; and Kock, 'Fishing and conservation in southern waters', Polar Record, 30, 1994, pp 3-22.
20. A point made by K Kock, Antarctic Fish and Fisheries, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992; and Kock, 'Fishing and conservation in southern waters', Polar Record, 30, 1994, pp 3-22.
21. See S Oberthur 'The international convention for the regulation of whaling: from over-explotiation to total prohibition', in H Bergesen, G Parmann & O Thommessen (eds), Yearbook of International Co-operation on Environment and Development, London: Earthscan, 1998, pp 29-37.
22. K Shusterich, 'The Antarctic Treaty System: history, substance and speculation', International Journal, 39, 1984, pp 800-827. The quote is taken from page 814.
23. On the role of scientific advice in CCAMLR decision making see D Agnew 'Review: the CCAMLR ecosystem monitoring programme', Antarctic Science, 9, 1997, pp 235-242. This important article details the current stock monitoring programmes organised by the Working Group on Fish Stock Assessment and notes how the Working Group on Ecosystem Monitoring and Management has been involved in research concentrating on so-called indicator species and their predatory populations. At present nine out of 23 members of CCAMLR actively collect data for the Scientific Committee, which have to be submitted three months before the end of the statistical year (from 1 July to 30 June).
24. S Chaturvedi, The Polar Regions: A Political Geography, Chichester: Wiley, 1996, pp 226-227.
25. See D Rothwell, The Polar Regions and the Development of International Law, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1996. pp 151-152.
26. See Lugten 'The rise and fall of the Patagonian Toothfish' for details on the problem of re-flagging and illegal fishing. The FAO has attempted to deal with re-flagging through a Re-Flagging Agreement (approved in November 1993) and Code of Conduct for Responsible Fishing (approved in November 1995).
27. See CCAMLR Newsletter December 1998, Hobart: CCAMLR, which noted that illegal fishing 'continues to threaten stocks of Toothfish and populations of sea birds'.
28. The over-zealous exploitation of fish by Spanish-owned vessels has also been a cause for concern in the waters off Morocco. See J Davis. 'Morocco's 1995 Fisheries Agreement with the EU: a crisis resolved?', Mediterranean Politics, 3, 1998, pp 61-73.
29. Cited in UN document 'Question of Antarctica: state of the environment in Antarctica: report of the Secretary-General' A/51/390.
30. 'Statement by the Minister for the Environment, Dr Nick Smith May 16 1997'. Press release from the New Zealand Ministry of the Environment, Wellington.
31. See CCAMLR Statistical Bulletin 1986-1996, Hobart: Commission for CCAMLR, 1996.
32. See CCAMLR Newsletter December 1997, Hobart: CCAMLR.
33. CCAMLR estimated that unreported catches of Toothfish amounted to 22,415 tonnes in 1997-98 statistical year, with the vast majority of this catch being sent to markets in the USA and Japan.
34. Unregulated fishing has been a considerable problem for the Toothfish in Statistical FAO Area 88. which encompasses part of the Indian Ocean proximate to the South African islands of Prince Edward and Marion.
35. See K Kerry & G Hempel (eds), Antarctic Ecosystems, Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1990; and Kock, Antarctic Fish and Fisheries.
36. See K Kerry & G Hempel (eds), Antarctic Ecosystems, Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1990; and Kock, Antarctic Fish and Fisheries.
37. See J Heap 'Has CCAMLR worked? Management, political and ecological needs', in A Jorgensen-Dahl & W Ostreng (eds). The Antarctic Treaty in World Politics, London: Macmillan, 1991, pp 43-53.
38. This is based on a series of informal and confidential interviews carried out with officials responsible for implementing Antarctic and Southern Ocean policies in the UK, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa.
39. These sub-Antarctic islands have been a long-standing source of concern for the CCAMLR parties because of fears that Mackerel Icefish were being over-exploited in the 1980s.
40. Sec P Beck, 'Fisheries conservation as a basis for a special Anglo-Argentine relationship". The World Today, 47, 1991, pp 102-106; and K Dodds, 'Towards rapproachment? Anglo-Argentine relations and the Falklands/Malvinas in the late 1990s'. International Affairs, 74, 1998, pp 617-630.
41. Sec P Beck, 'Fisheries conservation as a basis for a special Anglo-Argentine relationship". The World Today, 47, 1991, pp 102-106; and K Dodds, 'Towards rapproachment? Anglo-Argentine relations and the Falklands/Malvinas in the late 1990s'. International Affairs, 74, 1998, pp 617-630.
42. World Wide Fund for Nature 'Toothfish poaching scandal challenges CCAMLR nations: WWF calls for closure of high seas fishing for Toothfish', Hobart, 5 November 1997.
43. Greenpeace, 'Media release: Greenpeace congratulates government action in the Southern Ocean', Sydney, 21 October 1997.
44. Australian Hansard, "Proceedings of the Senate' Hansard, 21 October 1997. See also The Age (Melbourne), 'Antarctic poaching heats up', 7 June 1997.
45. Australian Hansard, "Proceedings of the Senate' Hansard, 21 October 1997. See also The Age (Melbourne), 'Antarctic poaching heats up', 7 June 1997.
46. This move by the New Zealand delegation in 1997 was not widely welcomed by other Anglophone policy makers because it was felt that using the ATCM as a forum for fishing issues was inappropriate given CCAMLR's well established remit for living resource management.
47. Sec K Dodds, Geopolitics in Antarctica: Views from the Southern Oceanic Rim, Chichester, Wiley, 1997.
48. See L Kimball 'The Antarctic Treaty System", Qceanus, 31, 1988, pp. 14-19.
49. See C Joyner, Antarctica and the Law of the Sea, Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff; and L Elliot, International Environmental Politics: Protecting the Antarctic, London: Macmillan, 1994.
50. See C Joyner, Antarctica and the Law of the Sea, Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff; and L Elliot, International Environmental Politics: Protecting the Antarctic, London: Macmillan, 1994.
51. This has led some academics such as Lorraine Elliot to claim that CCAMLR is a 'flawed convention agreement'. Elliot, International Environmental Politics, p 97.
52. See N Rengger, 'The ethics of trust in world politics'. International Affairs, 73, 1997, pp 469-487.
53. Sec ISOLFICH, The Involvement of Mauritius in the Trade in Patagonian Toothfish from Illegal and Unregulated Longline Fishing in the Southern Ocean, Occasional Report Number 1. Hobart: ISOLFICH, 1998. Mauritius attended CCAMLR's Commission Meeting for the first time in October-November 1997.
54. Sec B Cicin-Sain & R Knecht, 'Implications of the Earth Summit for ocean and coastal governance', Ocean Development and International Law, 24, 1993, pp. 327-338.
55. Mauritius and Namibia attended the October-November 1998 Meeting of CCAMLR as observers.
56. CCAMLR parties are currently developing a Catch Certification Scheme, see CCAMLR newsletter. December 1999, Hohart: CCAMLR.
57. Sec M Miller, The Third World in Global Environment Politics, Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1995; and M Paterson, Global Warming and World Politics, London: Routledge, 1996.
58. Sec M Miller, The Third World in Global Environment Politics, Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1995; and M Paterson, Global Warming and World Politics, London: Routledge, 1996.