Rights and culture in the Asian values argument: The rise and fall of Confucian ethics in Singapore

Human Rights Quarterly

Volumn 22, Issue 2, 2000, Pages 548-566

  Englehart, Neil A ^a,b,c  

^a LAFAYETTE COLLEGE   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^c NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CULTURAL TRADITION; ETHICS; HUMAN RIGHTS;

ASIA;

EID: 0034036838     PISSN: 02750392     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/hrq.2000.0024     Document Type: Article

References (102)

1. I would like to thank Adamantia Pollis, Ilan Peleg, John McCartney, and Melissa Miller for their comments on this paper. I am also indebted to Bruce Cumings, Alan Houston, Tracy Strong, Greg Noble, and Arend Lijphart for comments on an earlier version.
2. DON HERZOG, HAPPY SLAVES: A CRITIQUE OF CONSENT THEORY (1989).
3. JACK DONNELLY, UNIVERSAL HUMAN RIGHTS IN THEORY AND PRACTICE 118-21 (1989).
4. Adamantia Pollis, Cultural Relativism Revisited: Through a State Prism, 18 HUM. RTS. Q. 316 (1996).
5. There has been an ongoing exchange of ideas between China and Singapore, including scholarly symposia and visits by government officials. See Barbara Crossette Added Element in Asia: Confucius, N.Y. TIMES, 28 June 1987, at A14; Andrew Roche, Confucian Meeting Held Despite Opposition by Party Hardliners, REUTERS, 6 Sept. 1987; Singapore Lessons for China Team, STRAITS TIMES, 30 July 1992, Home, at 15; International Seminar on Confucius Ends, XINHUA GEN. OVERSEAS NEWS SERV., 4 Sept. 1987; Party Leader Meets Scholars on Confucian Thought, XINHUA GEN. OVERSEAS NEWS SERV., 8 Oct. 1989.
6. There has been an ongoing exchange of ideas between China and Singapore, including scholarly symposia and visits by government officials. See Barbara Crossette Added Element in Asia: Confucius, N.Y. TIMES, 28 June 1987, at A14; Andrew Roche, Confucian Meeting Held Despite Opposition by Party Hardliners, REUTERS, 6 Sept. 1987; Singapore Lessons for China Team, STRAITS TIMES, 30 July 1992, Home, at 15; International Seminar on Confucius Ends, XINHUA GEN. OVERSEAS NEWS SERV., 4 Sept. 1987; Party Leader Meets Scholars on Confucian Thought, XINHUA GEN. OVERSEAS NEWS SERV., 8 Oct. 1989.
7. There has been an ongoing exchange of ideas between China and Singapore, including scholarly symposia and visits by government officials. See Barbara Crossette Added Element in Asia: Confucius, N.Y. TIMES, 28 June 1987, at A14; Andrew Roche, Confucian Meeting Held Despite Opposition by Party Hardliners, REUTERS, 6 Sept. 1987; Singapore Lessons for China Team, STRAITS TIMES, 30 July 1992, Home, at 15; International Seminar on Confucius Ends, XINHUA GEN. OVERSEAS NEWS SERV., 4 Sept. 1987; Party Leader Meets Scholars on Confucian Thought, XINHUA GEN. OVERSEAS NEWS SERV., 8 Oct. 1989.
8. There has been an ongoing exchange of ideas between China and Singapore, including scholarly symposia and visits by government officials. See Barbara Crossette Added Element in Asia: Confucius, N.Y. TIMES, 28 June 1987, at A14; Andrew Roche, Confucian Meeting Held Despite Opposition by Party Hardliners, REUTERS, 6 Sept. 1987; Singapore Lessons for China Team, STRAITS TIMES, 30 July 1992, Home, at 15; International Seminar on Confucius Ends, XINHUA GEN. OVERSEAS NEWS SERV., 4 Sept. 1987; Party Leader Meets Scholars on Confucian Thought, XINHUA GEN. OVERSEAS NEWS SERV., 8 Oct. 1989.
9. There has been an ongoing exchange of ideas between China and Singapore, including scholarly symposia and visits by government officials. See Barbara Crossette Added Element in Asia: Confucius, N.Y. TIMES, 28 June 1987, at A14; Andrew Roche, Confucian Meeting Held Despite Opposition by Party Hardliners, REUTERS, 6 Sept. 1987; Singapore Lessons for China Team, STRAITS TIMES, 30 July 1992, Home, at 15; International Seminar on Confucius Ends, XINHUA GEN. OVERSEAS NEWS SERV., 4 Sept. 1987; Party Leader Meets Scholars on Confucian Thought, XINHUA GEN. OVERSEAS NEWS SERV., 8 Oct. 1989.
10. See SING. CONST, arts. 9-12.
11. The last "free and fair" election was in 1963. At that time, the now hegemonic People's Action Party manipulated the electoral rules to its advantage and won thirty-seven seats to thirteen against the opposition party, the Barisan Sosialis. Afterwards, the leaders of the opposition, including three assembly members, were promptly arrested on charges of communist conspiracy. See Shee Poon Kim, The Evolution of the Political System, in THE GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS OF SINGAPORE 3, 8-9 (Jon S.T. Quah et al. eds., 1987).
12. Singapore would not pass even a minimal test of a democratic regime, for instance that of Adam Przeworski, who defines democracy as "a system in which parties lose elections." ADAM PRZEWORSKI, DEMOCRACY AND THE MARKET: POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC REFORMS IN EASTERN EUROPE AND LATIN AMERICA 10 (1991) (footnote omitted).
13. See SING. CONST. arts. 22, 94-95. See also CHRISTOPHER TREMEWAN, THE POLITICAL ECONOMY OF SOCIAL CONTROL IN SINGAPORE 187 (1994).
14. See Chan Heng Chee, Legislature and Legislators, in THE GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS OF SINGAPORE, supra note 7, at 74.
15. See Tim Huxley, Singapore's Politics in the 1980s and 1990s, 23 ASIAN AFF. 282, 285 (1992); Ian Buruma, The Singapore Way, N.Y. REV. BOOKS, 19 Oct. 1995, at 66, 68. See generally FRANCIS SEOW, TO CATCH A TARTAR: A DISSIDENT IN LEE KUAN YEW'S PRISON (1994) (for Seow's version of these events).
16. See Tim Huxley, Singapore's Politics in the 1980s and 1990s, 23 ASIAN AFF. 282, 285 (1992); Ian Buruma, The Singapore Way, N.Y. REV. BOOKS, 19 Oct. 1995, at 66, 68. See generally FRANCIS SEOW, TO CATCH A TARTAR: A DISSIDENT IN LEE KUAN YEW'S PRISON (1994) (for Seow's version of these events).
17. See Tim Huxley, Singapore's Politics in the 1980s and 1990s, 23 ASIAN AFF. 282, 285 (1992); Ian Buruma, The Singapore Way, N.Y. REV. BOOKS, 19 Oct. 1995, at 66, 68. See generally FRANCIS SEOW, TO CATCH A TARTAR: A DISSIDENT IN LEE KUAN YEW'S PRISON (1994) (for Seow's version of these events).
18. See SEOW, supra note 11, at 68. Seow, who was well-known because he had been Solicitor-General of Singapore, was released in late 1988. He left Singapore, was tried in absentia, and currently lives in exile in the United States.
19. The Singapore Internal Security Act (ISA) allows "preventive detention" without evidence or specific charges. A legacy from British rule during the "Malayan Emergency," the ISA was never repealed and has even been made more sweeping. Even those sympathetic to Singapore's government are generally critical of the ISA. See, e.g., Melanie Chew, Human Rights in Singapore: Perceptions and Problems, 34 ASIAN SURV. 933, 942-44 (1994). As of 1982, over 1,000 people were detained without trial, 17 under the ISA and the rest under a provision in the criminal law code. 41 SING. PARL. DEB. col. 455 (3 Mar 1982).
20. SEOW, supra note 11, at 71.
21. The background and full text of this document has been reproduced in CHEE SOON JUAN, DARE TO CHANGE: AN ALTERNATIVE VISION FOR SINGAPORE 133-37 (1994). After publication, the detainees were re-arrested and forced to recant.
22. See STAN SESSER, Singapore: The Prisoner in the Theme Park, in THE LANDS OF CHARM AND CRUELTY: TRAVELS IN SOUTHEAST ASIA 3 (1993); U.S. DEP'T STATE, Singapore, in COUNTRY REPORTS ON HUMAN RIGHTS PRACTICES FOR 1996, at 764, 765-66 (1997).
23. See STAN SESSER, Singapore: The Prisoner in the Theme Park, in THE LANDS OF CHARM AND CRUELTY: TRAVELS IN SOUTHEAST ASIA 3 (1993); U.S. DEP'T STATE, Singapore, in COUNTRY REPORTS ON HUMAN RIGHTS PRACTICES FOR 1996, at 764, 765-66 (1997).
24. See TREMEWAN, supra note 9, at 203-04.
25. See PM Goh Drops Petition Against Jeya, STRAITS TIMES, 3 July 1999, at 2.
26. See Zuraidah Ibrahim, Tang Liang Hong Meets PM Goh, STRAITS TIMES, 4 Mar. 1999, at 2.
27. For more on the meet-the-people sessions, see CHAN HENG CHEE, THE DYNAMICS OF ONE-PARTY DOMINANCE: THE PAP AT THE GRASS-ROOTS 101 (1976).
28. This is of course quite similar to the Maoist Mass Line. In many respects the PAP is the most successful Leninist party in the world. See id.; BENG-HUAT CHUA, COMMUNITARIAN IDEOLOGY AND DEMOCRACY IN SINGAPORE 23-25 (1995).
29. The best single source on social policy in Singapore is TREMEWAN, supra note 9. See also CHUA, supra note 21, at 9. For a very angry view, see T.S. SELVAN, SINGAPORE: THE ULTIMATE ISLAND (1990).
30. Cho-Oon Khong, Singapore: Political Legitimacy Through Managing Conformity, in POLITICAL LEGITIMACY IN SOUTHEAST ASIA: THE QUEST FOR MORAL AUTHORITY 108, 134 (Muthiah Alagappa ed., 1995).
31. See SELVAN, supra note 22, at 68.
32. CHUA, supra note 21, at 36.
33. Hong Hai, in 56 SING. PARL. DEB. col. 824 (14 Jan. 1991).
34. Buruma, supra note 11, at 68.
35. Bilahari Kausikan, The "Asian Values" Debate: A View from Singapore, in DEMOCRACY IN EAST ASIA 17, 20 (Larry Diamond & Mark F. Plattner eds., 1998). Goh goes on to credit the PAP's repeated re-elections as its reward for acting as "an honest and competent trustee of the people[.]" Id. at 21.
36. See Fareed Zakaria, Culture is Destiny: A Conversation with Lee Kuan Yew, 73 FOR. AFF., Mar./Apr. 1994, at 109, 117.
37. CHUA, supra note 21, at 26-27. See, e.g., Lee Kwan Yew, Text of Premier's May Day Message: Balance Between National and Individual Aims, STRAITS TIMES, 1 May 1981, at 1; GOH KENG SWEE, THE ECONOMICS OF MODERNIZATION 63 (1972).
38. CHUA, supra note 21, at 26-27. See, e.g., Lee Kwan Yew, Text of Premier's May Day Message: Balance Between National and Individual Aims, STRAITS TIMES, 1 May 1981, at 1; GOH KENG SWEE, THE ECONOMICS OF MODERNIZATION 63 (1972).
39. Khong, supra note 23, at 125.
40. Zakaria, supra note 29, at 125.
41. TREMEWAN, supra note 9, at 89.
42. See Huxley, supra note 11, at 290, N. Balakrishnan, Forked Tongues, FAR E. ECON. REV., 25 Jan. 1991, at 19.
43. See TREMEWAN, supra note 9, at 89-91.
44. See, e.g., June Tan, Confucian Ethics for Schools, STRAITS TIMES, 4 Feb. 1982, at 1; Tan Lian & Hedwig Alfred, Confucian Textbooks: Quest Begins, SUNDAY TIMES (Sing.), 13 June 1982, at 1.
45. See, e.g., June Tan, Confucian Ethics for Schools, STRAITS TIMES, 4 Feb. 1982, at 1; Tan Lian & Hedwig Alfred, Confucian Textbooks: Quest Begins, SUNDAY TIMES (Sing.), 13 June 1982, at 1.
46. See Eddie C.Y. Kuo, Confucianism as Political Discourse in Singapore: The Case of an Incomplete Revitalization Movement, in CONFUCIAN TRADITIONS AND EAST ASIAN MODERNITY: MORAL EDUCATION AND ECONOMIC CULTURE IN JAPAN AND THE FOUR MINI-DRAGONS 294 (Tu Weiming ed., 1996); Arif Dirlik, Confucius in the Borderlands, 22 BOUNDARY 229, 239 (1995).
47. See Eddie C.Y. Kuo, Confucianism as Political Discourse in Singapore: The Case of an Incomplete Revitalization Movement, in CONFUCIAN TRADITIONS AND EAST ASIAN MODERNITY: MORAL EDUCATION AND ECONOMIC CULTURE IN JAPAN AND THE FOUR MINI-DRAGONS 294 (Tu Weiming ed., 1996); Arif Dirlik, Confucius in the Borderlands, 22 BOUNDARY 229, 239 (1995).
48. Chua, supra note 21, at 199.
49. Kuo, supra note 37, at 299.
50. See, e.g., Why Confucianism, SUNDAY TIMES (Sing.), 13 June 1982, at 13 . A number of talks involving the visiting scholars have been published in Tu WEI-MING, CONFUCIAN ETHICS TODAY: THE SINGAPORE CHALLENGE (1984).
51. See, e.g., Why Confucianism, SUNDAY TIMES (Sing.), 13 June 1982, at 13 . A number of talks involving the visiting scholars have been published in Tu WEI-MING, CONFUCIAN ETHICS TODAY: THE SINGAPORE CHALLENGE (1984).
52. See Kuo, supra note 37, at 306.
53. See id.; Khong, supra note 23, at 125.
54. Officially, Confucianism had been represented as a pan-Asian philosophy. According to Kuo, such a claim did not appeal to the non-Chinese. The paradox, and indeed the irony, is that when Confucianism was promoted as a universal moral system relevant to all peoples in Singapore, it became, in the view of the non-Chinese, an expansionistic conspiracy of the Chinese that threatened the legitimacy and relevance of the their own ethnic, cultural, and religious values. This was so precisely because it was impossible to separate Confucianism and "Chinese-ness" in the perception of the general public. See Kuo, supra note 37, at 304.
55. See TREMEWAN, supra note 9, at 109; Kuo, supra note 37, at 303.
56. Although at the time many Singaporeans took Shared Values to be a continuation of the Confucian Ethics campaign, the Far Eastern Economic Review reported that "[t]he term shared values, with its connotations of universal acceptance, is seen as an attempt by the government to make the Confucian philosophy that they embrace palatable to the non-Chinese and more liberal elements of Singapore's mixed society." See N. Balakrishnan, Esprit de Core: Values Offer Shares in Confucian Society, FAR E. ECON. REV., 7 Feb. 1991, at 27.
57. Although at the time many Singaporeans took Shared Values to be a continuation of the Confucian Ethics campaign, the Far Eastern Economic Review reported that "[t]he term shared values, with its connotations of universal acceptance, is seen as an attempt by the government to make the Confucian philosophy that they embrace palatable to the non-Chinese and more liberal elements of Singapore's mixed society." See N. Balakrishnan, Esprit de Core: Values Offer Shares in Confucian Society, FAR E. ECON. REV., 7 Feb. 1991, at 27.
58. See Kuo, supra note 37, at 308.
59. See, e.g., Tu Wei-ming, A Confucian Perspective on the Rise of Industrial East Asia, 42 BULL. AM. ACAD. ARTS & SCI. 32 (1988).
60. GABRIEL A. ALMOND & SIDNEY VERBA, THE CIVIC CULTURE: POLITICAL ATTITUDES AND DEMOCRACY IN FIVE NATIONS (1963).
61. To paraphrase (only slightly) Lucian Pye, discussed infra, the Asian Values argument docs difter in its details from Almond and Verba's Civic Culture. The community orientation and trust of government that Almond and Verba saw as contributing to a civic culture are held to justify the absence of political competition in the Asian Values argument. See LUCIEN W. PYE, ASIAN POWER AND POLITICS: THE CULTURAL DIMENSIONS OF AUTHORITY at vii (1985).
62. See Dirlik, supra note 37.
63. See id.; CHUA, supra note 21, at 147.
64. WM. THEODORE DE BARY, THE LIBERAL TRADITION IN CHINA (1983). See also WM. THEODORE DE BARY, ASIAN VALUES AND HUMAN RIGHTS: A CONFUCIAN COMMUNITARIAN PERSPECTIVE (1998).
65. WM. THEODORE DE BARY, THE LIBERAL TRADITION IN CHINA (1983). See also WM. THEODORE DE BARY, ASIAN VALUES AND HUMAN RIGHTS: A CONFUCIAN COMMUNITARIAN PERSPECTIVE (1998).
66. See Robert Ruhlmann, Traditional Heroes in Chinese Popular Fiction, in THE CONFUCIAN PERSUASION 141 (Arthur F. Wright ed., 1960); Yuji Muramatsu, Some Themes in Chinese Rebel Ideologies, in THE CONFUCIAN PERSUASION, supra, at 241.
67. See Robert Ruhlmann, Traditional Heroes in Chinese Popular Fiction, in THE CONFUCIAN PERSUASION 141 (Arthur F. Wright ed., 1960); Yuji Muramatsu, Some Themes in Chinese Rebel Ideologies, in THE CONFUCIAN PERSUASION, supra, at 241.
68. In fact, Confucius himself appears as protagonist in a number of romantic, satirical, and even pornographic tales. See LIONEL M. JENSEN, MANUFACTURING CONFUCIANISM: CHINESE TRADITIONS AND UNIVERSAL CIVILIZATION 21-22 (1997).
69. Id. at 151.
70. See generally HAN FEI TZU, BASIC WRITINGS (Burton Watson trans., 1964), especially the selections entitled "Wielding Power" and "Precautions Within the Palace." Id. at 35, 84.
71. See Balakrishnan, supra note 45, at 27.
72. Arthur Beng Kian Lam, in 56 SING. PARL. DEB. col. 926 (15 Jan. 1991).
73. See, e.g., Balakrishnan, supra note 45, at 27.
74. See, e.g., Low Seow Chay, in 56 SING. PARL. DEB. col. 922 (15 Jan. 1991); Chin Harn Tong, in 56 SING. PARL. DEB. col. 955 (15 Jan. 1991).
75. See, e.g., Low Seow Chay, in 56 SING. PARL. DEB. col. 922 (15 Jan. 1991); Chin Harn Tong, in 56 SING. PARL. DEB. col. 955 (15 Jan. 1991).
76. See, e.g., Maurice Choo, in 56 SING. PARL. DEB. col. 951 (15 Jan. 1991).
77. Lee Siew-Choh, in 56 SING. PARL. DEB. col. 906 (15 Jan. 1991).
78. Ong Chit Chung spoke for the Shared Values White Paper. He went on to say that "they are the common values which hold us together as Singaporeans and which we cherish and we uphold. Whether we know it or not, they are instinctively our guide." 56 SING. PARL. DEB. cols. 809-10 (14 Jan. 1991).
79. Since the currency crisis in 1997, interest in Confucianism as a source of economic growth has declined as the Asian "miracles" have begun to look less miraculous. This has led to something of a decline in the attractiveness of Asian Values arguments generally; however, for reasons that are explained in the conclusion, I think there are important political reasons why such arguments will persist in the long run.
80. See, e.g., Chew Heng Ching, in 56 SING. PARL. DEB. col. 907 (15 Jan. 1991); Chng Hee Kok, in 56 SING. PARL. DEB. cols. 916-920 (15 Jan. 1991); Arthur Beng Kian Lam, in 56 SING. PARL. DEB. cols. 905-908 (15 Jan. 1991); Lew Syn Pau, in 56 SING. PARL. DEB. col. 959 (15 Jan. 1991).
81. See, e.g., Chew Heng Ching, in 56 SING. PARL. DEB. col. 907 (15 Jan. 1991); Chng Hee Kok, in 56 SING. PARL. DEB. cols. 916-920 (15 Jan. 1991); Arthur Beng Kian Lam, in 56 SING. PARL. DEB. cols. 905-908 (15 Jan. 1991); Lew Syn Pau, in 56 SING. PARL. DEB. col. 959 (15 Jan. 1991).
82. See, e.g., Chew Heng Ching, in 56 SING. PARL. DEB. col. 907 (15 Jan. 1991); Chng Hee Kok, in 56 SING. PARL. DEB. cols. 916-920 (15 Jan. 1991); Arthur Beng Kian Lam, in 56 SING. PARL. DEB. cols. 905-908 (15 Jan. 1991); Lew Syn Pau, in 56 SING. PARL. DEB. col. 959 (15 Jan. 1991).
83. See, e.g., Chew Heng Ching, in 56 SING. PARL. DEB. col. 907 (15 Jan. 1991); Chng Hee Kok, in 56 SING. PARL. DEB. cols. 916-920 (15 Jan. 1991); Arthur Beng Kian Lam, in 56 SING. PARL. DEB. cols. 905-908 (15 Jan. 1991); Lew Syn Pau, in 56 SING. PARL. DEB. col. 959 (15 Jan. 1991).
84. ALMOND & VERBA, supra note 48.
85. ROBERT D. PUTNAM ET AL., MAKING DEMOCRACY WORK: CIVIC TRADITIONS IN MODERN ITALY (1993).
86. SAMUEL P. HUNTINGTON, THE CLASH OF CIVILIZATIONS AND THE REMAKING OF WORLD ORDER (1996).
87. RONALD INCLEHART, MODERNIZATION AND POSTMODERNIZATION: CULTURAL, ECONOMIC, AND POLITICAL CHANGE IN 43 SOCIETIES (1997).
88. ALMOND & VERBA, supra note 48, at 13-14.
89. PYE, supra note 49, at vii.
90. Of the influential works cited supra, only Inglehart's Modernization and Postmodernization escapes this tendency, primarily because of the author's explicit interest in cultural change. INGLEHART, supra note 69.
91. Pye at one point suggested that this might be a legitimate goal of foreign aid policy. See LUCIAN W. PYE, POLITICS, PERSONALITY AND NATION BUILDING: BURMA'S SEARCH FOR IDENTITY 295-301 (1962).
92. See, e.g., EDMUND RONALD LEACH, POLITICAL SYSTEMS OF HIGHLAND BURMA: A STUDY OF KACHIN SOCIAL STRUCTURE (1954) (accounting how Kachin culture can oscillate between hierarchical and egalitarian forms of political organization).
93. It is significant in this respect that Almond and Verba overlook the possibility that, rather than these attitudes and orientations determining the structure of institutions, they are instead the product of interactions with pre-existing institutions. Cf. ALMOND & VERBA, supra note 48.
94. As PAP MP Arthur Beng Kian Liam put it during the Shared Values debate, quoting from the White Paper, "Westernisation has helped us to run a more rational government, and build a more efficient economy." Arthur Beng Kian Liam, in 56 SING. PARL. DEB. col. 926 (15 Jan. 1991).
95. See AREND LIJPHART, DEMOCRACY IN PLURAL SOCIETIES: A COMPARATIVE EXPLORATION (1977).
96. In the Asian context, this is familiar as Edward Said's "orientalism," using one's impressions of another culture in an effort to define "us" by contrast. EDWARD W. SAID, ORIENTALISM (1978).
97. For instance, Putnam analyzes the culture of Northern Italy, which permits democracy to "work" well there. Democracy depends on the psychological orientations of people towards each other and their community. The origins of this culture stretch back mysteriously into "the mists of the Dark Ages." PUTNAM ET AL., supra note 67, at 180.
98. See Ann-Belinda S. Preis, Human Rights as Cultural Practice: An Anthropological Critique, 18 HUM. RTS. Q. 286 (1996).
99. On this point, see K. Anthony Appiah, Identity, Authenticity, Survival: Multicultural Societies and Social Reproduction, in MULTICUITURALISM: EXAMINING THE POLITICS OF RECOGNITION 149 (Amy Gutmann ed., 1994).
100. THOMAS A. METZGER, ESCAPE FROM PREDICAMENT: NEO-CONFUCIANISM AND CHINA'S EVOLVING POLITICAL CULTURE (1977). See also David D. Laitin, Political Culture and Political Preferences, 82 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 223 (1988). Metzger's approach has been usefully employed in DAVID D. LAITIN, HEGEMONY AND CULTURE: POLITICS AND RELIGIOUS CHANGE AMONG THE YORUBA (1986).
101. THOMAS A. METZGER, ESCAPE FROM PREDICAMENT: NEO-CONFUCIANISM AND CHINA'S EVOLVING POLITICAL CULTURE (1977). See also David D. Laitin, Political Culture and Political Preferences, 82 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 223 (1988). Metzger's approach has been usefully employed in DAVID D. LAITIN, HEGEMONY AND CULTURE: POLITICS AND RELIGIOUS CHANGE AMONG THE YORUBA (1986).
102. THOMAS A. METZGER, ESCAPE FROM PREDICAMENT: NEO-CONFUCIANISM AND CHINA'S EVOLVING POLITICAL CULTURE (1977). See also David D. Laitin, Political Culture and Political Preferences, 82 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 223 (1988). Metzger's approach has been usefully employed in DAVID D. LAITIN, HEGEMONY AND CULTURE: POLITICS AND RELIGIOUS CHANGE AMONG THE YORUBA (1986).