Technocrats and politicians in an authoritarian regime. The ‘Odeplan Boys’ and the ‘Gremialists’ in Pinochet’s Chile

Journal of Latin American Studies

Volumn 32, Issue 2, 2000, Pages 461-501

  Huneeus, Carlos ^a  

^a PONTIFICIA UNIVERSIDAD CATÓLICA DE CHILE   (Chile)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AUTHORITARIANISM; ECONOMIC REFORM; POLITICAL HISTORY; TWENTIETH CENTURY;

CHILE;

EID: 0034034233     PISSN: 0022216X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0022216X00005812     Document Type: Article

References (154)

1. Letter from Claudio Orrego to Jaime Guzḿan, 29 November 1974, Jaime Guzmán Foundation.
2. Juan Gabriel Valdés, La escuela de Chicago: operción Chile (Buenos Aires, 1989).
3. There arc two collections of his newspaper articles, which express his political principles, Jaime Guzmán Errázuriz Escritos personales (Santiago, 1992); Gonzalo Rojas Sánchez et al., Derecho político. Apuntes de las clases del profesor Jaime Guzmán Errázuriz (Santiago, 1995). There is a fairly informative biography by the journalist, Manuel Salazar, Guzmán. ¿Quién, comó, por qué? (Santiago, 1994).
4. There arc two collections of his newspaper articles, which express his political principles, Jaime Guzmán Errázuriz Escritos personales (Santiago, 1992); Gonzalo Rojas Sánchez et al., Derecho político. Apuntes de las clases del profesor Jaime Guzmán Errázuriz (Santiago, 1995). There is a fairly informative biography by the journalist, Manuel Salazar, Guzmán. ¿Quién, comó, por qué? (Santiago, 1994).
5. There arc two collections of his newspaper articles, which express his political principles, Jaime Guzmán Errázuriz Escritos personales (Santiago, 1992); Gonzalo Rojas Sánchez et al., Derecho político. Apuntes de las clases del profesor Jaime Guzmán Errázuriz (Santiago, 1995). There is a fairly informative biography by the journalist, Manuel Salazar, Guzmán. ¿Quién, comó, por qué? (Santiago, 1994).
6. Manuel Délano and Hugo Traslaviña, La herencia de los Chicago boys (Santiago, 1989).
7. We have used this argument in another case of economic reforms, those initiated by President Carlos Menem in Argentina, by the economic team lead by the Minister of Economy, Domingo Cavallo, which we have mentioned before in Carlos Huneeus, 'Technocrats and Politicians in the Democratic Politics of Argentina' in Miguel A. Centeno and Patricio Silva (eds.) The Politics of Expertise in Latin America (London, 1997).
8. Further examples include the senator Hernán Larraín, who was president of the Student Union of the Faculty of Law, and vice-president (1968/69) and president (1969/70) of the FEUC. The deputies of the UDI were presidents of the FEUC, although they were appointed by the appointed Rector: Juan Antonio Coloma (1976/77), Andrés Chadwick (1977/78) and Jaime Orpis (1981/82).
9. Atilio Caorsi, elected in 1971.
10. Ernesto Illanes, the first president of the FEUC to be elected under the 'Gremialist' banner in 1968, was a member of the Supreme Tribunal of the UDI. Hernán Larraín, his successor, dedicated himself to politics within the University. After the coup, he was Director of Studies, later Vice-Rector of Communications, finally becoming Academic Vice-Rector, and the principal figure of 'gremialism' in that educational institution. He was elected as senator for the UDI in 1993 ; Tomás Irarrázabal, elected in 1970, is a counsellor for Barnechea; Javier Leturia, elected in 1972, stood as a candidate for the Chamber of Deputies for the San Antonio district, but failed to be elected. The first president of the FEUC appointed by the Rector after the coup in 1973, Arturo Fontaine Talavera, is the director of the Centro de Estudios Públicos (Centre for Public Studies), an influential right-wing think-tank. Christián Larroulet, who was a top civil-servant in ODEPLAN at the beginning of the 1980s and later, Chief of Cabinet for Hernán Büchi in the Finance Ministry, (president of the FEUC in 1974-5) is currently the executive director of the Instituto Libertad y Desarrollo (Institute of Liberty and Development), the principal academic research centre of the right, providing advice in the National Congress.
11. The numerous co-operation programmes are discussed below.
12. Kast joined ODEPLAN a few weeks after the coup, and was the right-hand man of its director, Roberto Kelly, a retired naval officer. He later became national subdirector and then director. Eventually he was named Minister of Labour and then became President of the Central Bank. There is an interesting biography, written by one of his collaborators and closest friends, Joaquin Lavin, Miguel Kast. Pasión de vivir (Santiago, 1986)
13. Of anecdotal interest is the fact that Castro was hired by the government as an advisor to the Minister of Economy, Fernando Léniz, as part of the programme to prepare the 'Map of Extreme Poverty ' commissioned to the Economics Faculty of the Catholic University by ODEPLAN. His name is in the contract signed between both institutios that I researched at the MIDEPLAN archives. We shall return to this study later on.
14. Until Pinochet was named President in June 1974, the acts are only a brief summary of the issues raised, and the positions of those who participated in the sessions of the Government Junta. The four members of the Junta met regularly, sometimes including high ranking government ministers or officials in these meetings.
15. Actas de la Honorable Junta de Gobierno (AHJG), 13 September 1973. Other than the appointments in the Ministry of Foreign Relations, which were dealt with by the Junta in the first months after the coup, the case of ODEPLAN was the only one to be analysed by this body in these months, which is a sign of the importance that was attached to it.
16. The Unidad Popular refers to the government of Salvator Allende, president from 1970 until the coup in 1973. It consisted of a leftist coalition between socialists and marxist parties.
17. Moreover, he was very close to Admiral Gotuzzo, who was Minister of Finance. They were term mates at the Naval School, which made close co-operation easier between the two public agencies.
18. Arturo Fontaine Aldunate, Los economistas y el Presidente Pinochet (Santiago, 1988).
19. The value in December 1997 with an exchange rate of $445 pesos to the US dollar.
20. This important co-operation between ODEPLAN and the Catholic University is not mentioned apart from an oblique reference in the official history of the University to the project to evaluate the socio-economic impact of projects, in Ricardo Krebs, M. Angélica Muñoz and Patricio Valdivieso, Historia de la Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile (Santiago, 1988).
21. 'The incapacity to solve the problem of succession, or to put it another way, to establish a regular succession mechanism, is the Achilles' Heel of dictatorial systems', Giovanni Sartori, 'Notas para una teoria general de la dictadura', Opciones, no.11, (March-August 1987), pp. 183-215, The quote is from p. 214.
22. In 1989, the UDI obtained 9.8% of the total vote, in 1993 12.1 % and in 1997 14.4%.
23. Arturo Fontaine Aldunate, Los economistas y el Presidente Pinochet.
24. For example, see Patricio Silva's interesting article, ' Technocrats and politics in Chile: from the Chicago Boys to CIEPLAN Monks', Journal of Latin American Studies, Vol. 23, No. 2 (1992), pp. 385-410.
25. There is a wide bibliography on the political economy during the military regime. See the book of the Minister of Finance during the 1980s, Hernán Büchi, La transformación económica de Chile. Del estatismo a la libertad económica (Bogotá, 1993) ; Patricio Meller, Un siglo de economía política chilena (1890-1990) (Santiago, 1996); Alejandro Foxley, Experimentos neoliberales en América Latina, Estudios CIEPLAN 7 (Santiago, 1982).
26. There is a wide bibliography on the political economy during the military regime. See the book of the Minister of Finance during the 1980s, Hernán Büchi, La transformación económica de Chile. Del estatismo a la libertad económica (Bogotá, 1993) ; Patricio Meller, Un siglo de economía política chilena (1890-1990) (Santiago, 1996); Alejandro Foxley, Experimentos neoliberales en América Latina, Estudios CIEPLAN 7 (Santiago, 1982).
27. There is a wide bibliography on the political economy during the military regime. See the book of the Minister of Finance during the 1980s, Hernán Büchi, La transformación económica de Chile. Del estatismo a la libertad económica (Bogotá, 1993) ; Patricio Meller, Un siglo de economía política chilena (1890-1990) (Santiago, 1996); Alejandro Foxley, Experimentos neoliberales en América Latina, Estudios CIEPLAN 7 (Santiago, 1982).
28. See Verónica Montecinos ' Economists and Democratic Transition: The Quest for Governability in Chile', in Diane Ethier, (ed.) Democratic Transition and Consolidation in Southern Europe, Latina America and Southeast Asia (London, 1990).
29. Examples range from the Economics Minister Pablo Baraona, who had been president of the FEUC and member of the Partido Nacional (National Party), to Miguel Kast who had been the top student 'gremialist' leader in the Catholic University. Kast later became general secretary of his student federation (FEUC), in the directory elected after the presidential elections of 4 September 1970, in which Unidad Popular triumphed.
30. Patricio Silva, 'Technocrats and Politics in Chile'.
31. For a description of the university reforms in the principal universities, see Carlos Huneeus, La reforma universitaria, viente años después (Santiago, 1988)
32. We use this concept following Klaus von Beyme, Vom Faschismum zur Entwicklungsdiktatur -Machtelite und Opposition in Spanien (Munich, 1971).
33. There is too wide a bibliography on the Thatcher government's economic reforms to list it here. From a political perspective, and by means of an example, we recommend Mariusz Mark Dobek, 'Privatisation as a Political Priority: the British Experience', Political Studies, Vol. XLI, No. I (1993), pp. 24-40; a good summary from an economic point of view is Dennis Swan's The Retreat of the State, Deregulation and Privatisation in the UK and US (Hertfordshire, 1988).
34. There is too wide a bibliography on the Thatcher government's economic reforms to list it here. From a political perspective, and by means of an example, we recommend Mariusz Mark Dobek, 'Privatisation as a Political Priority: the British Experience', Political Studies, Vol. XLI, No. I (1993), pp. 24-40; a good summary from an economic point of view is Dennis Swan's The Retreat of the State, Deregulation and Privatisation in the UK and US (Hertfordshire, 1988).
35. We have analysed the economic reforms in Argentina in Carlos Huneeus, ' Technocrats and Politicians in the Democratic Politics of Argentina (1983-1995).
36. Héctor E Schamis ' Economia politica conservadora en América Latina, y Europa occidental: Los orígenes políticos de la privatizació;n', in Oscar Muñoz (ed.) Después de las privatizaciones. Hacia el estado regulador (Santiago, 1993).
37. There is a very wide bibliography available. See, John Johnson (comp.) The Role of the Military in Underdeveloped Countries (Princeton, 1962); The Military and Society in Latin America (Stanford, 1964); Martin Needler, 'Political Development and Military Intervention in Latin America', in American Political Science Review, vol. 60 (1966), pp. 616-626; 'Political Development and Socioeconomic Development: the Case of Latin America', American Political Science Review, vol. 62 (1968), pp. 889-897; Philippe C Schmitter (ed.) Military Rule in Latin America. Functions, Consequences and Perspectives, (London, 1973).
38. There is a very wide bibliography available. See, John Johnson (comp.) The Role of the Military in Underdeveloped Countries (Princeton, 1962); The Military and Society in Latin America (Stanford, 1964); Martin Needler, 'Political Development and Military Intervention in Latin America', in American Political Science Review, vol. 60 (1966), pp. 616-626; 'Political Development and Socioeconomic Development: the Case of Latin America', American Political Science Review, vol. 62 (1968), pp. 889-897; Philippe C Schmitter (ed.) Military Rule in Latin America. Functions, Consequences and Perspectives, (London, 1973).
39. There is a very wide bibliography available. See, John Johnson (comp.) The Role of the Military in Underdeveloped Countries (Princeton, 1962); The Military and Society in Latin America (Stanford, 1964); Martin Needler, 'Political Development and Military Intervention in Latin America', in American Political Science Review, vol. 60 (1966), pp. 616-626; 'Political Development and Socioeconomic Development: the Case of Latin America', American Political Science Review, vol. 62 (1968), pp. 889-897; Philippe C Schmitter (ed.) Military Rule in Latin America. Functions, Consequences and Perspectives, (London, 1973).
40. There is a very wide bibliography available. See, John Johnson (comp.) The Role of the Military in Underdeveloped Countries (Princeton, 1962); The Military and Society in Latin America (Stanford, 1964); Martin Needler, 'Political Development and Military Intervention in Latin America', in American Political Science Review, vol. 60 (1966), pp. 616-626; 'Political Development and Socioeconomic Development: the Case of Latin America', American Political Science Review, vol. 62 (1968), pp. 889-897; Philippe C Schmitter (ed.) Military Rule in Latin America. Functions, Consequences and Perspectives, (London, 1973).
41. There is a very wide bibliography available. See, John Johnson (comp.) The Role of the Military in Underdeveloped Countries (Princeton, 1962); The Military and Society in Latin America (Stanford, 1964); Martin Needler, 'Political Development and Military Intervention in Latin America', in American Political Science Review, vol. 60 (1966), pp. 616-626; 'Political Development and Socioeconomic Development: the Case of Latin America', American Political Science Review, vol. 62 (1968), pp. 889-897; Philippe C Schmitter (ed.) Military Rule in Latin America. Functions, Consequences and Perspectives, (London, 1973).
42. The similarity in the exceptionality of Pinochet's Chile and Franco's Spain is pointed out, for example, in ' Tradition und Modernisierung in Ostmitteleuropa, Südostasien un Lateinamerika, Drei vergleichende Kommentare' 1991-2, Transit 3, Winter, pp. 206-210, with comments by Peter L. Berger, Robert P Weller and Barry L. Levine.
43. Stanley G Payne, The Franco Regime 1936-1975 (Madison, 1987). See his three volume Memoirs, Barcelona, Plaza and Janés, Cambio 16, 12990-1992. There are other important differences: the economic reforms in Spain were strongly supported by Franco's number two, Carrero Blanco, something which did not occur in Chile since Pinochet did not need a collaborator. There is an interesting biography written by the historian, Javier Tusell, Carrero. La eminencia gris del régimen de Franco (Madrid, 1993).
44. Stanley G Payne, The Franco Regime 1936-1975 (Madison, 1987). See his three volume Memoirs, Barcelona, Plaza and Janés, Cambio 16, 12990-1992. There are other important differences: the economic reforms in Spain were strongly supported by Franco's number two, Carrero Blanco, something which did not occur in Chile since Pinochet did not need a collaborator. There is an interesting biography written by the historian, Javier Tusell, Carrero. La eminencia gris del régimen de Franco (Madrid, 1993).
45. Stanley G Payne, The Franco Regime 1936-1975 (Madison, 1987). See his three volume Memoirs, Barcelona, Plaza and Janés, Cambio 16, 12990-1992. There are other important differences: the economic reforms in Spain were strongly supported by Franco's number two, Carrero Blanco, something which did not occur in Chile since Pinochet did not need a collaborator. There is an interesting biography written by the historian, Javier Tusell, Carrero. La eminencia gris del régimen de Franco (Madrid, 1993).
46. Carlos Huneeus, 'La autodisolución de la democracia protegida en Chile. Cambios institucionales y el fin del régimen del general Pinochet', Revista de Ciencia Polítics, Vol. XIX, no. I (1997), pp. 61-86.
47. Ernst Fraenkel, Der Doppelstaat. Recht und Justiz im 'Dritten Reich' (Frankfurt, 1984), edición original en inglé de 1941.
48. David Collier, (ed.) The New Authoritarianism in Latin America (Princeton, 1979).
49. The crisis and fall of democracy was analysed in the author's doctoral thesis, Carlos Huneeus, Der Zusammenbruch der Demokratie in Chile. Eine vergleichende Analyse (Heidelberg, 1980).
50. The concept of military hegemony follows Alain Rouquié 'Hegemonía militar, estado y dominación social', in his compilation, Argentina boy (México, 1982). This French political scientist is the author of an extremely important study of the military and politics in Argentina, Poder militar y sociedad politica en la Argentina, I. Hasta 1943 (Buenos Aires, 1981)
51. The concept of military hegemony follows Alain Rouquié 'Hegemonía militar, estado y dominación social', in his compilation, Argentina boy (México, 1982). This French political scientist is the author of an extremely important study of the military and politics in Argentina, Poder militar y sociedad politica en la Argentina, I. Hasta 1943 (Buenos Aires, 1981)
52. The concept of military hegemony follows Alain Rouquié 'Hegemonía militar, estado y dominación social', in his compilation, Argentina boy (México, 1982). This French political scientist is the author of an extremely important study of the military and politics in Argentina, Poder militar y sociedad politica en la Argentina, I. Hasta 1943 (Buenos Aires, 1981)
53. Anibal Pinto, Chile, un caso de desarrollo frustrado (Santiago, 1957).
54. We have taken this label from Alejandro Foxley, Experimentos neoliberales en America Latina, Estudios CIEPLAN 7, 1982.
55. Foxley, Meller, Büchi.
56. The concept of economic transformation has been applied to the changes from socialists economies to market economies, but it is useful to use it in the Chilean case. One of the first conceptualisations was done by Norbert Kloten, Die Transformation von Wirtschaftsordnungen, Tübingen, 1991); Lothar Brock: 'Lateinamerikanisierung des Ostens? Zur Wechselwirkung zwischen Demokratisierung und wirtschaftlichen Transformation', in Lothar Brock and Ingornar Hauchler (eds.) Entwicklung in Mittel und Osteuropa. Über Chancen un Risiken der Transformation (Bonn, 1993) pp. 165-98.
57. The concept of economic transformation has been applied to the changes from socialists economies to market economies, but it is useful to use it in the Chilean case. One of the first conceptualisations was done by Norbert Kloten, Die Transformation von Wirtschaftsordnungen, Tübingen, 1991); Lothar Brock: 'Lateinamerikanisierung des Ostens? Zur Wechselwirkung zwischen Demokratisierung und wirtschaftlichen Transformation', in Lothar Brock and Ingornar Hauchler (eds.) Entwicklung in Mittel und Osteuropa. Über Chancen un Risiken der Transformation (Bonn, 1993) pp. 165-98.
58. Cecilia Montero, La revolución empresarial chilena (Santiago, 1997).
59. We have developed this concept in another article in which we analyse the military regime, Carlos Huneeus, ' The Pinochet Regime: A Comparative Analysis with the Franco Regime ', in Scott Mainwaring and Arturo Valenzuela, (eds.) Politics, Society and Democracy. Latin America (Boulder, 1997), pp. 71-99.
60. See Tomás Moulián's excellent analysis of the terror in, Anatomía de un mito (Santiago, ARCIS/FLACSO, 1997).
61. For example, the murder of Carlos Prats and his wife, the ex Commander in Chief of the Army and vice-president of the Republic during Salvador Allende's government, in Buenos Aires on 30 September 1974; the murder of Orlando Letelier, one of Allende's ministers and a member of the Socialist Party, in Washington DC on 26 September 1976; or the failed attempted against Bernardo Leighton and his wife, ex minister of the Interior and also ex Vice-President of the Republic, in Rome during September 1975.
62. Although it must be noted that by 1982 General Contreras was no longer in charge of the DINA, which had been renamed CNI in 1977.
63. This was analysed in Carlos Huneeus, 'La política de la apertura y sus implicaciones para la inauguración de la democracia en Chile', Revista de Ciencia Politica, vol. VII, no. 1 (1985), pp. 25-84.
64. Mónica Madariaga, who, to begin with, was General Pinochet's legal adviser from 1973 onwards, then Minister of Justice (1977-83), Minister of Education (1983-84) and finally Ambassador to the OAS up until January 1985 when she resigned. See the interesting interview by Sergio Marras, Confesiones (Santiago, 1988), pp. 59-94. The quote is from p. 91 and the emphasis is added.
65. Henry Landsberger y Tim McDaniel, ' Hypermobilization in Chile, 1970-1973 ', World Politics, Vol. 28, No. 4, 1976, pp. 502-41.
66. S. M. Lipset, 'University Student Politics' in the book compiled jointly with S. Wolin, The Berkeley Student Revolt. Facts and Interpretations (New York, 1965)
67. The Christian Democratic Party was very proud of being the most important force within the universities from the beginning of the 1960s before being elected as a government, George Grayson, El Partido Demócrata Cristiano chileno (Buenos Aires, Editorial Francisco de Aguirre, 1965).
68. The Liberals lost all but 6 of their 28 seats, and the Conservatives 3 of their former 17.
69. Some of his articles are to be found in Jaime Guzmán, Escritos personales. The main articles in which he sets out his political position are reproduced in Estudios Públicos, NO, 42, 1991.
70. His courage in opposing the university reform in 1967 had a huge impact on his fellow students. He also made himself popular for his polemic ability, which never failed him when he faced his opponents. An often quoted example of this was the forum with Luciano Cruz, the principal student leader of the Movimiento de Izquierda Revolucionaria (Revolutionary Left Movement) (MIR), who had been President of the Student's Union at the University of Concepción. In this forum the right-wing students saw their principal leader debate with great strength and success, against the main figure of the radical Left.
71. The leadership was in the hands of Rodrigo Ambrosio, who was joined by Juan Enrique Vega, Enrique Correa and Jaime Gazmuri, who were the successive presidents of the JDC up until its rupture with the PDC in 1969. They were all ex alumni of the Catholic University. This was examined in, Carlos Huneeus, Movimiento estudiantil y generación de élites dirigentes (Santiago, 1973).
72. Kast had been a supporter of the DC.
73. In the elections of 1971, Atilio Caorsi was elected president, Felipe Lamarca vice president and javier Leturia general secretary. Arturo Fontaine Talavera and Tomás Irarrázabal, the president who was stepping down, among others, were elected representatives to the student committees. In these same elections, diverse gremialist leaders were elected to the Executive Committee of the FEUC -Marcos Zylebelberg, Arturo Fontaine, Cristóbal Philippi and Rodrigo Mujica. In this same year they easily won the elections in the student unions of the Faculties of Law, Engineering, Education and Economics. See Debate Universitario, Nos 21, 30 and 32, 1971.
74. He was Mayor of Santiago between 1983 and 1987.
75. The list of candidates among the professors and students can be found in the Gremialist Movement Manifesto 'Lista de candidatos gremialistas'.
76. The text, together with the 15 organisations that signed it, among which were the Sociedad de Fomento Fabril, la Cámara Central de Comercio and the Cámara National de la Construction, together with organisations of small businesses like the taxi drivers and peasant farmers, is reproduced in El Mercurio, 23 October 1972, reproduced in Miguel González Pino and Arturo Fontaine Talavera, (eds) Los mil dias de Allende (Santiago, 1997), volume I, pp. 503-505.
77. The text, together with the 15 organisations that signed it, among which were the Sociedad de Fomento Fabril, la Cámara Central de Comercio and the Cámara National de la Construction, together with organisations of small businesses like the taxi drivers and peasant farmers, is reproduced in El Mercurio, 23 October 1972, reproduced in Miguel González Pino and Arturo Fontaine Talavera, (eds) Los mil dias de Allende (Santiago, 1997), volume I, pp. 503-505.
78. See the narration of these events in an article of the FEUC magazine of the time, Presencia, reproduced by González Pino and Fontaine Talavera (eds.) Los mil dias de Allende, Volume 2, pp. 1255-1262.
79. This conflict has been described by him in his memoirs, Volume III, Cardenal Raúl Silva Henríquez, Memories, (Santiago, 1992). This incident is not mentioned in the official history of the Catholic University, Ricard Krebs et al. Historia de la Pontifica Universidad Católica de Chile.
80. This conflict has been described by him in his memoirs, Volume III, Cardenal Raúl Silva Henríquez, Memories, (Santiago, 1992). This incident is not mentioned in the official history of the Catholic University, Ricard Krebs et al. Historia de la Pontifica Universidad Católica de Chile.
81. See Fontaine Aldunate. Piñera joined the UDI after Guzmán's assassination in 1991 and was elected councillor for Conchalí in the municipal elections of 1992, but he abandoned the party after a few months. This confirms that he was a person who did not feel a member of the ' Gremialists '.
82. On the 'Structuralist School', see Joseph Grunwald, ' The Structuralist ' school of price stabilisation and economic development: the Chilean case', in Hirschman, A, Latin American Issues, (New York, 1961), pp. 95 -123.
83. Bolivar Lamounier and Fernando Henrique Cardoso (eds.) Os partidos e as eleicioes no Brasil (Rio de Janeiro, 1978); Maria Diálva Gil Kinzo, Oposicao e autoritarismo. Gense a trajetória do MDB (Sao Paulo, 1988).
84. Bolivar Lamounier and Fernando Henrique Cardoso (eds.) Os partidos e as eleicioes no Brasil (Rio de Janeiro, 1978); Maria Diálva Gil Kinzo, Oposicao e autoritarismo. Gense a trajetória do MDB (Sao Paulo, 1988).
85. Juan Linz, ' From Falange to Movimiento-Organización: The Spanish Single Party and the Franco Regime, 1936-1968' in S. Huntington and C. Moore (Comp., ), Authoritarian Politics in Modern Society (New York, 1970), p. 151, See the description by the last leader of the Falange, of how Franco marginalised them, José Luis de Arresse, Una etapa constituyente (Barcelona, 1982).
86. Juan Linz, ' From Falange to Movimiento-Organización: The Spanish Single Party and the Franco Regime, 1936-1968' in S. Huntington and C. Moore (Comp., ), Authoritarian Politics in Modern Society (New York, 1970), p. 151, See the description by the last leader of the Falange, of how Franco marginalised them, José Luis de Arresse, Una etapa constituyente (Barcelona, 1982).
87. For example, Karen Remmer, Military Rule in Latin America (Boston, 1989). The opposing thesis, which depicts a weak dictator, which was also not the case, is argued by Robert J. Barros, By Reason and Force: Military Constitutionalism in Chile, 1973-1989, unpub. doctoral thesis, University of Chicago, 1996.
88. For example, Karen Remmer, Military Rule in Latin America (Boston, 1989). The opposing thesis, which depicts a weak dictator, which was also not the case, is argued by Robert J. Barros, By Reason and Force: Military Constitutionalism in Chile, 1973-1989, unpub. doctoral thesis, University of Chicago, 1996.
89. Declaración de Principios de la Junta de Gobierno, 11 March 1974, p. 25.
90. Complete text in La Nación, 12 September 1980.
91. Jaime Guzmán pointed out that the proposed movement was not a political party, but this was rather a way of strengthening the support for the government around local government. See 'Diversas opiniones en torno a movimiento cívico-military', La Segunda, 13 September 1980. Guzmán rejected the idea because of its fascist content: ' Si se trata de un partido político, ello no podría impedirse, salvo que se trata de un partido único de corte fascista. Pero bajo un régimen militar y con receso político estimo que el movimiento debe tener solamente alcance en el ámbito municipal', La Segunda, ibid.
92. Jaime Guzmán pointed out that the proposed movement was not a political party, but this was rather a way of strengthening the support for the government around local government. See 'Diversas opiniones en torno a movimiento cívico-military', La Segunda, 13 September 1980. Guzmán rejected the idea because of its fascist content: ' Si se trata de un partido político, ello no podría impedirse, salvo que se trata de un partido único de corte fascista. Pero bajo un régimen militar y con receso político estimo que el movimiento debe tener solamente alcance en el ámbito municipal', La Segunda, ibid.
93. 'Frente Juvenil: Un respaldo cívico al Gobierno ', Qué Pasa, no. 281, 9 Sept. 1976, pp. 6-8. The public relations executive, Manfredo Mayol, General Manager of Televisión Nacional, was also there, as were many others.
94. See Qué Pasa, no. 281, 9 Sept 1976, pp. 7-8.
95. 'Jaime Guzmán habla del Frente Juventil', Qué Pasa, no. 281, 9 Sept 1976, pp. 8-10. The quote is from p. 9. Leturia explains further the differences in the functions of the Frente and those of the Youth Secretariat in that the Frente sought to establish permanent links between young people and the Government, while the Secretariat 'by its very nature is not able to achieve militancy or permanent adhesion'. See Frente Juvenil, 'Un respaldo cívico al Gobierno', Qué Pasa, no. 281
96. 'Jaime Guzmán habla del Frente Juventil', Qué Pasa, no. 281, 9 Sept 1976, pp. 8-10. The quote is from p. 9. Leturia explains further the differences in the functions of the Frente and those of the Youth Secretariat in that the Frente sought to establish permanent links between young people and the Government, while the Secretariat 'by its very nature is not able to achieve militancy or permanent adhesion'. See Frente Juvenil, 'Un respaldo cívico al Gobierno', Qué Pasa, no. 281, 9 Sept, p. 7.
97. ' Jaime Guzmán: Comidillas de viejas materias', QuéPasa, 3 Feb. 1977, pp. 6-7. Jaime Guzmán was called to testify in court to explain his participation. See Ascanio Cavallo et al., La historia oculta del régimen militar Santiago, 1989, p. 157.
98. ' Jaime Guzmán: Comidillas de viejas materias', QuéPasa, 3 Feb. 1977, pp. 6-7. Jaime Guzmán was called to testify in court to explain his participation. See Ascanio Cavallo et al., La historia oculta del régimen militar Santiago, 1989, p. 157.
99. Guzmán wrote numerous press articles in favour of Alessandri. 'Don Jorge con la juventud' Ercilla 1 Feb. 1984, p. 12; 'Jorge Alessandri: su pensamiento político' Ercilla 18 Dec. 1985, p. 12; '90 años de don Jorge', La Tercera de la Hora, 18 May 1986, p.2; 'Don Jorge: un espíritu superior', La Tercera de la Hora 7 Sept.1986, p.2; 'Alessandri y una lección muy actual'. La Tercera de la Hora 28 Dec. 1986, p. 2; 'El consejo y la confianza de don Jorge' La Tercera de la Hora 18 Jan.1987, p. 2. He also included diverse articles in his column in the newspaper, La Segunda: see, for example 'Otra lección de don Jorge', 2 Dec. 1983 ; ' En torno al mensaje de don Jorge', 27 Jan. 1984 y 'La principal obra de Don Jorge', 6 Sept. 1985.
100. Guzmán wrote numerous press articles in favour of Alessandri. 'Don Jorge con la juventud' Ercilla 1 Feb. 1984, p. 12; 'Jorge Alessandri: su pensamiento político' Ercilla 18 Dec. 1985, p. 12; '90 años de don Jorge', La Tercera de la Hora, 18 May 1986, p.2; 'Don Jorge: un espíritu superior', La Tercera de la Hora 7 Sept.1986, p.2; 'Alessandri y una lección muy actual'. La Tercera de la Hora 28 Dec. 1986, p. 2; 'El consejo y la confianza de don Jorge' La Tercera de la Hora 18 Jan.1987, p. 2. He also included diverse articles in his column in the newspaper, La Segunda: see, for example 'Otra lección de don Jorge', 2 Dec. 1983 ; ' En torno al mensaje de don Jorge', 27 Jan. 1984 y 'La principal obra de Don Jorge', 6 Sept. 1985.
101. Guzmán wrote numerous press articles in favour of Alessandri. 'Don Jorge con la juventud' Ercilla 1 Feb. 1984, p. 12; 'Jorge Alessandri: su pensamiento político' Ercilla 18 Dec. 1985, p. 12; '90 años de don Jorge', La Tercera de la Hora, 18 May 1986, p.2; 'Don Jorge: un espíritu superior', La Tercera de la Hora 7 Sept.1986, p.2; 'Alessandri y una lección muy actual'. La Tercera de la Hora 28 Dec. 1986, p. 2; 'El consejo y la confianza de don Jorge' La Tercera de la Hora 18 Jan.1987, p. 2. He also included diverse articles in his column in the newspaper, La Segunda: see, for example 'Otra lección de don Jorge', 2 Dec. 1983 ; ' En torno al mensaje de don Jorge', 27 Jan. 1984 y 'La principal obra de Don Jorge', 6 Sept. 1985.
102. Guzmán wrote numerous press articles in favour of Alessandri. 'Don Jorge con la juventud' Ercilla 1 Feb. 1984, p. 12; 'Jorge Alessandri: su pensamiento político' Ercilla 18 Dec. 1985, p. 12; '90 años de don Jorge', La Tercera de la Hora, 18 May 1986, p.2; 'Don Jorge: un espíritu superior', La Tercera de la Hora 7 Sept.1986, p.2; 'Alessandri y una lección muy actual'. La Tercera de la Hora 28 Dec. 1986, p. 2; 'El consejo y la confianza de don Jorge' La Tercera de la Hora 18 Jan.1987, p. 2. He also included diverse articles in his column in the newspaper, La Segunda: see, for example 'Otra lección de don Jorge', 2 Dec. 1983 ; ' En torno al mensaje de don Jorge', 27 Jan. 1984 y 'La principal obra de Don Jorge', 6 Sept. 1985.
103. Guzmán wrote numerous press articles in favour of Alessandri. 'Don Jorge con la juventud' Ercilla 1 Feb. 1984, p. 12; 'Jorge Alessandri: su pensamiento político' Ercilla 18 Dec. 1985, p. 12; '90 años de don Jorge', La Tercera de la Hora, 18 May 1986, p.2; 'Don Jorge: un espíritu superior', La Tercera de la Hora 7 Sept.1986, p.2; 'Alessandri y una lección muy actual'. La Tercera de la Hora 28 Dec. 1986, p. 2; 'El consejo y la confianza de don Jorge' La Tercera de la Hora 18 Jan.1987, p. 2. He also included diverse articles in his column in the newspaper, La Segunda: see, for example 'Otra lección de don Jorge', 2 Dec. 1983 ; ' En torno al mensaje de don Jorge', 27 Jan. 1984 y 'La principal obra de Don Jorge', 6 Sept. 1985.
104. Guzmán wrote numerous press articles in favour of Alessandri. 'Don Jorge con la juventud' Ercilla 1 Feb. 1984, p. 12; 'Jorge Alessandri: su pensamiento político' Ercilla 18 Dec. 1985, p. 12; '90 años de don Jorge', La Tercera de la Hora, 18 May 1986, p.2; 'Don Jorge: un espíritu superior', La Tercera de la Hora 7 Sept.1986, p.2; 'Alessandri y una lección muy actual'. La Tercera de la Hora 28 Dec. 1986, p. 2; 'El consejo y la confianza de don Jorge' La Tercera de la Hora 18 Jan.1987, p. 2. He also included diverse articles in his column in the newspaper, La Segunda: see, for example 'Otra lección de don Jorge', 2 Dec. 1983 ; ' En torno al mensaje de don Jorge', 27 Jan. 1984 y 'La principal obra de Don Jorge', 6 Sept. 1985.
105. Guzmán wrote numerous press articles in favour of Alessandri. 'Don Jorge con la juventud' Ercilla 1 Feb. 1984, p. 12; 'Jorge Alessandri: su pensamiento político' Ercilla 18 Dec. 1985, p. 12; '90 años de don Jorge', La Tercera de la Hora, 18 May 1986, p.2; 'Don Jorge: un espíritu superior', La Tercera de la Hora 7 Sept.1986, p.2; 'Alessandri y una lección muy actual'. La Tercera de la Hora 28 Dec. 1986, p. 2; 'El consejo y la confianza de don Jorge' La Tercera de la Hora 18 Jan.1987, p. 2. He also included diverse articles in his column in the newspaper, La Segunda: see, for example 'Otra lección de don Jorge', 2 Dec. 1983 ; ' En torno al mensaje de don Jorge', 27 Jan. 1984 y 'La principal obra de Don Jorge', 6 Sept. 1985.
106. Guzmán wrote numerous press articles in favour of Alessandri. 'Don Jorge con la juventud' Ercilla 1 Feb. 1984, p. 12; 'Jorge Alessandri: su pensamiento político' Ercilla 18 Dec. 1985, p. 12; '90 años de don Jorge', La Tercera de la Hora, 18 May 1986, p.2; 'Don Jorge: un espíritu superior', La Tercera de la Hora 7 Sept.1986, p.2; 'Alessandri y una lección muy actual'. La Tercera de la Hora 28 Dec. 1986, p. 2; 'El consejo y la confianza de don Jorge' La Tercera de la Hora 18 Jan.1987, p. 2. He also included diverse articles in his column in the newspaper, La Segunda: see, for example 'Otra lección de don Jorge', 2 Dec. 1983 ; ' En torno al mensaje de don Jorge', 27 Jan. 1984 y 'La principal obra de Don Jorge', 6 Sept. 1985.
107. Guzmán wrote numerous press articles in favour of Alessandri. 'Don Jorge con la juventud' Ercilla 1 Feb. 1984, p. 12; 'Jorge Alessandri: su pensamiento político' Ercilla 18 Dec. 1985, p. 12; '90 años de don Jorge', La Tercera de la Hora, 18 May 1986, p.2; 'Don Jorge: un espíritu superior', La Tercera de la Hora 7 Sept.1986, p.2; 'Alessandri y una lección muy actual'. La Tercera de la Hora 28 Dec. 1986, p. 2; 'El consejo y la confianza de don Jorge' La Tercera de la Hora 18 Jan.1987, p. 2. He also included diverse articles in his column in the newspaper, La Segunda: see, for example 'Otra lección de don Jorge', 2 Dec. 1983 ; ' En torno al mensaje de don Jorge', 27 Jan. 1984 y 'La principal obra de Don Jorge', 6 Sept. 1985.
108. For example, the Minister of the Interior informing that Rosende 'technically' backs-up the legal changes that prevented Jaime Castillo Velasco, a leading PDC politician and human rights defender, from returning to the country after his expulsion in 1976. AHJG 340, 1977.
109. Jaime Guzmán, 'El Camino Politico', Realidad, vol. 1, no.7 Dec. 1979, pp. 13-23. Quote is from p. 23. The article is also published in Estudios Públicos, no. 42, 1991, pp. 369-383.
110. Jaime Guzmán, 'El Camino Politico', Realidad, vol. 1, no.7 Dec. 1979, pp. 13-23. Quote is from p. 23. The article is also published in Estudios Públicos, no. 42, 1991, pp. 369-383.
111. Derecho político. Apuntes de las clases del profesor Jaime Guzmán Errázuriz, p. 149.
112. Ibid. p. 150.
113. Ibid.p. 150.
114. Ibid. p. 151. This text can also been found in the book Jaime Guzmán, Escritos personales.
115. Ibid. p. 151. This text can also been found in the book Jaime Guzmán, Escritos personales.
116. During a meeting with university students from Cardenal Caro hall of residence, according to Salazar, in Guzmán. i¿ Quien, cómo, por qué?.
117. There are about 500 letters, although a large proportion are greetings or thank you letters he was sent, which have been careful revised.
118. Article 1, part of law 16.635. The law was passed on 22 September 1967, and published on 30 October 1967.
119. Article 2 of law 16.635.
120. Ibid., Article 3.
121. Of the staff, 150 were management, professional, including 15 technical staff, as well as 46 administrative staff.
122. For example, Fernán Ibáñez, engineer, was put in charge of the ORPLAN in Arica; Florencio Ceballos, lawyer, headed the Antofogasta office.
123. Further examples include Felipe Lamarca, head of Sergio Castro's office and later director of the Tax Office, was vice president of the FEUC 1971/72 board and Ernesto Silva, who was one of Kast's principal collaborators in ODEPLAN, was president of the Economics Faculty Student Union and an active leader in the Gremialist movement, and several other members of the economic team.
124. He was considered the ' great recruiter ' of people able to occupy posts in the public administration, Lavin, Miguel Kast, p, 65.
125. The list of these companies can be found in Dominique Hachette and Rolf Lüders, La privatización en Chile (Santiago, 1992).
126. Raúl Saez, Minister of Economic Coordination criticised the public licitation of the company PANAL, which belonged to the Hirmas family, and was nationalised during the Popular Unity government. Corfo assigned the private transaction to another businessman called Kassis, without even requiring a bond of guarantee. See AHGJG, session 200-A, 6 June 1975. The argument became so heated that the minutes show that 'the recording was suspended'. In the following session, that afternoon, Saez once more raised the PANAL issue and Pinochet suggested discussing the issue publicly since there were several ministers present (Session 201-A, 6 June 1975). This provoked an argument with Soza which ended with Pinochet explicitly repremanding him and countermanding his decision. Soza left the government several weeks later.
127. A supporter of the conspiracy theories would point out this detail: the close relations between the military regime and authoritarian Brazil took place at different levels of state, not just at the security and intelligence level that James R. Whelan alludes to in Desde las cenizas. Vida, muerte y transfiguración de la democracia en Chile, 1933-1988 (Santiago, 1993): 'The DINA was largely designed according to the model of the Brazilian intelligence service, that the Brazilian military regime established after taking power in 1964. According to a reliable source, the Brazilians, who had worked closely together with the revolutionary government from the beginning, recommended that the Chilians establish it. '
128. ODEPLAN's broad sweeping and scrupulously exact presentation was headed by Tomás Lackington, who was at pains to assure Pinochet that all of CORFO's projects had been included in his tax-list. The version of his presentation, as well as the debate can be found in AHJG, session 176, 3 Dec. 1974.
129. See María Teresa Infante, Pedro Larroulet, Carolina Naranjo and Miguel Kast ' Estudio sobre reforma previsional', photocopy, ODEPLAN, 1974.
130. Ibid, p. 56.
131. See Reforma previsional. Comentarios de ODEPLAN al proyecto del Ministerio del Trabajo, ODEPLAN, 1974.
132. Head of the Personnel Department and the head of the Finance Department.
133. José Yuraszeck, national sub-director, Mario Manrique, administrative sub-director, Francisco León Délano, head of the Investment Department, and Juan Enrique Castro, head of the Support Department are engineers; Francisco Covarrubias, regional sub-director, Gerardo Jofre, head of the Planning Department, Ricardo Silva Mena, head of the Research Department, Raúl Carrasco, head of the International Technical Cooperation Department are economists.
134. th Region of Araucania.
135. Lavin, Miguel Kast, p. 56.
136. The Fundación Chile in 1997 carried out an in depth evaluation of the President of the Republic Scholarship Program titled, Análisis y propuestas Programa de Becas DFL 22 de 1981 MIDEPLAN y AGCI. Programa de perfeccionamiento en el extranjero, AGCI-Fundación Chile, no date. Annexes to the study include the list of Presidential Scholarship recipients on file at AGCI. We have looked through these files held at MIDEPLAN, but they cover far fewer than the total number of recipients. Those awarded scholarships for clearly political reasons, for example, are not on file at MIDEPLAN. The study covers scholarships given up to 1992, and includes a survey of participants upon their return to Chile. We have not analyzed this study because it examines very few cases and does not distinguish those who were granted scholarships during the authoritarain regime, which is precicely what we are interested in.
137. 43% of recipients sought masters degrees, 41 % doctorates and 16% some other type of specialisation.
138. Programa Especial de Becas D. F. L. 22/81, Aug. 1990. ODEPLAN.
139. The Konrad Adenauer Foundation of West Germany awarded five scholarships annually to Chilean professionals linked to the Christian Democratic Party.
140. Decree No. 176, 17 June 1978.
141. The number of participants increased with each new round of classes, confirming CIAPEP's success. The 1982/83 economic crisis had little effect on its budget, except for a slight reduction in 1984.
142. The classic book on this subject is by David Schoenbaum, Die braune Revolution, Eine Sozialgeschichte des Dritten Reiches (Cologne, 1968), originally published in English. More recently, prominent historian Gordon Craig has reexamined the important populist component in Hitler's social reform, in his article 'Hitlers strategische Anleihen bei Friedrich dem Grossen, ' Welt am Sonntag, 23 Nov. 1997, p. 6.
143. The classic book on this subject is by David Schoenbaum, Die braune Revolution, Eine Sozialgeschichte des Dritten Reiches (Cologne, 1968), originally published in English. More recently, prominent historian Gordon Craig has reexamined the important populist component in Hitler's social reform, in his article 'Hitlers strategische Anleihen bei Friedrich dem Grossen, ' Welt am Sonntag, 23 Nov. 1997, p. 6.
144. Molina was the ex-Minister of Finance under President Eduardo Frei Montalva (1964-1970). He was hired by the Economics Institute during the Allende government in an effort to include the 'structuralist' economists from the University of Chile, where he had been Dean. Molina had also been the director of Budget during the Alessandri Government (1958-1964). Later on, he joined the Christian Democrat Party. Jorge Cauas and Osvaldo Sunkel were also hired in this same period.
145. This course was titled 'Study of social groups living in extreme poverty, ' and was created by ODEPLAN under resolution No. 25 on 18 April 1974. In the end, ODEPLAN paid out a tital of Eo 7, 649, 528; the Economics Institute received 5, 841, 808 and the Planning Center received 1, 807, 720. Decree £25, 18 April 1974. Eo stands for Escudo, the currency at the time.
146. Krebs et al., Historia de la Pontifica Universidad Católica, volume II, pp. 1145-1146.
147. 'Bases para el convenio sobre Proyecto de Pobreza entre ODEPLAN Instituto de Economía, ' mimeograph, no date.
148. ODEPLAN, Controller's Office, Control de convenios suscritos por ODEPLAN, and went into effect 21 Nov. 1974.
149. The Economics Institute provided three half time professors and three full time helpers who worked for seven months. Two other professors, Ernesto Silva and Sergio de Castro both researched for four months, from October 1973 to January 1974. CEPLAN had three staff members: a researcher, a full time recent graduate and a part time helper.
150. This agreement was signed by retired navy captain Roberto Kelly, the director of ODEPLAN and Domonique Hachette, director of the Institute. It was approved by resolution No. 14, 28 Feb. 1974.
151. ODEPLAN, Controller's Office, Control de convenios suscritos por ODEPLAN. We have not found the document with the specifications indicated in clause 1.
152. ODEPLAN, Controller's Office, Control de convenios suscritos por ODEPLAN. It went into effect 13 July 1976.
153. Convenio ODEPLAN-Universidad Católica, clause 3. The letter from the Economics Institute, signed by its director, Juan Ignacio Varas, is addressed to ODEPLAN's national assistant director Miguel Kast. At the bottom of the letter, 'OK. Kast urgent' is written by hand, which demonstrates the direct contact between these two. The resolution that approves the financing for this study is £145 from 26 May 1977.
154. The Institute's director in the 1970s was Andres Sanfuentes and the list of professores included among others Andres Passicot, Vitorio Corbo, Carlos Massad, Cristian Eyzaguirre and Mario Zañartu. It did have one important project financed by the government, the employment surveys, paid by the Central Bank. This project was led for many years by Luis Federici, who later became Rector of the University of Chile and Minister of Economics under Pinochet.