Expedient environmentalism: Opposition to coal surface mining in Appalachia and the United Mine Workers of America, 1945-1975

Environmental History

Volumn 5, Issue 1, 2000, Pages 75-98

  Montrie, Chad ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

COAL MINING; ENVIRONMENTALISM; HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY; SURFACE WATER; TWENTIETH CENTURY;

APPALACHIA; UNITED STATES;

EID: 0034025486     PISSN: 10845453     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/3985536     Document Type: Article

References (137)

1. Samuel P. Hays, Conservation and the Gospel of Efficiency: The Progressive Conservation Movement, 1890-1920 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1959); "From Conservation to Environment: Environmental Politics in the United States Since World War II," Environmental Review 6 (Fall 1982): 14-41; and Beauty, Health, and Permanence: Environmental Politics in the United States, 1955-1985 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 13.
2. Samuel P. Hays, Conservation and the Gospel of Efficiency: The Progressive Conservation Movement, 1890-1920 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1959); "From Conservation to Environment: Environmental Politics in the United States Since World War II," Environmental Review 6 (Fall 1982): 14-41; and Beauty, Health, and Permanence: Environmental Politics in the United States, 1955-1985 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 13.
3. Samuel P. Hays, Conservation and the Gospel of Efficiency: The Progressive Conservation Movement, 1890-1920 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1959); "From Conservation to Environment: Environmental Politics in the United States Since World War II," Environmental Review 6 (Fall 1982): 14-41; and Beauty, Health, and Permanence: Environmental Politics in the United States, 1955-1985 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 13.
4. Andrew Hurley, Environmental Inequalities: Class, Race, and Industrial Pollution in Gary, Indiana, 1945-1960 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995 [1988]); Robert Gottlieb, Forcing the Spring: The Transformation of the American Environmental Movement (Washington, D.C.: Island Press, 1993); Richard Judd, Common Lands, Common People: The Origins of Conservation in New England (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1997).
5. Andrew Hurley, Environmental Inequalities: Class, Race, and Industrial Pollution in Gary, Indiana, 1945-1960 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995 [1988]); Robert Gottlieb, Forcing the Spring: The Transformation of the American Environmental Movement (Washington, D.C.: Island Press, 1993); Richard Judd, Common Lands, Common People: The Origins of Conservation in New England (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1997).
6. Andrew Hurley, Environmental Inequalities: Class, Race, and Industrial Pollution in Gary, Indiana, 1945-1960 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995 [1988]); Robert Gottlieb, Forcing the Spring: The Transformation of the American Environmental Movement (Washington, D.C.: Island Press, 1993); Richard Judd, Common Lands, Common People: The Origins of Conservation in New England (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1997).
7. Scott Dewey, "Working for the Environment: Organized Labor and the Origins of Environmentalism in the United States, 1948-1970," Environmental History 3 (January 1998): 45-46; Robert Gordon, "'Shell No!': OCAW and the Labor-Environment Alliance," Environmental History 3 (October 1998): 460-87. Rosemary Feurer has recovered the instrumental role played by the United Electrical Workers, District 8, in the 1940s campaign to establish a Missouri Valley Authority (MVA). Since the MVA proposal was initially put forward to provide jobs and stimulate the region's economy, however, her essay does not directly address the "jobs versus environment" question that she raises in the introduction. Rosemary Feurer, "River Dreams: St. Louis Labor and the Fight for a Missouri Valley Authority," in Common Fields: An Environmental History of St. Louis, ed. Andrew Hurley (St. Louis: Missouri Historical Society Press, 1997), 221. See also Heinrich Seigmann, The Conflicts Between Labor and Environmentalism in the Federal Republic of Germany and the United States (Aldersot, United Kingdom: Cower Publishing, 1985), and Richard Kazis and Richard Grossman, Fear at Work: Job Blackmail, Labor, and the Environment (New York: Pilgrim Press, 1982).
8. Scott Dewey, "Working for the Environment: Organized Labor and the Origins of Environmentalism in the United States, 1948-1970," Environmental History 3 (January 1998): 45-46; Robert Gordon, "'Shell No!': OCAW and the Labor-Environment Alliance," Environmental History 3 (October 1998): 460-87. Rosemary Feurer has recovered the instrumental role played by the United Electrical Workers, District 8, in the 1940s campaign to establish a Missouri Valley Authority (MVA). Since the MVA proposal was initially put forward to provide jobs and stimulate the region's economy, however, her essay does not directly address the "jobs versus environment" question that she raises in the introduction. Rosemary Feurer, "River Dreams: St. Louis Labor and the Fight for a Missouri Valley Authority," in Common Fields: An Environmental History of St. Louis, ed. Andrew Hurley (St. Louis: Missouri Historical Society Press, 1997), 221. See also Heinrich Seigmann, The Conflicts Between Labor and Environmentalism in the Federal Republic of Germany and the United States (Aldersot, United Kingdom: Cower Publishing, 1985), and Richard Kazis and Richard Grossman, Fear at Work: Job Blackmail, Labor, and the Environment (New York: Pilgrim Press, 1982).
9. Scott Dewey, "Working for the Environment: Organized Labor and the Origins of Environmentalism in the United States, 1948-1970," Environmental History 3 (January 1998): 45-46; Robert Gordon, "'Shell No!': OCAW and the Labor-Environment Alliance," Environmental History 3 (October 1998): 460-87. Rosemary Feurer has recovered the instrumental role played by the United Electrical Workers, District 8, in the 1940s campaign to establish a Missouri Valley Authority (MVA). Since the MVA proposal was initially put forward to provide jobs and stimulate the region's economy, however, her essay does not directly address the "jobs versus environment" question that she raises in the introduction. Rosemary Feurer, "River Dreams: St. Louis Labor and the Fight for a Missouri Valley Authority," in Common Fields: An Environmental History of St. Louis, ed. Andrew Hurley (St. Louis: Missouri Historical Society Press, 1997), 221. See also Heinrich Seigmann, The Conflicts Between Labor and Environmentalism in the Federal Republic of Germany and the United States (Aldersot, United Kingdom: Cower Publishing, 1985), and Richard Kazis and Richard Grossman, Fear at Work: Job Blackmail, Labor, and the Environment (New York: Pilgrim Press, 1982).
10. Scott Dewey, "Working for the Environment: Organized Labor and the Origins of Environmentalism in the United States, 1948-1970," Environmental History 3 (January 1998): 45-46; Robert Gordon, "'Shell No!': OCAW and the Labor-Environment Alliance," Environmental History 3 (October 1998): 460-87. Rosemary Feurer has recovered the instrumental role played by the United Electrical Workers, District 8, in the 1940s campaign to establish a Missouri Valley Authority (MVA). Since the MVA proposal was initially put forward to provide jobs and stimulate the region's economy, however, her essay does not directly address the "jobs versus environment" question that she raises in the introduction. Rosemary Feurer, "River Dreams: St. Louis Labor and the Fight for a Missouri Valley Authority," in Common Fields: An Environmental History of St. Louis, ed. Andrew Hurley (St. Louis: Missouri Historical Society Press, 1997), 221. See also Heinrich Seigmann, The Conflicts Between Labor and Environmentalism in the Federal Republic of Germany and the United States (Aldersot, United Kingdom: Cower Publishing, 1985), and Richard Kazis and Richard Grossman, Fear at Work: Job Blackmail, Labor, and the Environment (New York: Pilgrim Press, 1982).
11. Scott Dewey, "Working for the Environment: Organized Labor and the Origins of Environmentalism in the United States, 1948-1970," Environmental History 3 (January 1998): 45-46; Robert Gordon, "'Shell No!': OCAW and the Labor-Environment Alliance," Environmental History 3 (October 1998): 460-87. Rosemary Feurer has recovered the instrumental role played by the United Electrical Workers, District 8, in the 1940s campaign to establish a Missouri Valley Authority (MVA). Since the MVA proposal was initially put forward to provide jobs and stimulate the region's economy, however, her essay does not directly address the "jobs versus environment" question that she raises in the introduction. Rosemary Feurer, "River Dreams: St. Louis Labor and the Fight for a Missouri Valley Authority," in Common Fields: An Environmental History of St. Louis, ed. Andrew Hurley (St. Louis: Missouri Historical Society Press, 1997), 221. See also Heinrich Seigmann, The Conflicts Between Labor and Environmentalism in the Federal Republic of Germany and the United States (Aldersot, United Kingdom: Cower Publishing, 1985), and Richard Kazis and Richard Grossman, Fear at Work: Job Blackmail, Labor, and the Environment (New York: Pilgrim Press, 1982).
12. Samuel Hays gives only three pages to surface mining in his 630-page survey of modern environmental politics. John Opie's environmental history textbook, Nature's Nation, draws on the rich sources for Appalachian studies and communicates a better understanding of both stripping and its opponents. The popular (though dated) work of Harry Caudill, an Appalachian lawyer and prominent foe of stripping, is still the best introduction to the history of opposition to coal surface mining, yet his is also only a spare overview. Hays, Beauty, Health and Permanence, 13; John Opie, Nature's Nation: An Environmental History of the United States (New York: Harcourt Brace & Company, 1998), 350-53; Harry Caudill, My Land Is Dying (New York: E. P. Dutton & Co., 1973), and Night Comes to the Cumberlands: A Biography of a Depressed Area (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1963 [1962]). See also Duane A. Smith, Mining in America: The Industry and the Environment, 1800-1980 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1987), and Richard H. K. Victor, Environmental Politics and the Coal Coalition (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1980).
13. Samuel Hays gives only three pages to surface mining in his 630-page survey of modern environmental politics. John Opie's environmental history textbook, Nature's Nation, draws on the rich sources for Appalachian studies and communicates a better understanding of both stripping and its opponents. The popular (though dated) work of Harry Caudill, an Appalachian lawyer and prominent foe of stripping, is still the best introduction to the history of opposition to coal surface mining, yet his is also only a spare overview. Hays, Beauty, Health and Permanence, 13; John Opie, Nature's Nation: An Environmental History of the United States (New York: Harcourt Brace & Company, 1998), 350-53; Harry Caudill, My Land Is Dying (New York: E. P. Dutton & Co., 1973), and Night Comes to the Cumberlands: A Biography of a Depressed Area (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1963 [1962]). See also Duane A. Smith, Mining in America: The Industry and the Environment, 1800-1980 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1987), and Richard H. K. Victor, Environmental Politics and the Coal Coalition (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1980).
14. Samuel Hays gives only three pages to surface mining in his 630-page survey of modern environmental politics. John Opie's environmental history textbook, Nature's Nation, draws on the rich sources for Appalachian studies and communicates a better understanding of both stripping and its opponents. The popular (though dated) work of Harry Caudill, an Appalachian lawyer and prominent foe of stripping, is still the best introduction to the history of opposition to coal surface mining, yet his is also only a spare overview. Hays, Beauty, Health and Permanence, 13; John Opie, Nature's Nation: An Environmental History of the United States (New York: Harcourt Brace & Company, 1998), 350-53; Harry Caudill, My Land Is Dying (New York: E. P. Dutton & Co., 1973), and Night Comes to the Cumberlands: A Biography of a Depressed Area (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1963 [1962]). See also Duane A. Smith, Mining in America: The Industry and the Environment, 1800-1980 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1987), and Richard H. K. Victor, Environmental Politics and the Coal Coalition (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1980).
15. Samuel Hays gives only three pages to surface mining in his 630-page survey of modern environmental politics. John Opie's environmental history textbook, Nature's Nation, draws on the rich sources for Appalachian studies and communicates a better understanding of both stripping and its opponents. The popular (though dated) work of Harry Caudill, an Appalachian lawyer and prominent foe of stripping, is still the best introduction to the history of opposition to coal surface mining, yet his is also only a spare overview. Hays, Beauty, Health and Permanence, 13; John Opie, Nature's Nation: An Environmental History of the United States (New York: Harcourt Brace & Company, 1998), 350-53; Harry Caudill, My Land Is Dying (New York: E. P. Dutton & Co., 1973), and Night Comes to the Cumberlands: A Biography of a Depressed Area (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1963 [1962]). See also Duane A. Smith, Mining in America: The Industry and the Environment, 1800-1980 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1987), and Richard H. K. Victor, Environmental Politics and the Coal Coalition (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1980).
16. Samuel Hays gives only three pages to surface mining in his 630-page survey of modern environmental politics. John Opie's environmental history textbook, Nature's Nation, draws on the rich sources for Appalachian studies and communicates a better understanding of both stripping and its opponents. The popular (though dated) work of Harry Caudill, an Appalachian lawyer and prominent foe of stripping, is still the best introduction to the history of opposition to coal surface mining, yet his is also only a spare overview. Hays, Beauty, Health and Permanence, 13; John Opie, Nature's Nation: An Environmental History of the United States (New York: Harcourt Brace & Company, 1998), 350-53; Harry Caudill, My Land Is Dying (New York: E. P. Dutton & Co., 1973), and Night Comes to the Cumberlands: A Biography of a Depressed Area (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1963 [1962]). See also Duane A. Smith, Mining in America: The Industry and the Environment, 1800-1980 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1987), and Richard H. K. Victor, Environmental Politics and the Coal Coalition (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1980).
17. Samuel Hays gives only three pages to surface mining in his 630-page survey of modern environmental politics. John Opie's environmental history textbook, Nature's Nation, draws on the rich sources for Appalachian studies and communicates a better understanding of both stripping and its opponents. The popular (though dated) work of Harry Caudill, an Appalachian lawyer and prominent foe of stripping, is still the best introduction to the history of opposition to coal surface mining, yet his is also only a spare overview. Hays, Beauty, Health and Permanence, 13; John Opie, Nature's Nation: An Environmental History of the United States (New York: Harcourt Brace & Company, 1998), 350-53; Harry Caudill, My Land Is Dying (New York: E. P. Dutton & Co., 1973), and Night Comes to the Cumberlands: A Biography of a Depressed Area (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1963 [1962]). See also Duane A. Smith, Mining in America: The Industry and the Environment, 1800-1980 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1987), and Richard H. K. Victor, Environmental Politics and the Coal Coalition (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1980).
18. Lynne Page Snyder, "The Death-Dealing Smog Over Donora, Pennsylvania: Industrial Air Pollution, Public Health Policy, and the Politics of Expertise, 1948-1949," Environmental History Review 18 (Spring 1994): 117-39; Mark Harvey, A Symbol of Wilderness: Echo Park and the American Conservation Movement (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1994). Harvey contends that the battle over Echo Park Dam had little to do with "environmental" concerns, but he presents much evidence to the contrary. Both of Carson's books did well on the New York Times best-seller list, and The Sea Around Us was serialized in The New Yorker, condensed for Reader's Digest, and made into a film. See Linda Lear, Rachel Carson: Witness For Nature (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1996).
19. Lynne Page Snyder, "The Death-Dealing Smog Over Donora, Pennsylvania: Industrial Air Pollution, Public Health Policy, and the Politics of Expertise, 1948-1949," Environmental History Review 18 (Spring 1994): 117-39; Mark Harvey, A Symbol of Wilderness: Echo Park and the American Conservation Movement (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1994). Harvey contends that the battle over Echo Park Dam had little to do with "environmental" concerns, but he presents much evidence to the contrary. Both of Carson's books did well on the New York Times best-seller list, and The Sea Around Us was serialized in The New Yorker, condensed for Reader's Digest, and made into a film. See Linda Lear, Rachel Carson: Witness For Nature (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1996).
20. Lynne Page Snyder, "The Death-Dealing Smog Over Donora, Pennsylvania: Industrial Air Pollution, Public Health Policy, and the Politics of Expertise, 1948-1949," Environmental History Review 18 (Spring 1994): 117-39; Mark Harvey, A Symbol of Wilderness: Echo Park and the American Conservation Movement (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1994). Harvey contends that the battle over Echo Park Dam had little to do with "environmental" concerns, but he presents much evidence to the contrary. Both of Carson's books did well on the New York Times best-seller list, and The Sea Around Us was serialized in The New Yorker, condensed for Reader's Digest, and made into a film. See Linda Lear, Rachel Carson: Witness For Nature (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1996).
21. Robert A. Gambill, "We Should Practice Conservation," United Mine Workers Journal [hereafter UMWJ] 61:6 (March 1950): 23.
22. "Statement By United Mine Workers of America Before the West Virginia Air Pollution Control Commission on May 9, 1968," Box AA/5, United Mine Workers Collection, Pennsylvania State University; UMWJ 79:13 (July 1968): 18.
23. Vietor, Environmental Politics, 17, 43-44; UMWJ 78:6 (March 1967): 4.
24. Vietor, Environmental Politics, 17, 43-44; UMWJ 78:6 (March 1967): 4.
25. th Constitutional Convention (Indianapolis, 1968), 111, 162-63.
26. UMWJ 69:4 (February 1958): 8; UMWJ 78:20 (October 1967): 4,10; UMWJ 79 (Special Issue, March 1968): 1; UMWJ 79:6 (March 1968): 8; To fully grasp the significance of the UMW's opposition to atomic energy, consider the fact that the Sierra Club did not go on record in opposition until 1974. See Thomas Raymond Wellock, Critical Masses: Opposition to Nuclear Power in California, 1958-1978 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1998).
27. UMWJ 69:4 (February 1958): 8; UMWJ 78:20 (October 1967): 4,10; UMWJ 79 (Special Issue, March 1968): 1; UMWJ 79:6 (March 1968): 8; To fully grasp the significance of the UMW's opposition to atomic energy, consider the fact that the Sierra Club did not go on record in opposition until 1974. See Thomas Raymond Wellock, Critical Masses: Opposition to Nuclear Power in California, 1958-1978 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1998).
28. UMWJ 69:4 (February 1958): 8; UMWJ 78:20 (October 1967): 4,10; UMWJ 79 (Special Issue, March 1968): 1; UMWJ 79:6 (March 1968): 8; To fully grasp the significance of the UMW's opposition to atomic energy, consider the fact that the Sierra Club did not go on record in opposition until 1974. See Thomas Raymond Wellock, Critical Masses: Opposition to Nuclear Power in California, 1958-1978 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1998).
29. UMWJ 69:4 (February 1958): 8; UMWJ 78:20 (October 1967): 4,10; UMWJ 79 (Special Issue, March 1968): 1; UMWJ 79:6 (March 1968): 8; To fully grasp the significance of the UMW's opposition to atomic energy, consider the fact that the Sierra Club did not go on record in opposition until 1974. See Thomas Raymond Wellock, Critical Masses: Opposition to Nuclear Power in California, 1958-1978 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1998).
30. UMWJ 69:4 (February 1958): 8; UMWJ 78:20 (October 1967): 4,10; UMWJ 79 (Special Issue, March 1968): 1; UMWJ 79:6 (March 1968): 8; To fully grasp the significance of the UMW's opposition to atomic energy, consider the fact that the Sierra Club did not go on record in opposition until 1974. See Thomas Raymond Wellock, Critical Masses: Opposition to Nuclear Power in California, 1958-1978 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1998).
31. UMWJ 66:20 (October 1955): 12.
32. Richard Jay Jensen, "Rebellion in the United Mine Workers: The Miners for Democracy, 1970-1972" (Ph.D. diss., Indiana University, 1974), 12-14; UMWJ 81:3 (February 1970): 8. See also Alan Derickson, "The Role of the United Mine Workers in the Prevention of Work-Related Respiratory Disease, 1890-1968," in The United Mine Workers of America: A Model of Industrial Solidarity?, ed. John H. M. Laslett (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1996), 224-38, and Barbara Ellen Smith, Digging Our Own Graves: Coal Miners and the Struggle Over Black Lung Disease (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1987).
33. Richard Jay Jensen, "Rebellion in the United Mine Workers: The Miners for Democracy, 1970-1972" (Ph.D. diss., Indiana University, 1974), 12-14; UMWJ 81:3 (February 1970): 8. See also Alan Derickson, "The Role of the United Mine Workers in the Prevention of Work-Related Respiratory Disease, 1890-1968," in The United Mine Workers of America: A Model of Industrial Solidarity?, ed. John H. M. Laslett (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1996), 224-38, and Barbara Ellen Smith, Digging Our Own Graves: Coal Miners and the Struggle Over Black Lung Disease (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1987).
34. Richard Jay Jensen, "Rebellion in the United Mine Workers: The Miners for Democracy, 1970-1972" (Ph.D. diss., Indiana University, 1974), 12-14; UMWJ 81:3 (February 1970): 8. See also Alan Derickson, "The Role of the United Mine Workers in the Prevention of Work-Related Respiratory Disease, 1890-1968," in The United Mine Workers of America: A Model of Industrial Solidarity?, ed. John H. M. Laslett (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1996), 224-38, and Barbara Ellen Smith, Digging Our Own Graves: Coal Miners and the Struggle Over Black Lung Disease (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1987).
35. Richard Jay Jensen, "Rebellion in the United Mine Workers: The Miners for Democracy, 1970-1972" (Ph.D. diss., Indiana University, 1974), 12-14; UMWJ 81:3 (February 1970): 8. See also Alan Derickson, "The Role of the United Mine Workers in the Prevention of Work-Related Respiratory Disease, 1890-1968," in The United Mine Workers of America: A Model of Industrial Solidarity?, ed. John H. M. Laslett (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1996), 224-38, and Barbara Ellen Smith, Digging Our Own Graves: Coal Miners and the Struggle Over Black Lung Disease (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1987).
36. UMWJ 66:4 (February 1955): 7.
37. For an overview of current land reclamation techniques, see Frank F. Munshower, Practical Handbook of Disturbed Land Revegetation (Boca Raton, Fla.: Lewis Publishers, 1994).
38. Caudill, My Land is Dying, 57-60; U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, vol. II, Fuels: 1948 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1950), 293.
39. Caudill, My Land is Dying, 57-60; U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, vol. II, Fuels: 1948 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1950), 293.
40. Exports of bituminous coal and lignite increased from nearly 16.5 million tons in 1940 to more than 50 million tons in 1958, after which they held fairly steady through the 1960s. Though total production of Pennsylvania anthracite coal declined 16 percent in 1958 (to 21.2 million tons) and continued to fall, export demand was partly responsible for an 8 percent gain in total production at stripping operations in 1963. More importantly, electric power utilities increased their tonnage demands, from nearly 44 million tons in 1939 to 209 million tons in 1963. C. L. Christensen, Economic Redevelopment in Bituminous Coal: The Special Case of Technological Advance in United States Coal Mines, 1930-1960 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1962), 126-27,252' Vietor, Environmental Politics, 15; U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, vol. II, Fuels: 1948, 279; U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, vol. II, Fuels: 1958 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1959), 49, 141; U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, vol. II, Fuels: 1963 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1964), 149, 175, 194.
41. Exports of bituminous coal and lignite increased from nearly 16.5 million tons in 1940 to more than 50 million tons in 1958, after which they held fairly steady through the 1960s. Though total production of Pennsylvania anthracite coal declined 16 percent in 1958 (to 21.2 million tons) and continued to fall, export demand was partly responsible for an 8 percent gain in total production at stripping operations in 1963. More importantly, electric power utilities increased their tonnage demands, from nearly 44 million tons in 1939 to 209 million tons in 1963. C. L. Christensen, Economic Redevelopment in Bituminous Coal: The Special Case of Technological Advance in United States Coal Mines, 1930-1960 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1962), 126-27,252' Vietor, Environmental Politics, 15; U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, vol. II, Fuels: 1948, 279; U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, vol. II, Fuels: 1958 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1959), 49, 141; U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, vol. II, Fuels: 1963 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1964), 149, 175, 194.
42. Exports of bituminous coal and lignite increased from nearly 16.5 million tons in 1940 to more than 50 million tons in 1958, after which they held fairly steady through the 1960s. Though total production of Pennsylvania anthracite coal declined 16 percent in 1958 (to 21.2 million tons) and continued to fall, export demand was partly responsible for an 8 percent gain in total production at stripping operations in 1963. More importantly, electric power utilities increased their tonnage demands, from nearly 44 million tons in 1939 to 209 million tons in 1963. C. L. Christensen, Economic Redevelopment in Bituminous Coal: The Special Case of Technological Advance in United States Coal Mines, 1930-1960 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1962), 126-27,252' Vietor, Environmental Politics, 15; U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, vol. II, Fuels: 1948, 279; U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, vol. II, Fuels: 1958 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1959), 49, 141; U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, vol. II, Fuels: 1963 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1964), 149, 175, 194.
43. Exports of bituminous coal and lignite increased from nearly 16.5 million tons in 1940 to more than 50 million tons in 1958, after which they held fairly steady through the 1960s. Though total production of Pennsylvania anthracite coal declined 16 percent in 1958 (to 21.2 million tons) and continued to fall, export demand was partly responsible for an 8 percent gain in total production at stripping operations in 1963. More importantly, electric power utilities increased their tonnage demands, from nearly 44 million tons in 1939 to 209 million tons in 1963. C. L. Christensen, Economic Redevelopment in Bituminous Coal: The Special Case of Technological Advance in United States Coal Mines, 1930-1960 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1962), 126-27,252' Vietor, Environmental Politics, 15; U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, vol. II, Fuels: 1948, 279; U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, vol. II, Fuels: 1958 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1959), 49, 141; U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, vol. II, Fuels: 1963 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1964), 149, 175, 194.
44. Exports of bituminous coal and lignite increased from nearly 16.5 million tons in 1940 to more than 50 million tons in 1958, after which they held fairly steady through the 1960s. Though total production of Pennsylvania anthracite coal declined 16 percent in 1958 (to 21.2 million tons) and continued to fall, export demand was partly responsible for an 8 percent gain in total production at stripping operations in 1963. More importantly, electric power utilities increased their tonnage demands, from nearly 44 million tons in 1939 to 209 million tons in 1963. C. L. Christensen, Economic Redevelopment in Bituminous Coal: The Special Case of Technological Advance in United States Coal Mines, 1930-1960 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1962), 126-27,252' Vietor, Environmental Politics, 15; U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, vol. II, Fuels: 1948, 279; U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, vol. II, Fuels: 1958 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1959), 49, 141; U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, vol. II, Fuels: 1963 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1964), 149, 175, 194.
45. U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, vol. II, Fuels: 1963, 55.
46. U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, vol. II, Fuels: 1948, 19; Minerals Yearbook, vol. II, Fuels: 1958, 12; Minerals Yearbook, vol. II, Fuels: 1963, 88-89.
47. U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, vol. II, Fuels: 1948, 19; Minerals Yearbook, vol. II, Fuels: 1958, 12; Minerals Yearbook, vol. II, Fuels: 1963, 88-89.
48. U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, vol. II, Fuels: 1948, 19; Minerals Yearbook, vol. II, Fuels: 1958, 12; Minerals Yearbook, vol. II, Fuels: 1963, 88-89.
49. "Agreement Between Operators' of Strip Mines in Western Pennsylvania and United Mine Workers of America, District 5, Effective May 19, 1939," Box 65, Collection 66, United Mine Workers of America, District 5, Indiana University of Pennsylvania; "Agreement Between the Operators of Strip Mines in Western Pennsylvania and Districts Nos. 3, 4, and 5, UMWA, Effective April 29, 1941," Box 65, Collection 66, United Mine Workers of America, District 5, Indiana University of Pennsylvania.
50. UMWJ 61:6 [sic] (September 1950): 4; Michael Widman Jr. to all UMWA District Presidents, 8 November 1968, Box AA/5, United Mine Workers Collection, Pennsylvania State University; UMWJ 84-7 (May 1973): 4; U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, vol. I, Metals, Minerals, and Fuels: 1973 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1975), 320; New York Times, 15 January 1971, 11.
51. UMWJ 61:6 [sic] (September 1950): 4; Michael Widman Jr. to all UMWA District Presidents, 8 November 1968, Box AA/5, United Mine Workers Collection, Pennsylvania State University; UMWJ 84-7 (May 1973): 4; U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, vol. I, Metals, Minerals, and Fuels: 1973 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1975), 320; New York Times, 15 January 1971, 11.
52. UMWJ 61:6 [sic] (September 1950): 4; Michael Widman Jr. to all UMWA District Presidents, 8 November 1968, Box AA/5, United Mine Workers Collection, Pennsylvania State University; UMWJ 84-7 (May 1973): 4; U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, vol. I, Metals, Minerals, and Fuels: 1973 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1975), 320; New York Times, 15 January 1971, 11.
53. UMWJ 61:6 [sic] (September 1950): 4; Michael Widman Jr. to all UMWA District Presidents, 8 November 1968, Box AA/5, United Mine Workers Collection, Pennsylvania State University; UMWJ 84-7 (May 1973): 4; U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, vol. I, Metals, Minerals, and Fuels: 1973 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1975), 320; New York Times, 15 January 1971, 11.
54. Robert C. Meiners, "Strip Mining Legislation," Natural Resources Journal 3 (January 1964): 442, 446; W. Va. Acts 1939, ch. 84; Ind. Acts 1941, ch. 68; Ill. Laws 1943, vol. 1, 912; Pa. Laws 1945, 1198; Ohio Laws 1947, 730; Ky. Acts 1954, ch. 8; Virginia Acts 1966, ch. 667; Tennessee Public Acts 1967, 88. These are the first laws passed in the various states. As noted, each was amended a number of times.
55. Robert C. Meiners, "Strip Mining Legislation," Natural Resources Journal 3 (January 1964): 442, 446; W. Va. Acts 1939, ch. 84; Ind. Acts 1941, ch. 68; Ill. Laws 1943, vol. 1, 912; Pa. Laws 1945, 1198; Ohio Laws 1947, 730; Ky. Acts 1954, ch. 8; Virginia Acts 1966, ch. 667; Tennessee Public Acts 1967, 88. These are the first laws passed in the various states. As noted, each was amended a number of times.
56. Robert C. Meiners, "Strip Mining Legislation," Natural Resources Journal 3 (January 1964): 442, 446; W. Va. Acts 1939, ch. 84; Ind. Acts 1941, ch. 68; Ill. Laws 1943, vol. 1, 912; Pa. Laws 1945, 1198; Ohio Laws 1947, 730; Ky. Acts 1954, ch. 8; Virginia Acts 1966, ch. 667; Tennessee Public Acts 1967, 88. These are the first laws passed in the various states. As noted, each was amended a number of times.
57. Robert C. Meiners, "Strip Mining Legislation," Natural Resources Journal 3 (January 1964): 442, 446; W. Va. Acts 1939, ch. 84; Ind. Acts 1941, ch. 68; Ill. Laws 1943, vol. 1, 912; Pa. Laws 1945, 1198; Ohio Laws 1947, 730; Ky. Acts 1954, ch. 8; Virginia Acts 1966, ch. 667; Tennessee Public Acts 1967, 88. These are the first laws passed in the various states. As noted, each was amended a number of times.
58. Robert C. Meiners, "Strip Mining Legislation," Natural Resources Journal 3 (January 1964): 442, 446; W. Va. Acts 1939, ch. 84; Ind. Acts 1941, ch. 68; Ill. Laws 1943, vol. 1, 912; Pa. Laws 1945, 1198; Ohio Laws 1947, 730; Ky. Acts 1954, ch. 8; Virginia Acts 1966, ch. 667; Tennessee Public Acts 1967, 88. These are the first laws passed in the various states. As noted, each was amended a number of times.
59. Robert C. Meiners, "Strip Mining Legislation," Natural Resources Journal 3 (January 1964): 442, 446; W. Va. Acts 1939, ch. 84; Ind. Acts 1941, ch. 68; Ill. Laws 1943, vol. 1, 912; Pa. Laws 1945, 1198; Ohio Laws 1947, 730; Ky. Acts 1954, ch. 8; Virginia Acts 1966, ch. 667; Tennessee Public Acts 1967, 88. These are the first laws passed in the various states. As noted, each was amended a number of times.
60. Robert C. Meiners, "Strip Mining Legislation," Natural Resources Journal 3 (January 1964): 442, 446; W. Va. Acts 1939, ch. 84; Ind. Acts 1941, ch. 68; Ill. Laws 1943, vol. 1, 912; Pa. Laws 1945, 1198; Ohio Laws 1947, 730; Ky. Acts 1954, ch. 8; Virginia Acts 1966, ch. 667; Tennessee Public Acts 1967, 88. These are the first laws passed in the various states. As noted, each was amended a number of times.
61. Robert C. Meiners, "Strip Mining Legislation," Natural Resources Journal 3 (January 1964): 442, 446; W. Va. Acts 1939, ch. 84; Ind. Acts 1941, ch. 68; Ill. Laws 1943, vol. 1, 912; Pa. Laws 1945, 1198; Ohio Laws 1947, 730; Ky. Acts 1954, ch. 8; Virginia Acts 1966, ch. 667; Tennessee Public Acts 1967, 88. These are the first laws passed in the various states. As noted, each was amended a number of times.
62. Robert C. Meiners, "Strip Mining Legislation," Natural Resources Journal 3 (January 1964): 442, 446; W. Va. Acts 1939, ch. 84; Ind. Acts 1941, ch. 68; Ill. Laws 1943, vol. 1, 912; Pa. Laws 1945, 1198; Ohio Laws 1947, 730; Ky. Acts 1954, ch. 8; Virginia Acts 1966, ch. 667; Tennessee Public Acts 1967, 88. These are the first laws passed in the various states. As noted, each was amended a number of times.
63. Vietor, Environmental Politics, 59, 63-66, 70, 79; News Release, 7 September 1962, Box 8, William W. Scranton Papers, Historical Collections and Labor Archives, Pattee Library, Pennsylvania State University; Pittsburgh Press, 12 July 1961, 1; 23 August 1961, 1, 4; 28 August 1961, 7; and 29 August 1961, 2.
64. UMWJ 77:6 (May 1966): 8-9; UMWJ 77:13 (July 1966): 13; Senate Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Hearings Before the Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs on S. 3132, S. 3126, and S. 217, Bills to Provide for Federal-State Cooperation in the Reclamation of Strip Mined Lands, 90th Cong., 2nd sess., 30 April, 1-2 May 1968, 97, 113; UMWJ 79:6 (March 1968): 6.
65. UMWJ 77:6 (May 1966): 8-9; UMWJ 77:13 (July 1966): 13; Senate Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Hearings Before the Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs on S. 3132, S. 3126, and S. 217, Bills to Provide for Federal-State Cooperation in the Reclamation of Strip Mined Lands, 90th Cong., 2nd sess., 30 April, 1-2 May 1968, 97, 113; UMWJ 79:6 (March 1968): 6.
66. UMWJ 77:6 (May 1966): 8-9; UMWJ 77:13 (July 1966): 13; Senate Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Hearings Before the Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs on S. 3132, S. 3126, and S. 217, Bills to Provide for Federal-State Cooperation in the Reclamation of Strip Mined Lands, 90th Cong., 2nd sess., 30 April, 1-2 May 1968, 97, 113; UMWJ 79:6 (March 1968): 6.
67. UMWJ 77:6 (May 1966): 8-9; UMWJ 77:13 (July 1966): 13; Senate Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Hearings Before the Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs on S. 3132, S. 3126, and S. 217, Bills to Provide for Federal-State Cooperation in the Reclamation of Strip Mined Lands, 90th Cong., 2nd sess., 30 April, 1-2 May 1968, 97, 113; UMWJ 79:6 (March 1968): 6.
68. Joseph A. Boccardy and Willard M. Spaulding Jr., U.S. Department of the Interior, Effects of Surface Mining on Fish and Wildlife in Appalachia (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1968), ii; Mountain Life and Work 47:3 (July-August 1971): 18.
69. Joseph A. Boccardy and Willard M. Spaulding Jr., U.S. Department of the Interior, Effects of Surface Mining on Fish and Wildlife in Appalachia (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1968), ii; Mountain Life and Work 47:3 (July-August 1971): 18.
70. Caudill, My Land is Dying, 87; Tom Bethell, "Hot Time Ahead," Mountain Life and Work 45 (April 1969), in Appalachia in the Sixties: Decade of Reawakening, ed. David S. Walls and John B. Stephenson (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1972), 116-19.
71. Caudill, My Land is Dying, 87; Tom Bethell, "Hot Time Ahead," Mountain Life and Work 45 (April 1969), in Appalachia in the Sixties: Decade of Reawakening, ed. David S. Walls and John B. Stephenson (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1972), 116-19.
72. Caudill, My Land is Dying, 87; Tom Bethell, "Hot Time Ahead," Mountain Life and Work 45 (April 1969), in Appalachia in the Sixties: Decade of Reawakening, ed. David S. Walls and John B. Stephenson (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1972), 116-19.
73. Sue Ella Kobak, interview by author, 15 September 1998, Big Stone Gap, Virginia;
74. Warren Wright, quoted in People Speak Out on Strip Mining (Berea, Ky.: Council of Southern Mountains, 1971);
75. Mountain Life and Work 48:5 (May 1972): 15-16.
76. Mountain Life and Work 47:11 (November 1971): 36; Mountain Life and Work 47:1 (January 1971): 22; Joe Begley, interview by author, 14 September 1998, Blackey, Kentucky.
77. Mountain Life and Work 47:11 (November 1971): 36; Mountain Life and Work 47:1 (January 1971): 22; Joe Begley, interview by author, 14 September 1998, Blackey, Kentucky.
78. Mountain Life and Work 47:11 (November 1971): 36; Mountain Life and Work 47:1 (January 1971): 22; Joe Begley, interview by author, 14 September 1998, Blackey, Kentucky.
79. Lewis Burke, in Our Appalachia, ed. Laurel Schakelford and Bill Weinberg (New York: Hill and Wang, 1977), 353-54; Mountain Life and Work 48:9 (October 1972): 17.
80. Lewis Burke, in Our Appalachia, ed. Laurel Schakelford and Bill Weinberg (New York: Hill and Wang, 1977), 353-54; Mountain Life and Work 48:9 (October 1972): 17.
81. Op-ed article, Raleigh Register, 13 February 1972, reprinted in Mountain Life and Work 48:2 (February 1972): 18; COALition Against Stripmining, handbill, n.d., and Save Our Kentucky, "Questions and Answers," n.d., Strip Mining-Updated Articles, Joe and Gaynell Begley Files, Blackey, Kentucky; Save Our Cumberland Mountains, "Facts About Strip-Mining," 1974, Strip Mining-[19]74, Joe and Gaynell Begley Files, Blackey, Kentucky.
82. Op-ed article, Raleigh Register, 13 February 1972, reprinted in Mountain Life and Work 48:2 (February 1972): 18; COALition Against Stripmining, handbill, n.d., and Save Our Kentucky, "Questions and Answers," n.d., Strip Mining-Updated Articles, Joe and Gaynell Begley Files, Blackey, Kentucky; Save Our Cumberland Mountains, "Facts About Strip-Mining," 1974, Strip Mining-[19]74, Joe and Gaynell Begley Files, Blackey, Kentucky.
83. Op-ed article, Raleigh Register, 13 February 1972, reprinted in Mountain Life and Work 48:2 (February 1972): 18; COALition Against Stripmining, handbill, n.d., and Save Our Kentucky, "Questions and Answers," n.d., Strip Mining-Updated Articles, Joe and Gaynell Begley Files, Blackey, Kentucky; Save Our Cumberland Mountains, "Facts About Strip-Mining," 1974, Strip Mining-[19]74, Joe and Gaynell Begley Files, Blackey, Kentucky.
84. Op-ed article, Raleigh Register, 13 February 1972, reprinted in Mountain Life and Work 48:2 (February 1972): 18; COALition Against Stripmining, handbill, n.d., and Save Our Kentucky, "Questions and Answers," n.d., Strip Mining-Updated Articles, Joe and Gaynell Begley Files, Blackey, Kentucky; Save Our Cumberland Mountains, "Facts About Strip-Mining," 1974, Strip Mining-[19]74, Joe and Gaynell Begley Files, Blackey, Kentucky.
85. Op-ed article, Raleigh Register, 13 February 1972, reprinted in Mountain Life and Work 48:2 (February 1972): 18; COALition Against Stripmining, handbill; Save Our Kentucky "Questions and Answers"; Save Our Cumberland Mountains, "Facts About StripMining"; Mountain Life and Work n.v. (August 1973): 4.
86. Op-ed article, Raleigh Register, 13 February 1972, reprinted in Mountain Life and Work 48:2 (February 1972): 18; COALition Against Stripmining, handbill; Save Our Kentucky "Questions and Answers"; Save Our Cumberland Mountains, "Facts About StripMining"; Mountain Life and Work n.v. (August 1973): 4.
87. Op-ed article, Raleigh Register, 13 February 1972, reprinted in Mountain Life and Work 48:2 (February 1972): 18; COALition Against Stripmining, handbill; Save Our Kentucky "Questions and Answers"; Save Our Cumberland Mountains, "Facts About StripMining"; Mountain Life and Work n.v. (August 1973): 4.
88. Ken Hechler, telephone interview by author, 9 September 1998.
89. UMWJ 82:1 (January 1971): 4, 6;
90. Senate Subcommittee on Minerals, Materials, and Fuels of the Committee of Interior and Insular Affairs, Hearings Before the Subcommittee on Minerals, Materials, and Fuels of the Committee of Interior and Insular Affairs Pursuant to S. Res. 45, a National Fuels and Energy Policy Study, on S. 77 ⋯ S. 2777, 92d Cong., 1st sess., 16 November 1971-24 February 1972, 466.
91. UMWJ 82:2 (February 1971): 3; UMWJ 82:5 (March 1971): 9; UMWJ 82:19 (October 1971): 24; Ken Hechler, press release, 21 May 1971, copy in author's possession.
92. UMWJ 82:2 (February 1971): 3; UMWJ 82:5 (March 1971): 9; UMWJ 82:19 (October 1971): 24; Ken Hechler, press release, 21 May 1971, copy in author's possession.
93. UMWJ 82:2 (February 1971): 3; UMWJ 82:5 (March 1971): 9; UMWJ 82:19 (October 1971): 24; Ken Hechler, press release, 21 May 1971, copy in author's possession.
94. UMWJ 82:2 (February 1971): 3; UMWJ 82:5 (March 1971): 9; UMWJ 82:19 (October 1971): 24; Ken Hechler, press release, 21 May 1971, copy in author's possession.
95. In 1946, President Lewis demanded that coal operators establish a welfare and retirement fund financed by a per-ton royalty. The operators refused, the miners went out on strike, and the government seized the mines. For a year the mines were operated under a contract that included a provision for a welfare fund, funded by a royalty of 5¢ per ton. The government returned the mines to the owners in June 1947, and the coal operators agreed to a contract which preserved the welfare fund, with the royalty increased to 10¢ per ton; UMWJ 82:21 (November 1971): 7-8, 10; Senate Subcommittee on Minerals, Materials, and Fuels, Hearings, 455, 458, 473; UMWJ 82:10 (May 1972): 24.
96. In 1946, President Lewis demanded that coal operators establish a welfare and retirement fund financed by a per-ton royalty. The operators refused, the miners went out on strike, and the government seized the mines. For a year the mines were operated under a contract that included a provision for a welfare fund, funded by a royalty of 5¢ per ton. The government returned the mines to the owners in June 1947, and the coal operators agreed to a contract which preserved the welfare fund, with the royalty increased to 10¢ per ton; UMWJ 82:21 (November 1971): 7-8, 10; Senate Subcommittee on Minerals, Materials, and Fuels, Hearings, 455, 458, 473; UMWJ 82:10 (May 1972): 24.
97. In 1946, President Lewis demanded that coal operators establish a welfare and retirement fund financed by a per-ton royalty. The operators refused, the miners went out on strike, and the government seized the mines. For a year the mines were operated under a contract that included a provision for a welfare fund, funded by a royalty of 5¢ per ton. The government returned the mines to the owners in June 1947, and the coal operators agreed to a contract which preserved the welfare fund, with the royalty increased to 10¢ per ton; UMWJ 82:21 (November 1971): 7-8, 10; Senate Subcommittee on Minerals, Materials, and Fuels, Hearings, 455, 458, 473; UMWJ 82:10 (May 1972): 24.
98. The Yablonski campaign and other events leading up to an MFD victory are covered in greater detail in a number of sources. The most thorough history can be found in Paul Nyden, "Miners for Democracy" (Ph.D. diss., Columbia University, 1974), 476-78.
99. 6th Constitutional Convention (Indianapolis, 1973), 298.
100. 6th Constitutional Convention (Indianapolis, 1973), 298.
101. 6th Constitutional Convention (Indianapolis, 1973), 298.
102. UMWJ 83 (July 1972): 23, 27; UMWJ 83 (September 1972): 21; Mountain Life and Work 48:6 (June-July 1972): 16; UMWJ 83 (October 1972): 19. Today, Local 7690 is much reduced in size from the 1970s and functions as a "reclamation local."
103. UMWJ 83 (July 1972): 23, 27; UMWJ 83 (September 1972): 21; Mountain Life and Work 48:6 (June-July 1972): 16; UMWJ 83 (October 1972): 19. Today, Local 7690 is much reduced in size from the 1970s and functions as a "reclamation local."
104. UMWJ 83 (July 1972): 23, 27; UMWJ 83 (September 1972): 21; Mountain Life and Work 48:6 (June-July 1972): 16; UMWJ 83 (October 1972): 19. Today, Local 7690 is much reduced in size from the 1970s and functions as a "reclamation local."
105. UMWJ 83 (July 1972): 23, 27; UMWJ 83 (September 1972): 21; Mountain Life and Work 48:6 (June-July 1972): 16; UMWJ 83 (October 1972): 19. Today, Local 7690 is much reduced in size from the 1970s and functions as a "reclamation local."
106. Nyden, "Miners for Democracy," 479, 746, 838; UMWJ 83:23 (December 1972): 3.
107. Nyden, "Miners for Democracy," 479, 746, 838; UMWJ 83:23 (December 1972): 3.
108. Senate Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Hearings Before the Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs on S. 425 ⋯ [and] S. 923, 93d Cong., 1st Sess., 13-16 March 1973 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1973), 397-98; UMWJ 84:5 (April 1973): 17; UMWJ 84:6 (April 1973): 14, 19.
109. Senate Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Hearings Before the Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs on S. 425 ⋯ [and] S. 923, 93d Cong., 1st Sess., 13-16 March 1973 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1973), 397-98; UMWJ 84:5 (April 1973): 17; UMWJ 84:6 (April 1973): 14, 19.
110. Senate Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Hearings Before the Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs on S. 425 ⋯ [and] S. 923, 93d Cong., 1st Sess., 13-16 March 1973 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1973), 397-98; UMWJ 84:5 (April 1973): 17; UMWJ 84:6 (April 1973): 14, 19.
111. UMWJ 84:7 (May 1973): 22; UMWJ 83:23 (December 1972): 3.
112. UMWJ 84:7 (May 1973): 22; UMWJ 83:23 (December 1972): 3.
113. Columbus Dispatch, 10 March 1972, 12; Mountain Life and Work 48:8 (September 1972): 24-29; Mountain Life and Work 49:1 (January 1973): 18.
114. Columbus Dispatch, 10 March 1972, 12; Mountain Life and Work 48:8 (September 1972): 24-29; Mountain Life and Work 49:1 (January 1973): 18.
115. Columbus Dispatch, 10 March 1972, 12; Mountain Life and Work 48:8 (September 1972): 24-29; Mountain Life and Work 49:1 (January 1973): 18.
116. Mountain Life and Work 50:2 (February 1974): 7-8; Nyden, "Miners for Democracy," 148; U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, vol. I, Metals, Minerals, and Fuels: 1973, 320.
117. Mountain Life and Work 50:2 (February 1974): 7-8; Nyden, "Miners for Democracy," 148; U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, vol. I, Metals, Minerals, and Fuels: 1973, 320.
118. Mountain Life and Work 50:2 (February 1974): 7-8; Nyden, "Miners for Democracy," 148; U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, vol. I, Metals, Minerals, and Fuels: 1973, 320.
119. U.S. Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, vol. 1, Metals, Minerals, and Fuels 1976 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1976), 343-44.
120. UMWJ 84:7 (May 1973): 3; UMWJ 84:19 (November 1973): 9; UMWJ 85:5 (February 1974): 3; "Department of Organization Summary, December 1974," Box AA/2, United Mine Workers Collection, Pennsylvania State University; UMWJ 86:5 (March 1975): 3; UMWJ 86:21 (December 1975): 13.
121. UMWJ 84:7 (May 1973): 3; UMWJ 84:19 (November 1973): 9; UMWJ 85:5 (February 1974): 3; "Department of Organization Summary, December 1974," Box AA/2, United Mine Workers Collection, Pennsylvania State University; UMWJ 86:5 (March 1975): 3; UMWJ 86:21 (December 1975): 13.
122. UMWJ 84:7 (May 1973): 3; UMWJ 84:19 (November 1973): 9; UMWJ 85:5 (February 1974): 3; "Department of Organization Summary, December 1974," Box AA/2, United Mine Workers Collection, Pennsylvania State University; UMWJ 86:5 (March 1975): 3; UMWJ 86:21 (December 1975): 13.
123. UMWJ 84:7 (May 1973): 3; UMWJ 84:19 (November 1973): 9; UMWJ 85:5 (February 1974): 3; "Department of Organization Summary, December 1974," Box AA/2, United Mine Workers Collection, Pennsylvania State University; UMWJ 86:5 (March 1975): 3; UMWJ 86:21 (December 1975): 13.
124. UMWJ 84:7 (May 1973): 3; UMWJ 84:19 (November 1973): 9; UMWJ 85:5 (February 1974): 3; "Department of Organization Summary, December 1974," Box AA/2, United Mine Workers Collection, Pennsylvania State University; UMWJ 86:5 (March 1975): 3; UMWJ 86:21 (December 1975): 13.
125. UMWJ 85:19 (September 1974): n.p.; UMWJ 85:22 (November 1974): 9. Judging the 1974 contract to be a victory for the union, the BCOA fired their chief executive and top negotiator, Walter C. Wallace, and replaced him with Joseph Brennan, the former UMW official in the Boyle administration. UMWJ 86:8 (April 1975): 26.
126. UMWJ 85:19 (September 1974): n.p.; UMWJ 85:22 (November 1974): 9. Judging the 1974 contract to be a victory for the union, the BCOA fired their chief executive and top negotiator, Walter C. Wallace, and replaced him with Joseph Brennan, the former UMW official in the Boyle administration. UMWJ 86:8 (April 1975): 26.
127. UMWJ 85:19 (September 1974): n.p.; UMWJ 85:22 (November 1974): 9. Judging the 1974 contract to be a victory for the union, the BCOA fired their chief executive and top negotiator, Walter C. Wallace, and replaced him with Joseph Brennan, the former UMW official in the Boyle administration. UMWJ 86:8 (April 1975): 26.
128. UMWJ 85:1 (January 1974): 29; UMWJ 85:4 (February 1974): 9; United Mine Workers of America, Proceedings of the 46th Constitutional Convention (Indianapolis, 1973), 298-300.
129. UMWJ 85:1 (January 1974): 29; UMWJ 85:4 (February 1974): 9; United Mine Workers of America, Proceedings of the 46th Constitutional Convention (Indianapolis, 1973), 298-300.
130. UMWJ 85:1 (January 1974): 29; UMWJ 85:4 (February 1974): 9; United Mine Workers of America, Proceedings of the 46th Constitutional Convention (Indianapolis, 1973), 298-300.
131. Mountain Life and Work 50:7-8 (July-August 1974): 18; UMWJ 85:15 (July 1974): 5. Unfortunately, the United Mine Workers of America will not allow researchers access to the minutes for this important board meeting.
132. Mountain Life and Work 50:7-8 (July-August 1974): 18; UMWJ 85:15 (July 1974): 5. Unfortunately, the United Mine Workers of America will not allow researchers access to the minutes for this important board meeting.
133. Mountain Life and Work 51:4 (April 1975): 7.
134. Mountain Life and Work 52:10 (October 1976): 41; United Mine Workers of America, Proceedings of the 47th Constitutional Convention (Indianapolis, 1976), 273-76.
135. Mountain Life and Work 52:10 (October 1976): 41; United Mine Workers of America, Proceedings of the 47th Constitutional Convention (Indianapolis, 1976), 273-76.
136. House Subcommittee on Energy and the Environment of the Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Hearings Before the Subcommittee on Energy and the Environment of the Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs on H.R. 2, Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977, 95th Cong., 1st sess., 10, 12 January 1977, 10-12, 91-94.
137. Mountain Life and Work 53:7 (August 1977): 33-34.