The role of multinational corporations and national states in the globalization of innovatory capacity: The European perspective

Technology Analysis and Strategic Management

Volumn 12, Issue 2, 2000, Pages 243-262

  Cantwell, John ^a   Janne, Odile ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF READING   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

GLOBALIZATION; INNOVATION; MULTINATIONAL ENTERPRISE; TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT;

EUROPE;

EID: 0034025331     PISSN: 09537325     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/713698463     Document Type: Article

References (82)

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2. J. H. Dunning, 'The Geographical Sources of Competitiveness of Firms. Some Results of a New Survey', Transnational Corporations, 5 (3), 1996, p. 1; I. Zander, 'Technological Diversification in the Multinational Corporation - Historical Evolution and Future Prospects', Research Policy, 26, 1997, p. 209.
3. Dunning, op. cit., Ref. 1; R. R. Nelson, 'National Innovation Systems: A Retrospective on a Study', in: G. Dosi & F. Malerba (Eds), Organization and Strategy in the Evolution of the Enterprise (London, Macmillan Press, 1996); R. D. Pearce, 'Decentralised R&D and Strategic Competitiveness: Globalised Approaches to Generation and Use of Technology in MNEs', Research Policy, Special issue, 28, 1999, p. 157; J. A. Cantwell, 'The Internationalisation of Technological Activity and its Implications for Competitiveness', in: O. Granstrand, L. Håkanson & S. Sjölander (Eds), Technology Management and International Business: Internationalisation of R&D and Technology (Chichester, John Wiley, 1992); J. A. Cantwell & O. E. M. Janne, 'Technological Globalisation and Innovative Centres: The Role of Corporate Technological Leadership and Locational Hierarchy', Research Policy, Special issue, 28, 1999, p.119; M. C. Casson (Ed), Global Research Strategy and International Competitiveness (Oxford, Basil Blackwell, 1991).
4. Dunning, op. cit., Ref. 1; R. R. Nelson, 'National Innovation Systems: A Retrospective on a Study', in: G. Dosi & F. Malerba (Eds), Organization and Strategy in the Evolution of the Enterprise (London, Macmillan Press, 1996); R. D. Pearce, 'Decentralised R&D and Strategic Competitiveness: Globalised Approaches to Generation and Use of Technology in MNEs', Research Policy, Special issue, 28, 1999, p. 157; J. A. Cantwell, 'The Internationalisation of Technological Activity and its Implications for Competitiveness', in: O. Granstrand, L. Håkanson & S. Sjölander (Eds), Technology Management and International Business: Internationalisation of R&D and Technology (Chichester, John Wiley, 1992); J. A. Cantwell & O. E. M. Janne, 'Technological Globalisation and Innovative Centres: The Role of Corporate Technological Leadership and Locational Hierarchy', Research Policy, Special issue, 28, 1999, p.119; M. C. Casson (Ed), Global Research Strategy and International Competitiveness (Oxford, Basil Blackwell, 1991).
5. Dunning, op. cit., Ref. 1; R. R. Nelson, 'National Innovation Systems: A Retrospective on a Study', in: G. Dosi & F. Malerba (Eds), Organization and Strategy in the Evolution of the Enterprise (London, Macmillan Press, 1996); R. D. Pearce, 'Decentralised R&D and Strategic Competitiveness: Globalised Approaches to Generation and Use of Technology in MNEs', Research Policy, Special issue, 28, 1999, p. 157; J. A. Cantwell, 'The Internationalisation of Technological Activity and its Implications for Competitiveness', in: O. Granstrand, L. Håkanson & S. Sjölander (Eds), Technology Management and International Business: Internationalisation of R&D and Technology (Chichester, John Wiley, 1992); J. A. Cantwell & O. E. M. Janne, 'Technological Globalisation and Innovative Centres: The Role of Corporate Technological Leadership and Locational Hierarchy', Research Policy, Special issue, 28, 1999, p.119; M. C. Casson (Ed), Global Research Strategy and International Competitiveness (Oxford, Basil Blackwell, 1991).
6. Dunning, op. cit., Ref. 1; R. R. Nelson, 'National Innovation Systems: A Retrospective on a Study', in: G. Dosi & F. Malerba (Eds), Organization and Strategy in the Evolution of the Enterprise (London, Macmillan Press, 1996); R. D. Pearce, 'Decentralised R&D and Strategic Competitiveness: Globalised Approaches to Generation and Use of Technology in MNEs', Research Policy, Special issue, 28, 1999, p. 157; J. A. Cantwell, 'The Internationalisation of Technological Activity and its Implications for Competitiveness', in: O. Granstrand, L. Håkanson & S. Sjölander (Eds), Technology Management and International Business: Internationalisation of R&D and Technology (Chichester, John Wiley, 1992); J. A. Cantwell & O. E. M. Janne, 'Technological Globalisation and Innovative Centres: The Role of Corporate Technological Leadership and Locational Hierarchy', Research Policy, Special issue, 28, 1999, p.119; M. C. Casson (Ed), Global Research Strategy and International Competitiveness (Oxford, Basil Blackwell, 1991).
7. Dunning, op. cit., Ref. 1; R. R. Nelson, 'National Innovation Systems: A Retrospective on a Study', in: G. Dosi & F. Malerba (Eds), Organization and Strategy in the Evolution of the Enterprise (London, Macmillan Press, 1996); R. D. Pearce, 'Decentralised R&D and Strategic Competitiveness: Globalised Approaches to Generation and Use of Technology in MNEs', Research Policy, Special issue, 28, 1999, p. 157; J. A. Cantwell, 'The Internationalisation of Technological Activity and its Implications for Competitiveness', in: O. Granstrand, L. Håkanson & S. Sjölander (Eds), Technology Management and International Business: Internationalisation of R&D and Technology (Chichester, John Wiley, 1992); J. A. Cantwell & O. E. M. Janne, 'Technological Globalisation and Innovative Centres: The Role of Corporate Technological Leadership and Locational Hierarchy', Research Policy, Special issue, 28, 1999, p.119; M. C. Casson (Ed), Global Research Strategy and International Competitiveness (Oxford, Basil Blackwell, 1991).
8. Dunning, op. cit., Ref. 1; R. R. Nelson, 'National Innovation Systems: A Retrospective on a Study', in: G. Dosi & F. Malerba (Eds), Organization and Strategy in the Evolution of the Enterprise (London, Macmillan Press, 1996); R. D. Pearce, 'Decentralised R&D and Strategic Competitiveness: Globalised Approaches to Generation and Use of Technology in MNEs', Research Policy, Special issue, 28, 1999, p. 157; J. A. Cantwell, 'The Internationalisation of Technological Activity and its Implications for Competitiveness', in: O. Granstrand, L. Håkanson & S. Sjölander (Eds), Technology Management and International Business: Internationalisation of R&D and Technology (Chichester, John Wiley, 1992); J. A. Cantwell & O. E. M. Janne, 'Technological Globalisation and Innovative Centres: The Role of Corporate Technological Leadership and Locational Hierarchy', Research Policy, Special issue, 28, 1999, p.119; M. C. Casson (Ed), Global Research Strategy and International Competitiveness (Oxford, Basil Blackwell, 1991).
9. P. Patel, 'Localised Production of Technology for Global Markets', Cambridge Journal of Economics, 19, 1995, p. 141; P. Patel & K. L. R. Pavitt, 'Large Firms in the Production of the World's Technology: An Important Case of "Non-globalisation"', Journal of International Business Studies, 22 (1), 1991, p. 1.
10. P. Patel, 'Localised Production of Technology for Global Markets', Cambridge Journal of Economics, 19, 1995, p. 141; P. Patel & K. L. R. Pavitt, 'Large Firms in the Production of the World's Technology: An Important Case of "Non-globalisation"', Journal of International Business Studies, 22 (1), 1991, p. 1.
11. J. H. Dunning, Multinational Enterprises and the Global Economy (Wokingham, Addison-Wesley, 1993); J. H. Dunning, 'Multinational Enterprises and the Globalisation of Innovatory Capacity', Research Policy, 23, 1994, p.67; Cantwell & Janne, op. cit., Ref. 3; Pearce, op. cit., Ref. 2; D. Archibugi & S. Iammarino, 'Innovation and Globalization: Evidence and Implications', in: F. Chesnais; G. Ietto-Gillies & R. Simonetti (Eds), European Integration and Global Corporate Strategies (London, Routledge, 2000).
12. J. H. Dunning, Multinational Enterprises and the Global Economy (Wokingham, Addison-Wesley, 1993); J. H. Dunning, 'Multinational Enterprises and the Globalisation of Innovatory Capacity', Research Policy, 23, 1994, p.67; Cantwell & Janne, op. cit., Ref. 3; Pearce, op. cit., Ref. 2; D. Archibugi & S. Iammarino, 'Innovation and Globalization: Evidence and Implications', in: F. Chesnais; G. Ietto-Gillies & R. Simonetti (Eds), European Integration and Global Corporate Strategies (London, Routledge, 2000).
13. J. H. Dunning, Multinational Enterprises and the Global Economy (Wokingham, Addison-Wesley, 1993); J. H. Dunning, 'Multinational Enterprises and the Globalisation of Innovatory Capacity', Research Policy, 23, 1994, p.67; Cantwell & Janne, op. cit., Ref. 3; Pearce, op. cit., Ref. 2; D. Archibugi & S. Iammarino, 'Innovation and Globalization: Evidence and Implications', in: F. Chesnais; G. Ietto-Gillies & R. Simonetti (Eds), European Integration and Global Corporate Strategies (London, Routledge, 2000).
14. J. H. Dunning, Multinational Enterprises and the Global Economy (Wokingham, Addison-Wesley, 1993); J. H. Dunning, 'Multinational Enterprises and the Globalisation of Innovatory Capacity', Research Policy, 23, 1994, p.67; Cantwell & Janne, op. cit., Ref. 3; Pearce, op. cit., Ref. 2; D. Archibugi & S. Iammarino, 'Innovation and Globalization: Evidence and Implications', in: F. Chesnais; G. Ietto-Gillies & R. Simonetti (Eds), European Integration and Global Corporate Strategies (London, Routledge, 2000).
15. J. H. Dunning, Multinational Enterprises and the Global Economy (Wokingham, Addison-Wesley, 1993); J. H. Dunning, 'Multinational Enterprises and the Globalisation of Innovatory Capacity', Research Policy, 23, 1994, p.67; Cantwell & Janne, op. cit., Ref. 3; Pearce, op. cit., Ref. 2; D. Archibugi & S. Iammarino, 'Innovation and Globalization: Evidence and Implications', in: F. Chesnais; G. Ietto-Gillies & R. Simonetti (Eds), European Integration and Global Corporate Strategies (London, Routledge, 2000).
16. D. Archibugi & J. Michie, 'The Globalisation of Technology: A New Taxonomy', Cambridge Journal of Economics, 19, 1995, p. 121; Dunning, 1994, op. cit., Ref. 4; M. Carnoy, 'Multinationals in a Changing World Economy: Whither the Nation-State?', in: M. Carnoy, M. Castells, S. S. Cohen & F. H. Cardoso (Eds), The New Global Economy in the Information Age. Reflexions on our Changing World (University Park, PA: Pennsylvania University Press, 1993).
17. D. Archibugi & J. Michie, 'The Globalisation of Technology: A New Taxonomy', Cambridge Journal of Economics, 19, 1995, p. 121; Dunning, 1994, op. cit., Ref. 4; M. Carnoy, 'Multinationals in a Changing World Economy: Whither the Nation-State?', in: M. Carnoy, M. Castells, S. S. Cohen & F. H. Cardoso (Eds), The New Global Economy in the Information Age. Reflexions on our Changing World (University Park, PA: Pennsylvania University Press, 1993).
18. D. Archibugi & J. Michie, 'The Globalisation of Technology: A New Taxonomy', Cambridge Journal of Economics, 19, 1995, p. 121; Dunning, 1994, op. cit., Ref. 4; M. Carnoy, 'Multinationals in a Changing World Economy: Whither the Nation-State?', in: M. Carnoy, M. Castells, S. S. Cohen & F. H. Cardoso (Eds), The New Global Economy in the Information Age. Reflexions on our Changing World (University Park, PA: Pennsylvania University Press, 1993).
19. Cantwell & Janne, op. cit., Ref. 2.
20. Archibugi & Michie, op. cit., Ref. 5; Cantwell & Janne, ibid.; J. A. Cantwell & F. Sanna-Randaccio, 'Intra-Industry Direct Investment in the European Community: Oligopolistic Rivalry and Technological Competition', in: J. A. Cantwell (Ed.), Multinational Investment in Modern Europe: Strategic Interaction in The Integrated Community (Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 1992); J. A. Cantwell, 'The Globalisation of Technology: What Remains of the Product Cycle Model', Cambridge Journal of Economics, 19, 1995, p. 155.
21. Archibugi & Michie, op. cit., Ref. 5; Cantwell & Janne, ibid.; J. A. Cantwell & F. Sanna-Randaccio, 'Intra-Industry Direct Investment in the European Community: Oligopolistic Rivalry and Technological Competition', in: J. A. Cantwell (Ed.), Multinational Investment in Modern Europe: Strategic Interaction in The Integrated Community (Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 1992); J. A. Cantwell, 'The Globalisation of Technology: What Remains of the Product Cycle Model', Cambridge Journal of Economics, 19, 1995, p. 155.
22. Archibugi & Michie, op. cit., Ref. 5; Cantwell & Janne, ibid.; J. A. Cantwell & F. Sanna-Randaccio, 'Intra-Industry Direct Investment in the European Community: Oligopolistic Rivalry and Technological Competition', in: J. A. Cantwell (Ed.), Multinational Investment in Modern Europe: Strategic Interaction in The Integrated Community (Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 1992); J. A. Cantwell, 'The Globalisation of Technology: What Remains of the Product Cycle Model', Cambridge Journal of Economics, 19, 1995, p. 155.
23. Archibugi & Michie, op. cit., Ref. 5; Cantwell & Janne, ibid.; J. A. Cantwell & F. Sanna-Randaccio, 'Intra-Industry Direct Investment in the European Community: Oligopolistic Rivalry and Technological Competition', in: J. A. Cantwell (Ed.), Multinational Investment in Modern Europe: Strategic Interaction in The Integrated Community (Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 1992); J. A. Cantwell, 'The Globalisation of Technology: What Remains of the Product Cycle Model', Cambridge Journal of Economics, 19, 1995, p. 155.
24. J. A. Cantwell, Technological Innovation and Multinational Corporations (Oxford, Basil Blackwell, 1989); Cantwell, op. cit., Ref. 2; Cantwell, op. cit., Ref. 7; J. A. Cantwell & C. Hodson, 'Global R&D and UK Competitiveness', in: M. C. Casson (Ed.), Global Research Strategy and International Competitiveness (Oxford, Basil Blackwell, 1991).
25. J. A. Cantwell, Technological Innovation and Multinational Corporations (Oxford, Basil Blackwell, 1989); Cantwell, op. cit., Ref. 2; Cantwell, op. cit., Ref. 7; J. A. Cantwell & C. Hodson, 'Global R&D and UK Competitiveness', in: M. C. Casson (Ed.), Global Research Strategy and International Competitiveness (Oxford, Basil Blackwell, 1991).
26. J. A. Cantwell, Technological Innovation and Multinational Corporations (Oxford, Basil Blackwell, 1989); Cantwell, op. cit., Ref. 2; Cantwell, op. cit., Ref. 7; J. A. Cantwell & C. Hodson, 'Global R&D and UK Competitiveness', in: M. C. Casson (Ed.), Global Research Strategy and International Competitiveness (Oxford, Basil Blackwell, 1991).
27. J. A. Cantwell, Technological Innovation and Multinational Corporations (Oxford, Basil Blackwell, 1989); Cantwell, op. cit., Ref. 2; Cantwell, op. cit., Ref. 7; J. A. Cantwell & C. Hodson, 'Global R&D and UK Competitiveness', in: M. C. Casson (Ed.), Global Research Strategy and International Competitiveness (Oxford, Basil Blackwell, 1991).
28. M. Emerson; M. Aujean; M. Catinat; P. Goybet & A. Jacquemin, The Economics of 1992: The EC Commission's Assessment of the Economic Effects of Completing the Internal Market (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1988).
29. J. A. Cantwell, 'The Reorganisation of European Industries After Integration', Journal of Common Market Studies, 26 (2), 1987, p. 127.
30. Archibugi & Michie, op. cit., Ref. 5; Patel, op. cit., Ref. 3.
31. Archibugi & Michie, op. cit., Ref. 5; Patel, op. cit., Ref. 3.
32. See J. H. Dunning, 'The European Internal Market Programme and Inbound Foreign Direct Investment', Journal of Common Market Studies, 35, 2, 1997, p. 189.
33. Archibugi & Iammarino, op. cit., Ref. 4; J. Howells & M. Wood, The Globalisation of Production and Technology (London, John Wiley, 1993); Dunning, op. cit., Ref. 4; Patel, op. cit., Ref. 3; R. D. Pearce & S. Singh, Globalising Research and Development (London, MacMillan, 1992).
34. Archibugi & Iammarino, op. cit., Ref. 4; J. Howells & M. Wood, The Globalisation of Production and Technology (London, John Wiley, 1993); Dunning, op. cit., Ref. 4; Patel, op. cit., Ref. 3; R. D. Pearce & S. Singh, Globalising Research and Development (London, MacMillan, 1992).
35. Archibugi & Iammarino, op. cit., Ref. 4; J. Howells & M. Wood, The Globalisation of Production and Technology (London, John Wiley, 1993); Dunning, op. cit., Ref. 4; Patel, op. cit., Ref. 3; R. D. Pearce & S. Singh, Globalising Research and Development (London, MacMillan, 1992).
36. Archibugi & Iammarino, op. cit., Ref. 4; J. Howells & M. Wood, The Globalisation of Production and Technology (London, John Wiley, 1993); Dunning, op. cit., Ref. 4; Patel, op. cit., Ref. 3; R. D. Pearce & S. Singh, Globalising Research and Development (London, MacMillan, 1992).
37. Archibugi & Iammarino, op. cit., Ref. 4; J. Howells & M. Wood, The Globalisation of Production and Technology (London, John Wiley, 1993); Dunning, op. cit., Ref. 4; Patel, op. cit., Ref. 3; R. D. Pearce & S. Singh, Globalising Research and Development (London, MacMillan, 1992).
38. For example, Z. J. Acs & D. B. Audretsch, 'Patents as a Measure of Innovative Activity', Kyklos, 42 (2), 1989, p. 171; Z. Griliches, 'Patent Statistics as Economic Indicators: A Survey', Journal of Economic Literature, 18(4), 1990, p. 1661.
39. For example, Z. J. Acs & D. B. Audretsch, 'Patents as a Measure of Innovative Activity', Kyklos, 42 (2), 1989, p. 171; Z. Griliches, 'Patent Statistics as Economic Indicators: A Survey', Journal of Economic Literature, 18(4), 1990, p. 1661.
40. As derived from Fortune, and listed in Dunning & Pearce (J. H. Dunning & R. D. Pearce, The World's Largest Industrial Enterprises, 1962-1983 (Farnborough, Gower, 1985)), of which 730 had recorded patenting activity for the 1969-1995 period, with the addition of 54 technologically large companies apparently missed from the Fortune listings.
41. To illustrate, as a measure of the degree of internationalization of technological activity we calculate the share of total patenting of some given group of firms that is attributable to research or other technological activity outside the home country of the parent company. Firms in different industries, or originating from different home countries, can then be compared with one another. The higher propensity to patent of, for example, pharmaceutical firms relative to shipbuilding companies does not affect matters, provided that pharmaceutical firms are equally more likely to patent from both their foreign and their home located activity, which is a plausible assumption.
42. P. Patel & K. L. R. Pavitt, 'Europe's Technological Performance', in: C. Freeman, M. L. Sharp & W. Walker (Eds), Technology and the Future of Europe: Global Competition and the Environment in the 1990s (London, Frances Pinter, 1991).
43. Cantwell, op. cit., Ref. 7.
44. The consolidation of patents to corporate groups essentially in their 1984 form means that unfortunately it is difficult to assess the true extent of any trend over time towards the internationalization of technological activity, at least prior to 1984. Any such trend is likely to be understated in the data on the patenting of the world's largest firms for 1969-1984 for two reasons. Firstly, where this internationalization was achieved through acquisition before 1984 this is not recorded as a change in the geographical composition of the firm's technological development since the affiliate has been considered as part of the corporate group at both the beginning and the end of the period. Secondly, where acquisitions have had motives other than the extension of research facilities (and there have been many of these), it may be expected that the new parent company would tend to wind down affiliate research. Any duplication with the existing research of the MNC may be eliminated, and other functions may be centralized in the technological headquarters. This would appear in the data as a move away from the internationalization of technological activity. After 1984, there are fewer problems owing to the widespread practice of centralizing patent applications in a new corporate group following an acquisition, and because some important acquisitions after 1984 have been identified and incorporated into the relevant consolidated group from the date they occurred.
45. Cantwell, op. cit., Ref. 7; J. A. Cantwell & U. Kotecha, 'The Internationalisation of Technological Activity: The French Evidence in a Comparative Setting', in: J. Howells & J. Michie (Eds), Technology, Innovation, and Competitiveness (Cheltenham, Edward Elgar, 1997); P. Patel & K. L. R. Pavitt, 'Sources and Directions of Technological Accumulation in France: A Statistical Comparison with FR Germany and the UK', Technology Analysis and Strategic Management, 2 (1), 1990, p. 3.
46. Cantwell, op. cit., Ref. 7; J. A. Cantwell & U. Kotecha, 'The Internationalisation of Technological Activity: The French Evidence in a Comparative Setting', in: J. Howells & J. Michie (Eds), Technology, Innovation, and Competitiveness (Cheltenham, Edward Elgar, 1997); P. Patel & K. L. R. Pavitt, 'Sources and Directions of Technological Accumulation in France: A Statistical Comparison with FR Germany and the UK', Technology Analysis and Strategic Management, 2 (1), 1990, p. 3.
47. Cantwell, op. cit., Ref. 7; J. A. Cantwell & U. Kotecha, 'The Internationalisation of Technological Activity: The French Evidence in a Comparative Setting', in: J. Howells & J. Michie (Eds), Technology, Innovation, and Competitiveness (Cheltenham, Edward Elgar, 1997); P. Patel & K. L. R. Pavitt, 'Sources and Directions of Technological Accumulation in France: A Statistical Comparison with FR Germany and the UK', Technology Analysis and Strategic Management, 2 (1), 1990, p. 3.
48. Pearce & Singh, op. cit., Ref. 13.
49. Dunning, op. cit., Ref. 4; R. D. Pearce & M. Papanastassiou, The Technological Competitiveness of Japanese Multinationals. The European Dimension, Thames Essays on Contemporary International Economic Issues (Michigan, The University of Michigan Press, 1996).
50. Dunning, op. cit., Ref. 4; R. D. Pearce & M. Papanastassiou, The Technological Competitiveness of Japanese Multinationals. The European Dimension, Thames Essays on Contemporary International Economic Issues (Michigan, The University of Michigan Press, 1996).
51. Cantwell, op. cit., Ref. 7.
52. Even when taking into account that the internationalization of technological activity by the largest US firms is probably understated by this measure, owing to their high propensity to patent in their own home market from domestically located research.
53. Cantwell & Kotecha, op. cit., Ref. 20.
54. Cantwell & Hodson, op. cit., Ref. 8.
55. However, looking at the early 1990s separately, there seems to be a mild reverse of this trend.
56. M. Papanastassiou & R. D. Pearce, 'The Research and Development of Japanese Multinational Enterprises in Europe', in: F. Sachwald (Ed.), Japanese Firms in Europe (Chur: Harwood, 1995); Pearce & Papanastassiou, op. cit., Ref. 22.
57. M. Papanastassiou & R. D. Pearce, 'The Research and Development of Japanese Multinational Enterprises in Europe', in: F. Sachwald (Ed.), Japanese Firms in Europe (Chur: Harwood, 1995); Pearce & Papanastassiou, op. cit., Ref. 22.
58. In Japan, the different technical aspects of an invention cannot be included in the same patent application, thus inducing inventors to multiply the number of their domestic applications (D. Archibugi & M. Pianta, 'Specialisation and Size of Technological Activities in Industrial Countries: The Analysis of Patent Data', Research Policy, 21 (1), 1992, p. 79).
59. Papanastassiou & Pearce, op. cit., Ref. 28; Pearce & Papanastassiou, op. cit., Ref. 22.
60. Papanastassiou & Pearce, op. cit., Ref. 28; Pearce & Papanastassiou, op. cit., Ref. 22.
61. Where an R&D facility conducts basic research on a specialized basis in one location (in a host country), but unrelated to any local production plants, the results of such pure research may be incorporated into problem solving efforts in production and R&D elsewhere (in the home country). Especially in the chemical industry, Japanese firms have set up fundamental research facilities in Europe, attracted by local scientific expertise, but as yet not very closely related to European located production and the broader local development of technological capability.
62. UNCTAD, World Investment Report 1998 (Geneva, United Nations, 1998).
63. Cantwell, op. cit., Ref. 8; J. A. Cantwell, J. H. Dunning & O. E. M. Janne, 'Anglo-US Direct Investment: International Systems of Innovation Revisited', Mimeo, University of Reading, 1999.
64. Cantwell, op. cit., Ref. 8; J. A. Cantwell, J. H. Dunning & O. E. M. Janne, 'Anglo-US Direct Investment: International Systems of Innovation Revisited', Mimeo, University of Reading, 1999.
65. Cantwell & Kotecha, op. cit., Ref. 20.
66. M. L. Sharp, 'Corporate Strategies and Collaboration: The Case of ESPRIT and European Electronics', in: M. Dodgson (Ed.), Technological Strategy and the Firm: Management and Public Policy (London, Longman, 1989).
67. Cantwell, op. cit., Ref. 7.
68. J. A. Cantwell & R. Harding, 'The Internationalisation of German Companies' R&D: The Result of a Patent Analysis', National Institute Economic Review, 163, 1998, p. 99.
69. K. L. R. Pavitt, 'International Patterns of Technological Accumulation', in: N. Hood & J-E. Vahlne (Eds), Strategies in Global Competition, 2nd edn (London, Routledge, 1988); R. Florida, 'The Globalisation of R&D: Results of a Survey of Foreign-affiliated R&D Laboratories in the USA', Research Policy, 26, 1997, p. 85.
70. K. L. R. Pavitt, 'International Patterns of Technological Accumulation', in: N. Hood & J-E. Vahlne (Eds), Strategies in Global Competition, 2nd edn (London, Routledge, 1988); R. Florida, 'The Globalisation of R&D: Results of a Survey of Foreign-affiliated R&D Laboratories in the USA', Research Policy, 26, 1997, p. 85.
71. S. Breschi, 'The Geography of Innovation: A Cross-sector Analysis', CESPRI Working Paper 95, April 1997; J. A. Cantwell and G. D. Santangelo, 'Capitalism, profits and innovation in the new techno-economic paradigm', Journal of Evolutionary Economics, 10, 2000, p. 131.
72. S. Breschi, 'The Geography of Innovation: A Cross-sector Analysis', CESPRI Working Paper 95, April 1997; J. A. Cantwell and G. D. Santangelo, 'Capitalism, profits and innovation in the new techno-economic paradigm', Journal of Evolutionary Economics, 10, 2000, p. 131.
73. Pavitt, op. cit., Ref. 38.
74. Cantwell, op. cit., Ref. 10.
75. Nelson, op. cit., Ref. 2.
76. M. L. Sharp & I. Galimberti, 'Coherence and Diversity: Europe's Chemical Giants and the Assimilation of Biotechnology', University of Sussex Science Policy Research Unit Discussion Paper 5, 1993; C. Farrands & P. Totterdill, 'A Rationale for an Appropriate Level of Regulation in the European Community', in: R. Sugden (Ed.), Industrial Economic Regulation (London, Roudedge, 1993).
77. M. L. Sharp & I. Galimberti, 'Coherence and Diversity: Europe's Chemical Giants and the Assimilation of Biotechnology', University of Sussex Science Policy Research Unit Discussion Paper 5, 1993; C. Farrands & P. Totterdill, 'A Rationale for an Appropriate Level of Regulation in the European Community', in: R. Sugden (Ed.), Industrial Economic Regulation (London, Roudedge, 1993).
78. Nelson, op. cit., Ref. 2.
79. Cantwell, op. cit., Ref. 10.
80. Cantwell & Janne, op. cit., Ref. 2.
81. J. A. Cantwell, 'Innovation as the Principal Source of Growth in the Global Economy', in: D. Archibugi, J. Howells & J. Michie (Eds), Innovation in the Global Economy (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1999).
82. Nelson, op. cit., Ref. 2.