Muscle reflex control of sympathetic nerve activity in heart failure: The role of exercise conditioning

Heart Failure Reviews

Volumn 5, Issue 1, 2000, Pages 87-100

  Khan, Mazhar H ^a   Sinoway, Lawrence I ^a,b  

^a PENN STATE COLLEGE OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^b VETERANS AFFAIRS MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

Author keywords

Exercise training; Heart failure; Muscle reflexes; Sympathetic nervous system

Indexed keywords

2 CHLOROADENOSINE; ADENOSINE; DICHLOROACETIC ACID; HISTAMINE; HYDROGEN; LACTIC ACID; NORADRENALIN; PHENTOLAMINE; PHENYLEPHRINE; PHOSPHATE; POTASSIUM; PROSTAGLANDIN;

AEROBIC METABOLISM; BLOOD PRESSURE REGULATION; DRUG ANTAGONISM; DRUG INHIBITION; EXERCISE; HEART FAILURE; HEART OUTPUT; HEART STIMULATION; HUMAN; MOTOR CONTROL; MUSCLE REFLEX; NONHUMAN; REVIEW; SENSORY NERVE; SIGNAL PROCESSING; SYMPATHETIC TONE;

AUTONOMIC PATHWAYS; BAROREFLEX; CASE-CONTROL STUDIES; EXERCISE; FEMALE; HEART FAILURE, CONGESTIVE; HUMANS; MALE; MUSCLE, SKELETAL; PRESSORECEPTORS; PROGNOSIS; REFERENCE VALUES; RISK FACTORS; SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM; TREATMENT OUTCOME;

EID: 0034021645     PISSN: 13824147     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1023/A:1009802308872     Document Type: Review

References (130)

1. Andersen P, Saltin B. Maximal perfusion of skeletal muscle in man. J Physiol (Lond) 1985;366:233-249.
2. Armstrong RB, Laughlin MH. Exercise blood flow patterns within and among rat muscles after training. Am J Physiol 1984;246 (Heart Circ. Physiol. 15):H59-H68.
3. Armstrong RB, Laughlin MH. Exercise blood flow patterns within and among rat muscles after training. Am J Physiol 1984;246 (Heart Circ. Physiol. 15):H59-H68.
4. Musch TI, Haidet GC, Ordway GA, Longhurst JC, Mitchell JH. Training effects on regional blood flow response to maximal exercise in foxhounds. J Appl Physiol 1987;62(4):1724-1732.
5. Laughlin MH, Korthuis RJ, Duncker DJ, Bache RJ. Control of blood flow to cardiac and skeletal muscle during exercise. In Handbook of Physiology, Section 12, Exercise: Regulation and Integration of Multiple Systems, ed. L.B. Rowell and J.T. Shepherd. Chapter 16, pp. 705-769. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996.
6. Savard GK, Richter EA, Strange S, Kiens B, Christensen NJ, Saltin B. Norepinephrine spillover from skeletal muscle during exercise in humans: role of muscle mass. Am J Physiol 1989;257 (Heart Circ. Physiol. 26):H1812-H1818.
7. Savard GK, Richter EA, Strange S, Kiens B, Christensen NJ, Saltin B. Norepinephrine spillover from skeletal muscle during exercise in humans: role of muscle mass. Am J Physiol 1989;257 (Heart Circ. Physiol. 26):H1812-H1818.
8. Leuenberger U, Sinoway L, Gubin S, Gaul L, Davis D, Zelis R. Effects of exercise intensity and duration on norepinephrine spillover and clearance in humans. J Appl Physiol 1993;75(2):668-674.
9. Mark AL, Victor RG, Nerhed C, Wallin BG. Microneurographic studies of the mechanisms of sympathetic nerve responses to static exercise in humans. Circ Res 1985;57:461-469.
10. Mitchell JH, Payne FC, Saltin B, Schibye B. The role of muscle mass in the cardiovascular response to static contractions. J Physiol (London) 1980;309:45-54.
11. Seals DR. Influence of muscle mass on sympathetic neural activation during isometric exercise. J Appl Physiol 1989;67(5):1801-1806.
12. Lind AR, Taylor SH, Humphreys PW, Kennelly BM, Donald KW. The circulatory effects of sustained voluntary muscle contraction. Clin Sci 1964;27:229-244.
13. Seals DR, Enoka RM. Sympathetic activation is associated with increases in EMG during fatiguing exercise. J Appl Physiol 1989;66(1):88-95.
14. Saito M, Mano T, Iwase S. Sympathetic nerve activity related to local fatigue sensation during static contraction. J Appl Physiol 1989;67(3):980-984.
15. Vanhoutte PM, Verbueren TJ, Webb RC. Local modulation of adrenergic neuroeffector interaction in the blood vessel wall. Physiol Rev 1981;61:151-247.
16. Remensynder JP, Mitchell JH, Sarnoff SJ. Functional sympatholysis during muscular activity. Observations of influence of carotid sinus on oxygen uptake. Circ Res 1962;11:370-380.
17. Kurjiaka DT, Segal SS. Interaction between conducted vasodilation and sympathetic nerve activation in arterioles of hamster striated muscle. Circ Res 1995;76:885-891.
18. McGillivray-Anderson KM, Faber JE. Effect of acidosis on contraction of microvascular smooth muscle by alpha1- and alpha2-adrenoceptors. Implications for neural and metabolic regulation. Circ Res 1990;66:1643-1657.
19. Hansen J, Thomas GD, Harris SA, Parsons WJ, Victor RG. Differential sympathetic neural control of oxygenation in resting and exercising human skeletal muscle. J Clin Invest 1996;98(2):584-596.
20. Vatner SF, Franklin D, Van Citters RL, Braunwald E. Effects of carotid sinus nerve stimulation on blood-flow distribution in conscious dogs at rest and during exercise. Circ Res 1970;27(4):495-503.
21. Strandell T, Shepherd JT. The effect in humans of increased sympathetic activity on blood flow to active muscles. Acta Med Scand Suppl 1967;472:146-167.
22. Buckwalter JB, Mueller PJ, Clifford PS. Sympathetic vasoconstriction in active skeletal muscles during dynamic exercise. J Appl Physiol 1997;83(5):1575-1580.
23. O'Leary DS, Robinson ED, Butler JL. Is active skeletal muscle functionally vasoconstricted during dynamic exercise in conscious dogs? Am J Physiol 1997;272 (Regulatory Integrative Comp. Physiol. 41):R386-R391.
24. O'Leary DS, Robinson ED, Butler JL. Is active skeletal muscle functionally vasoconstricted during dynamic exercise in conscious dogs? Am J Physiol 1997;272 (Regulatory Integrative Comp. Physiol. 41):R386-R391.
25. Peterson DF, Armstrong RB, Laughlin MH. Sympathetic neural influences on muscle blood flow in rats during submaximal exercise. J Appl Physiol 1988; 65(1):434-440.
26. 2 uptake in rhythmically contracting human forearm muscles. Am J Physiol 1992;263 (Heart Circ. Physiol. 32):H1078-H1083.
27. 2 uptake in rhythmically contracting human forearm muscles. Am J Physiol 1992;263 (Heart Circ. Physiol. 32):H1078-H1083.
28. Donald DE, Rowlands DJ, Ferguson DA. Similarity of blood flow in the normal and the sympathectomized dog hind limb during graded exercise. Circ Res 1970;26:185-199.
29. Sinoway L, Prophet S. Skeletal muscle metaboreceptor stimulation opposes peak metabolic vasodilation in humans. Circ Res 1990;66(6):1576-1584.
30. Shoemaker JK, Pandey P, Herr MD, Silber DH, Yang QX, Smith MB, Gray K, Sinoway LI. Augmented sympathetic tone alters muscle metabolism with exercise: lack of evidence for functional sympatholysis. J Appl Physiol 1997;82(6):1932-1938.
31. Thompson LP, Mohrman DE. Blood flow and oxygen consumption in skeletal muscle during sympathetic stimulation. Am J Physiol 1983;245 (Heart Circ. Physiol. 14):H66-H71.
32. Thompson LP, Mohrman DE. Blood flow and oxygen consumption in skeletal muscle during sympathetic stimulation. Am J Physiol 1983;245 (Heart Circ. Physiol. 14):H66-H71.
33. Flaim SF, Crede W, Beech A, Nellis SN, Zelis R. The effects of norepinephrine on active hyperemia in the canine gracilis muscle. Circ Res 1979;44:660-666.
34. Rein H, Schneider M. Die lokale Stoffwechseleinschränkung bie reflektorisch-nervöser Durchblutungdrosselung. Pflüegers Arch 1938;239:464-475.
35. Rotto DM, Kaufman MP. Effect of metabolic products of muscular contraction on discharge of group III and IV afferents. J Appl Physiol 1988;64(6):2306-2313.
36. Alam M, Smirk FH. Observations in man upon a blood pressure raising reflex arising from the voluntary muscles. J Physiol (Lond) 1937;89:372-383.
37. O'Leary DS, Rowell LB, Scher AM. Baroreflex-induced vasoconstriction in active skeletal muscle of conscious dogs. Am J Physiol 1991;260 (Heart Circ. Physiol. 29):H37-H41.
38. O'Leary DS, Rowell LB, Scher AM. Baroreflex- induced vasoconstriction in active skeletal muscle of conscious dogs. Am J Physiol 1991;260 (Heart Circ. Physiol. 29):H37-H41.
39. Rowell LB, O'Leary DS. Reflex control of the circulation during exercise: chemoreflexes and mechanoreflexes. J Appl Physiol 1990;69(2):407-418.
40. Rowell LB, Sheriff DD. Are muscle "chemoreflexes" functionally important? News Physiol Sci 1988;3: 250-253.
41. Victor RG, Bertocci L, Pryor S, Nunnally R. Sympathetic nerve discharge is coupled to muscle cell pH during exercise in humans. J Clin Invest 1988;82: 1301-1305.
42. Sinoway L, Prophet S, Gorman I, Mosher T, Shenberger J, Dolecki M, Briggs R, Zelis R. Muscle acidosis during static exercise is associated with calf vasoconstriction. J Appl Physiol 1989;66(1):429-436.
43. Eldridge FL, Millhorn DE, Kiley JP, Waldrop TG. Stimulation by central command of locomotion, respiration and circulation during exercise. Respir Physiol 1985;59:313-337.
44. Freyschuss U. Cardiovascular adjustment to somatomotor activation. The elicitation of increments in heart rate, aortic pressure and venomotor tone with the initiation of muscle contraction. Acta Physiol Scand 1970;342(Suppl):1-63.
45. Goodwin GM, McCloskey DI, Mitchell JH. Cardiovascular and respiratory responses to changes in central command during isometric exercise at constant muscle tension. J Physiol (Lond) 1972; 226(1):173-190.
46. Krogh A, Lindhard J. The regulation of respiration and circulation during the initial stages of muscular work. J Physiol (Lond) 1913-1914;47:112-136.
47. Victor RG, Pryor SL, Secher NH, Mitchell JH. Effects of partial neuromuscular blockade on sympathetic nerve responses to static exercise in humans. Circ Res 1989;65(2):468-476.
48. Vissing SF, Scherrer U, Victor RG. Stimulation of skin sympathetic nerve discharge by central command. Differential control of sympathetic outflow to skin and skeletal muscle during static exercise. Circ Res 1991;69(1):228-238.
49. Victor RG, Secher NH, Lyson T, Mitchell JH. Central command increases muscle sympathetic nerve activity during intense intermittent isometric exercise in humans. Circ Res 1995;76(1):127-131.
50. Silber DH, Sinoway LI, Leuenberger UA, Amassian VE. Magnetic stimulation of the human motor cortex evokes skin sympathetic nerve activity (SSNA). J Appl Physiol 2000;88:126-134.
51. Seals DR. Sympathetic neural discharge and vascular resistance during exercise in humans. J Appl Physiol 1989;66(5):2472-2478.
52. McCloskey DI, Mitchell JH. Reflex cardiovascular and respiratory responses originating in exercising muscle. J Physiol (Lond) 1972;224:173-186.
53. Victor RG, Rotto DM, Pryor SL, Kaufman MP. Stimulation of renal sympathetic activity by static contraction: evidence for mechanoreceptor-inducedreflexes from skeletal muscle. Circ Res 1989;64(3): 592-599.
54. Stebbins CL, Brown B, Levin D, Longhurst JC. Reflex effect of skeletal muscle mechanoreceptor stimulation on the cardiovascular system. J Appl Physiol 1988;65(4):1539-1547.
55. McMahon SE, McWilliam PN. Changes in R-R interval at the start of muscle contraction in the decerebrate cat. J Physiol (Lond) 1992;447:549-562.
56. Coote JH, Hilton SM, Pérez-González JF. The reflex nature of the pressor response to muscular exercise. J Physiol (Lond) 1971;215:789-804.
57. Stebbins CL, Longhurst JC. Potentiation of the exercise pressor reflex by muscle ischemia. J Appl Physiol 1989;66:1046-1053.
58. Mizumura K, Kumazawa T. Reflex respiratory response induced by chemical stimulation of muscle afferents. Brain Res 1976;109(2):402-406.
59. Sato A, Sato Y, Schmidt RF. Heart rate changes reflecting modifications of efferent cardiac sympathetic outflow by cutaneous and muscle afferent volleys. J Auto Nerv Syst 1981;4(3):231-247.
60. Tibes U. Reflex inputs to the cardiovascular and respiratory centers from dynamically working canine muscles. Circ Res 1977;41(3):332-341.
61. Waldrop TG, Rybicki KJ, Kaufman MP. Chemical activation of group I and II muscle afferents has no cardiorespiratory effects. J Appl Physiol: Respirat Environ Exercise Physiol 1984;56(5): 1223-1228.
62. Kaufman MP, Longhurst JC, Rybicki KJ, Wallach JH, Mitchell JH. Effects of static muscular contraction on impulse activity of group III and IV afferents in cats. J Appl Physiol 1983;55(1):105-112.
63. Kaufman MP, Rybicki KJ, Waldrop TG, Ordway GA. Effect of ischemia on responses of group III and IV afferents to contraction. J Appl Physiol 1984;57(3): 644-650.
64. Sinoway LI, Hill JM, Pickar JG, Kaufman MP. Effects of contraction and lactic acid on the discharge of group III muscle afferents in cats. J Neurophysiol 1993;69(4):1053-1059.
65. Hayward L, Wesselmann U, Rymer WZ. Effects of muscle fatigue on mechanically sensitive afferents of slow conduction velocity in the cat triceps surae. J Neurophysiol 1991;65(3):360-370.
66. Adreani CM, Hill JM, Kaufman MP. Responses of group III and IV muscle afferents to dynamic exercise. J Appl Physiol 1997;82(6):1811-1817.
67. Watt AH, Reid PG, Stephens MR, Routledge PA. Adenosine-induced respiratory stimulation in man depends on site of infusion. Evidence for an action on the carotid body? Br J Clin Pharmacol 1987;23(4):486-490.
68. Biaggioni I, Onrot J, Hollister AS, Robertson D. Cardiovascular effects of adenosine infusion in man and their modulation by dipyrida. Life Sci 1986; 39(23):2229-2236.
69. Biaggioni I, Olafsson B, Robertson RM, Hollister AS, Robertson D. Cardiovascular and respiratory effects of adenosine in conscious man: Evidence for chemoreceptor activation. Circ Res 1987;61(6):779-786.
70. Middlekauff HR, Nitzsche EU, Nguyen AH, Hoh CK, Gibbs GG. Modulation of renal cortical blood flow during static exercise in humans. Circ Res 1997;80: 62-68.
71. Costa F, Biaggioni I. Adenosine activates afferent fibers in the forearm, producing sympathetic stimulation in humans. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 1993;267(3):1369-1374.
72. Costa F, Biaggioni I. Role of adenosine in the sympathetic activation produced by isometric exercise in humans. J Clin Invest 1994;93(4):1654-1660.
73. Ettinger S, Gray K, Whisler S, Sinoway L. Dichloro-acetate reduces sympathetic nerve responses to static exercise. Am J Physiol 1991;261 (Heart Circ. Physiol. 30):H1653-H1658.
74. Ettinger S, Gray K, Whisler S, Sinoway L. Dichloro- acetate reduces sympathetic nerve responses to static exercise. Am J Physiol 1991;261 (Heart Circ. Physiol. 30):H1653-H1658.
75. Sinoway LI, Smith MB, Enders B, Leuenberger U, Dzwonczyk T, Gray K, Whisler S, Moore RL. Role of diprotonated phosphate in evoking muscle reflex responses in cats and humans. Am J Physiol 1994;267 (Heart Circ Physiol. 36):H770-H778.
76. Sinoway LI, Smith MB, Enders B, Leuenberger U, Dzwonczyk T, Gray K, Whisler S, Moore RL. Role of diprotonated phosphate in evoking muscle reflex responses in cats and humans. Am J Physiol 1994;267 (Heart Circ Physiol. 36):H770-H778.
77. Rybicki KJ, Waldrop TG, Kaufman MP. Increasing gracilis muscle interstitial potassium concentrations stimulate group III and IV afferents. J Appl Physiol 1985;58(3):936-941.
78. Fallentin N, Jensen BR, Bystrom S, Sjøgaard G. Role of potassium in the reflex regulation of blood pressure during static exercise in man. J Physiol (Lond) 1992;451:643-651.
79. +, lactate and phosphate determined with MSNA during exercise in humans. Am J Physiol (Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology) 2000;278(3):Rxxx-Rxxx
80. McClain J, Hardy JC, Sinoway LI. Forearm compression during exercise increases sympathetic nerve traffic. J Appl Physiol 1994;77(6):2612-2617.
81. Batman BA, Hardy JC, Leuenberger UA, Smith MB, Yang QX, Sinoway LI. Sympathetic nerve activity during prolonged rhythmic forearm exercise. J Appl Physiol 1994;76(3):1077-1081.
82. Herr MD, Imadojemu V, Kunselman AR, Sinoway LI. Characteristics of the muscle mechanoreflex during quadriceps contractions in humans. J Appl Physiol 1999;86(2):767-772.
83. McClain J, Hardy C, Enders B, Smith M, Sinoway L. Limb congestion and sympathoexcitation during exercise: Implications for congestive heart failure. J Clin Invest 1993;92(5):2353-2359.
84. Zelis R, Flaim SF. Alteration in vasomotor tone in congestive heart failure. Prog Cardiovasc Dis 1982; 24:437-459.
85. Arnold JMO, Ribeiro JP, Colucci WS. Muscle blood flow during forearm exercise in patients with severe heart failure. Circulation 1990;82:465-472.
86. Massie BM, Conway M, Rajagopalan B, Yonge R, Frostick S, Ledingham J, Sleight P, Radda G. Skeletal muscle metabolism during exercise under ischemic conditions in congestive heart failure. Evidence for abnormalities unrelated to blood flow. Circulation 1988;78:320-326.
87. Massie B, Conway M, Yonge R, Frostick S, Ledingham J, Sleight P, Radda G, Rajagopalan B. Skeletal muscle metabolism in patients with congestive heart failure: relation to clinical severity and blood flow. Circulation 1987;76(5):1009-1019.
88. Wilson JR, Fink L, Maris J, Ferraro N, Power-Vanwart J, Eleff S, Chance B. Evaluation of energy metabolism in skeletal muscle of patients with heart failure with gated phosphorus-31 nuclear magnetic resonance. Circulation 1985;71(1):57-62.
89. Wilson JR, Wiener DH, Fink LI, Ferraro N. Vasodilatory behavior of skeletal muscle arterioles in patients with nonedematous chronic heart failure. Circulation 1986;74(4):775-779.
90. Zelis R, Longhurst J, Capone RJ, Mason DT. A comparison of regional blood flow and oxygen utilization during dynamic forearm exercise in normal subjects and patients with congestive heart failure. Circulation 1974;50:137-143.
91. Zelis R, Mason DT, Braunwald E. A comparison of the effects of vasodilator stimuli on peripheral resistance vessels in normal subjects and in patients with congestive heart failure. J Clin Invest 1968;47(4): 960-970.
92. Longhurst J, Gifford W, Zelis R. Impaired forearm oxygen consumption during static exercise in patients with congestive heart failure. Circulation 1976;54(3):477-480.
93. Sullivan MJ, Knight JD, Higginbotham MB, Cobb FR. Relation between central and peripheral hemodynamics during exercise in patients with chronic heart failure. Muscle blood flow is reduced with maintenance of arterial perfusion pressure. Circulation 1989;80:769-781.
94. LeJemtel TH, Maskin CS, Lucido D, Chadwick BJ. Fail-ure to augment maximal limb blood flow in response to one-leg versus two-leg exercise in patients with severe heart failure. Circulation 1986;74(2):245-251.
95. Magnusson G, Kaijser L, Sylvén C, Karlberg K-E, Isberg B, Saltin B. Peak skeletal muscle perfusion is maintained in patients with chronic heart failure when only a small muscle mass is exercised. Cardiovasc Res 1997;33(2):297-306.
96. Musch TI, Terrell JA. Skeletal muscle blood flow abnormalities in rats with a chronic myocardial infarction: rest and exercise. Am J Physiol 1992;262 (Heart Circ. Physiol. 31):H411-H419.
97. Musch TI, Terrell JA. Skeletal muscle blood flow abnormalities in rats with a chronic myocardial infarction: rest and exercise. Am J Physiol 1992;262 (Heart Circ. Physiol. 31):H411-H419.
98. Drexler H, Faude F, Honig S, Just H. Blood flow distribution within skeletal muscle during exercise in the presence of chronic heart failure: effect of milrinone. Circulation 1987;76:1344-1352.
99. Rengo F, Trimarco B, Chiariello M, Sacca L, Violini R, Rasetti G, Ferro G. Relation between cholinergic and histaminergic components in reflex vasodilatation in the dog. Am J Physiol 1978;234 (Heart Circ. Physiol. 3):H305-H311.
100. Rengo F, Trimarco B, Chiariello M, Sacca L, Violini R, Rasetti G, Ferro G. Relation between cholinergic and histaminergic components in reflex vasodilatation in the dog. Am J Physiol 1978;234 (Heart Circ. Physiol. 3):H305-H311.
101. Kubo SH, Rector TS, Bank AJ, Williams RE, Heifetz SM. Endothelium-dependent vasodilation is attenuated in patients with heart failure. Circulation 1991;84:1589-1596.
102. Kaiser L, Spickard RC, Olivier NB. Heart failure depresses endothelium-dependent responses in canine femoral artery. Am J Physiol 1989;256: H962-H967.
103. Shoemaker JK, Naylor HL, Hogeman CS, Sinoway LI. Blood flow dynamics in heart failure. Circulation 1999;99(23):3002-3008.
104. Sterns DA, Ettinger SM, Gray KS, Whisler SK, Mosher TJ, Smith MB, Sinoway LI. Skeletal muscle metaboreceptor exercise responses are attenuated in heart failure. Circulation 1991;84(5):2034-2039.
105. Piepoli M, Clark AL, Volterrani M, Adamopoulos S, Sleight P, Coats AJS. Contribution of muscle afferents to the hemodynamic, autonomic, and ventilatory responses to exercise in patients with chronic heart failure. Effects of physical training. Circulation 1996;93(5):940-952.
106. Silber DH, Sutliff G, Yang QX, Smith MB, Sinoway LI, Leuenberger UA. Altered mechanisms of sympathetic activation during rhythmic forearm exercise in heart failure. J Appl Physiol 1998;84(5):1551-1559.
107. Delp MD, Duan C, Mattson JP, Musch TI. Changes in skeletal muscle biochemistry and histology relative to fiber type in rats with heart failure. J Appl Physiol 1997;83(4):1291-1299.
108. Drexler H, Riede U, Munzel T, Konig H, Funke E, Just H. Alterations of skeletal muscle in chronic heart failure. Circulation 1992;85:1751-1759.
109. Lipkin DP, Jones DA, Round JM, Poole-Wilson PA. Abnormalities of skeletal muscle in patients with chronic heart failure. Int J Cardiol 1988;18:187-195.
110. 31P NMR skeletal muscle metabolic abnormalities in patients with chronic heart failure. Circulation 1989;80:1338-1346.
111. Sullivan MJ, Green HJ, Cobb FR. Skeletal muscle biochemistry and histology in ambulatory patients with chronic heart failure. Circulation 1990;81:518-527.
112. Sullivan MJ, Green HJ, Cobb FR. Altered skeletal muscle metaboblic response to exercise in chronic heart failure. Relation to skeletal muscle aerobic enzyme activity. Circulation 1991;84:1597-1607.
113. Hasking GJ, Esler MD, Jennings GL, Burton D, Johns JA, Korner PI. Norepinephrine spillover to plasma in patients with congestive heart failure: evidence of increased overall and cardiorenal sympathetic nervous activity. Circulation 1986;73(4):615-621.
114. Hambrecht R, Fiehn E, Yu J, Niebauer J, Weigl C, Hilbrich L, Adams V, Riede V, Schuler G. Effects of endurance training on mitochondrial ultrastructure and fiber type distribution in skeletal muscle of patients with stable chronic heart failure. J Am Coll Cardiol 1997;29(5):1067-1073.
115. Demopoulos L, Yeh M, Gentilucci M, Testa M, Bijou R, Katz SD, Mancini D, Jones M, LeJemtel TH. Nonselective beta-adrenergic blockade with carvedilol does not hinder the benefits of exercise training in patients with congestive heart failure. Circulation 1997;95(7):1764-1767.
116. Minotti JR, Johnson EC, Hudson TL, Zuroske G, Murata G, Fukushima E, Cagle TG, Chick TW, Massie BM, Icenogle MV. Skeletal muscle response to exercise training in congestive heart failure. J Clin Invest 1990;86(3):751-758.
117. Sullivan MJ, Higginbotham MB, Cobb FR. Exercise training in patients with severe left ventricular dysfunction. Hemodynamic and metabolic effects. Circulation 1988;78:506-515.
118. Sundberg CJ. Exercise and training during graded leg ischaemia in healthy man with special reference to effects on skeletal muscle. Acta Physiol Scand 1994;150(Suppl. 615):1-50.
119. Yang HT, Ogilvie RW, Terjung RL. Peripheral adaptations in trained aged rats with femoral artery stenosis. Circ Res 1994;74:235-243.
120. Clausen JP. Circulatory adjustments to dynamic exercise and effect of physical training in normal subjects and in patients with coronary artery disease. Prog Cardiovasc Dis 1976;18(6):459-495.
121. Gollnick PD, King DW. Effect of exercise and training on mitochondria of rat skeletal muscle. Am J Physiol 1969;216(6):1502-1509.
122. Saltin B, Rowell LB. Functional adaptations to physical activity and inactivity. Federation Proc 1980;39(5):1506-1513.
123. Saltin B, Gollnick PD. Skeletal muscle adaptability: significance for metabolisms and performance. In Handbook of Physiology - Skeletal Muscle, ed. J.T. Shepherd and F.M. Abboud. Chapter, pp. 555-631. Baltimore: Waverly Press, Inc., 1983.
124. Sinoway LI, Rea RF, Mosher TJ, Smith MB, Mark AL. Hydrogen ion concentration is not the sole determinant of muscle metaboreceptor responses in humans. J Clin Invest 1992;89(6):1875-1884.
125. Mostoufi-Moab S, Widmaier EJ, Cornett JA, Gray K, Sinoway LI. Forearm training reduces the exercise pressor reflex during ischemic rhythmic handgrip. J Appl Physiol 1998;84(1):277-283.
126. Minotti JR, Pillay P, Oka R, Wells L, Christoph I, Massie BM. Skeletal muscle size: relationship to muscle function in heart failure. J Appl Physiol 1993;75(1):373-381.
127. Minotti JR, Pillay P, Chang L, Wells L, Massie BM. Neurophysiological assessment of skeletal muscle fatigue in patients with congestive heart failure. Circulation 1992;86:903-908.
128. Ohtsubo M, Yonezawa K, Nishijima H, Okita K, Hanada A, Kohya T, Murakami T, Kitabatake A. Metabolic abnormality of calf skeletal muscle is improved by localised muscle training without changes in blood flow in chronic heart failure. Heart 1997;78(5):437-443.
129. Adamopoulos S, Coats AJ, Brunotte F, Arnolda L, Meyer T, Thompson CH, Dunn JF, Stratton J, Kemp GJ, Radda GK, et al. Physical training improves skeletal muscle metabolism in patients with chronic heart failure. J Am Coll Cardiol 1993;21(5):1101-1106.
130. Kiilavuori K, Toivonen L, Naveri H, Leinonen H. Reversal of autonomic derangements by physical training in chronic heart failure assessed by heart rate variability. Eur Heart J 1995;16(4):490-495.