Self-focus and depression: The three-phase model

Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy

Volumn 28, Issue 1, 2000, Pages 45-61

  Sakamoto, Shinji ^a,b,c  

^a OTSUMA WOMEN'S UNIVERSITY   (Japan)

^b NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF MENTAL HEALTH   (Japan)

^c NONE   (Japan)

Author keywords

Cognitive model; Depression; Maintenance; Self focus; Self preoccupation

Indexed keywords

COGNITION; DEPRESSION; HUMAN; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SELF CONCEPT; SEX DIFFERENCE;

EID: 0034009383     PISSN: 13524658     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/s1352465800000059     Document Type: Review

References (89)

1. ABRAMSON, L. Y., ALLOY, L. B., & METALSKY, G. I. (1988). The cognitive diathesis-stress theories of depression. In L. B. Alloy (Ed.). Cognitive processes in depression (pp. 3-30). New York: Guilford Press.
2. ABRAMSON, L. Y., SELIGMAN, M. E. P., & TEASDALE, D. (1978). Learned helplessness in humans: Critique and reformulation. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 87, 49-74.
3. ALLGOOD-MERTEN, B., & STOCKARD, J. (1991). Sex role identity and self esteem: A comparison of children and adolescents. Sex roles, 25, 129-139.
4. ALSAKER, F. D., & OLWEUS, D. (1993). Global self-evaluations and perceived instability of self in early adolescence: A cohort longitudinal study. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 34, 47-63.
5. AMERICAN PSYCHIATRIC ASSOCIATION (1987). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (3rd ed. rev.). Washington, DC: Author.
6. AMERICAIN PSYCHIATRIC ASSOCIATION (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
7. ANGOLD, A., & WORTHMAN, C. W. (1993). Puberty onset of gender differences in rates of depression: A developmental, epidemiologic, and neuroendocrine perspective. Journal of Affective Disorders, 29, 145-158.
8. BECK, A. T. (1967). Depression: Clinical, experimental, and theoretical aspects. New York: Hoeber.
9. BECK, A. T. (1976). Cognitive therapy and the emotional disorders. New York: International University Press.
10. BECK, A. T., WARD, C. H., MENDELSON, M., MOCK, J., & ERBAUGH, J. (1961). An inventory for measuring depression. Archives of General Psychiatry, 4, 561-571.
11. BOWER, G. H. (1981). Mood and memory. American Psychologist, 36, 129-148.
12. CARR, S. J., TEASDALE, J. D., & BROADBENT, D. (1991). Effects of induced elated and depressed mood on self-focused attention. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 31, 273-275.
13. CARVER, C. S., & SCHEIER, M. F. (1981). Attention and self-regulation: A control theory approach to human behavior. New York: Springer-Verlag.
14. CARVER, C. S., & SCHEIER, M. F. (1990). Principles of self-regulation: Action and emotion. In E. T. Higgins & R. M. Sorrentino (Eds.), Motivation and cognition: Foundation of social behavior, Vol. 2 (pp. 3-52). New York: Guilford Press.
15. CHAMPION, L. A., & Power, M. J. (1995). Social and cognitive approaches to depression: Towards a new synthesis. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 34, 485-503.
16. CONWAY, M., GIANNOPOULOS, C., CSANK, P., & MENDELSON, M. (1993). Dysphoria and specificity in self-focused attention. Personality and Social Psychological Bulletin, 19, 265-268.
17. DEMPSEY, P. (1964). A multidimensional scale for the MMPI. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 28, 364-370.
18. DUVAL, S., DUVAL, V. H., & NEELEY, R. (1979) Self-focus, felt responsibility, and helping behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 1769-1778.
19. DUVAL, S., & WICKLUND, R. A. (1972). A theory of self-awareness. New York: Academic Press.
20. DUVAL, S., & WICKLUND, R. A. (1973). Effects of object self-awareness on attribution of causality. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 9, 17-31.
21. EASTMAN, C. (1976). Behavioural formulation of depression. Psychological Review, 83, 277-291.
22. ELLIS, A., & HARPER, R. A. (1975). A new guide to rational living. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
23. EXNER, J. E., Jr. (1973). The self focus sentence completion scale: A study of egocentricity. Journal of Personality Assessment, 37, 437-455.
24. FARMER, M. E., LOCKE, B. Z., MOSCIKI, E. K., DANNENBERG, A. L., LARSON, D. B., & RADLOFF, L. S. (1988). Physical activity and depressive symptoms: The NHANES I epidemiologic follow-up study. American Journal of Epidemiology, 128, 1340-1351.
25. FENIGSTEIN, A., & LEVINE, M. P. (1984). Self-attention, concept activation, and the causal self. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 20, 231-245.
26. FENIGSTEIN, A., SCHEIER, M. F., & Buss, A. H. (1975). Public and private self-consciousness: Assessment and theory. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 43, 522-527.
27. FENNELL, M. J., & TEASDALE, J. D. (1984). Effects of distraction on thinking and affect in depressed patients. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 23, 65-66.
28. GERON, E. (1976). Differences between sport form and physical fitness from a psychological point of view. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 7, 133-142.
29. GIBBONS, F. X., SMITH, T. W., INGRAM, R. E., PEARCE, K., BREHM, S, S., & SCHROEDER, D. J. (1985). Self-awareness and self-confrontation: Effects of self-focused attention on members of a clinical population. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48, 662-675.
30. GREENBERG, J., & PYSZCZYNSKI, T. (1986). Persistent high self-focus after failure and low self-focus after success: The depressive self-focusing style. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 1039-1044.
31. GREENBERG, J., PYSZCZYNSKI, T., BURLING, J., & TIBBS, K. (1992). Depression, self-focused attention, and the self-serving attributional bias. Personality and Individual Differences, 13, 959-965.
32. GRIEST, J. H., HLEIN, M. H., EISCHENS, R. R., FARIS, J., GURMAN, A. S., & MORGAN, W. P. (1979). Running as treatment for depression. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 20, 41-54.
33. INGRAM, R. E. (1990). Self-focused attention in clinical disorders: Review and a conceptual model. Psychological Bulletin, 107, 156-176.
34. INGRAM, R. E., & HOLLON, S. D. (1986). Cognitive therapy of depression from an information processing perspective. In R. E. Ingram (Ed.), Information processing approaches to clinical psychology (pp. 259-281). Orlando, FL: Academic Press.
35. INGRAM, R. E., JOHNSON, B. R., BERNET, C. Z., DOMBECK, M., & ROWE, M. K. (1992). Vulnerability to distress: Cognitive and emotional reactivity in chronically self-focused individuals. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 16, 451-472.
36. INGRAM, R. E., & KENDALL, P. C. (1986). Cognitive clinical psychology: Implications of an information processing perspective. In R. E. Ingram (Ed.), Information processing approaches to clinical psychology (pp. 3-21). Orlando, FL: Academic Press.
37. INGRAM, R. E., LUMRY, A. E. CRUET, D., & SIEBER, W. (1987). Attentional processes in depressive disorders. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 11, 351-360.
38. INGRAM, R. E., & SMITH, T. W. (1984). Depression and internal versus external focus of attention. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 8, 139-152.
39. KASHANI, P C., CARLSON, G. A., BECK, N. C., HOEPER, E. W., CORCORAN, C. M., MC ALLISTER, J. A., FALLAHI, C., ROSENBERG, T. K., & REID, J. C. (1987). Depression, depressive symptoms, and depressed mood among a community sample of adolescents. American Journal of Psychiatry, 144, 931-934.
40. KESSLER, R. C., MCGONAGLE, K. A., SWARTZ, M., BLAZER, D. G., & NELSON, C. B. (1993). Sex and depression in the National Comorbidity Survey: I. Lifetime prevalence, chronicity and recurrence. Journal of Affective Disorders, 29, 85-96.
41. KITAMURA, T. (1992). Manual of the time-ordered stress and health interview. Department of Sociocultural Environmental Research. National Institute of Mental Health, Ichikawa, Japan.
42. KUIPER, N. A., OLINGER, L. J., & MACDONALD, M. R. (1988). Vulnerability and episodic cognitions in a self-worth contingency model of depression. In L. B. Alloy (Ed.), Cognitive processes in depression (pp. 289-309). New York: Guilford Press.
43. LARSEN, R. J., & COWAN, G. S. (1988). Internal focus of attention and depression: A study of daily experience. Motivation and Emotion, 12, 237-249.
44. LEWINSOHN, P. M., HOBERMAN, H., TERI, L., & HAUTZINGER, M. (1985). An integrative theory of depression. In S. Reiss & R. Bootin (Eds.), Theoretical issues in behavior therapy (pp. 331-359). New York: Academic Press.
45. MCFARLAND, C., & Ross, M. (1982). Impact of causal attribution on affective reaction to success and failure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 43, 937-946.
46. METALSKY, G. I., & JOINER, T. E., Jr. (1992). Vulnerability to depressive symptomatology: A prospective test of the diathesis-stress and causal mediation components of the hopelessness theory of depression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63, 667-675.
47. METALSKY, G. I., JOINER, T. E., Jr., HARDIN, T. S., & ABRAMSON, L. Y. (1993). Depressive reactions to failure in a naturalistic setting: A test of the hopelessness and self-esteem theories of depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 102, 101-109.
48. MIKULINCER, M., GERBER, H., & WEISENBERG, M. (1990). Judgment of control and depression: The role of self-esteem threat and self-focused attention. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 14, 589-608.
49. MUSSON, R. F., & ALLOY, L. B. (1988). Depression and self-directed attention. In L. B. Alloy (Ed.). Cognitive processes in depression (pp. 193-220). New York: Guilford Press.
50. NISHIMATSU, Y. (1992). Gendai no yokuutsu-shokogun [Depressive syndrome]. Journal of Clinical and Experimentaal Medicine (IGAKU NO AYUMI), 160, 816-822.
51. NIX, G., WATSON, C., PYSZCZYNSKI, T., & GREENBERG, J. (1995). Reducing depressive affect through external focus of attention. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 14, 36-52.
52. NOLEN-HOEKSEMA, S. (1987). Sex differences in unipolar depression: Evidence and theory. Psychological Bulletin, 101, 259-282.
53. NOLEN-HOEKSEMA, S. (1991). Responses to depression and their effects on the duration of depressive episodes. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 100, 569-582.
54. NOTTELMANN, E. D. (1987). Competence and self-esteem during transition from childhood to adolescence. Developmental Psychology, 23, 441-450.
55. OSTROV, E., OFFER, D., & HOWARD, K. I. (1989). Gender differences in adolescent symptomatology: A normative study. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 28, 394-398.
56. PAFFENBARGER, R. S., Jr., LEE, I.-M., & LEUNG, R. (1994). Physical activity and personal characteristics associated with depression and suicide in American college men. Acta Psychiatria Scandinavica: Supplement, 377, 16-22.
57. POWER, M., & DALGLEISH, T. (1997). Cognition and emotion: From order to disorder. Hove: Psychology Press.
58. PYSZCZYNSKI, T., & GREENBERG, J. (1985). Depression and preference for self-focusing stimuli after success and failure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 49, 1066-1075.
59. PYSZCZYNSKI, T., & GREENBERG, J. (1986). Evidence for a depressive self-focusing style. Journal of Research in Personality, 20, 95-106.
60. PYSZCZYNSKI, T., & GREENBERG, J. (1987). Self-regulatory perseveration and the depressive self-focusing style: A self-awareness theory of reactive depression. Psychological Bulletin, 102, 122-138.
61. PYSZCZYNSKI, T., HAMILTON, J. C., HERRING, F. H., & GREENBERG, J. (1989). Depression, self-focused attention, and the negative memory bias. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 351-357.
62. PYSZCZYNSKI, T., HOLT, K., & GREENBERG, J. (1987). Depression, self-focused attention, and expectancies for positive and negative future life events for self and others. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 994-1001.
63. REHM, L. P., & NAUS, M. J. (1990). A memory model of emotion. In R. E. Ingram (ed.), Contemporary psychological approaches to depression (pp. 23-35). New York: Plenum Press.
64. SAKAMOTO, S. (1993). Jiko ni muita chui no kochoku-sei to yokuutsu tono kankei [The relationship between rigidity of self-focused attention and depression]. Japanese Journal of Educational Psychology, 41, 407-413.
65. SAKAMOTO, S. (1998a). The effects of forced self-focus on the generation of negative mood among depressed and nondepressed students. Journal of Social Psychology, 138, 514-523.
66. SAKAMOTO, S. (1998b). The Preoccupation Scale: Its development and relationship with depression scales. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 54, 645-654.
67. SAKAMOTO, S. (1999). A longitudinal study of the relationship of self-preoccupation with depression. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 55, 109-116.
68. SAKAMOTO, S. (in press). Self-focusing situation and depression. Journal of Social Psychology.
69. SAKAMOTO, S., TOMODA, A., IWATA, N., AIHARA, W., & KITAMURA, T. (1999). The relationship between major depression, depressive symptoms and self-preoccupation. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 21, 37-49.
70. SAKAMOTO, S., TOMODA, A., & KIJIMA, N. (1995). Yokuutsu-kibun eno taisho, yokuutsu-kibun no jizoku-kikan to jiko-botsunyu tono kanren ni tsuite [A study about the relationship among coping behaviors with depressive mood, duration of depressed mood, and self-preoccupation]. Proceedings of the 36th Annual Meeting of the Japanese Society of Social Psychology, 374-375.
71. SALKOVSKIS, P. (1985). Obsessional-compulsive problems: A cognitive-behavioural analysis. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 23, 571-583.
72. SALOVEY, P. (1992). Mood-induced self-focused attention. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 62, 699-707.
73. SCHEIER, M. F. (1976). Self-awareness, self-consciousness, and angry aggression. Journal of Personality, 44, 627-644.
74. SCHEIER, M. F., & CARVER, C. S. (1977). Self-focused attention and the experience of emotion: Attraction, repulsion, elation, and depression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35, 625-636.
75. SEDIKIDES, C. (1992a). Attentional effects on mood are moderated by chronic self-conception valence. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 18, 580-584.
76. SEDIKIDES, C. (1992b). Mood as a determinant of attentional focus. Cognition and Emotion, 6, 129-148.
77. SELIGMAN, M. E. P. (1975). Helplessness: On depression, development and death. San Francisco, CA: Freeman.
78. SHEPHARD, R. J. (1991). Benefits of sport and physical activity for the disabled: Implications for the individual and for society. Scandinavian Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine, 23, 51-59.
79. SMITH, T. W., & GREENBERG, J. (1981). Depression and self-focused attention. Motivation and Emotion, 5, 323-331.
80. SMITH, T. W., INGRAM, R. E., & ROTH, D. L. (1985). Self-focused attention and depression: Self-evaluation, affect, and life stress. Motivation and Emotion, 9, 381-389.
81. SWANN, W. B. Jr., WENZLAFF, R. M., KRULL, D. S., & PELHAM, B. W. (1992). Allure of negative feedback: Self-verification strivings among depressed persons. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 101, 293-306.
82. SWANN, W. B. Jr., WENZLAFF, R. M., & TAFARODI, R. W. (1992). Depression and the search for negative evaluations: More evidence of the role of self-verification strivings. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 101, 314-317.
83. SWEENEY, P. D., ANDERSON, K., & BAILEY, S. (1986). Attributional style in depression: A meta-analysis review. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 947-991.
84. TENNEN, H., HALL, J. A., & AFFLECK, G. (1995). Depression research methodologies in the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology: A review and critique. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68, 870-884.
85. WEINER, B., RUSSELL, D., & LERMAN, D. (1979). The cognition-emotion process in achievement-related contexts. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 1211-1220.
86. WEISSMAN, A., & BECK, A. T. (1978). Development and validation of the Dysfunctional Attitude Scale. Paper presented at the annual convention of the Association for Advancement of Behavior Therapy, Chicago.
87. WEISSMAN, M. M., & KLERMAN, G. L. (1977). Sex differences in the epidemiology of depression. Archives of General Psychiatry, 12, 63-70.
88. WOOD, J. V., SALTZBERG, J. A., & GOLDSAMT, L. A. (1990). Does affect induce self-focused attention? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 899-908.
89. ZUNG, W. W. K. (1965). A self-rating depression scale. Archives of General Psychiatry, 12, 63-70.