The psychophysics of visual search

Vision Research

Volumn 40, Issue 10-12, 2000, Pages 1227-1268

  Palmer, John ^a   Verghese, Preeti ^b   Pavel, Misha ^c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON   (United States)

^b SMITH KETTLEWELL EYE RESEARCH INSTITUTE   (United States)

^c OREGON HEALTH AND SCIENCE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Attention; Conspicuity; Psychophysics; Search; Signal detection theory

Indexed keywords

ATTENTION; CONFERENCE PAPER; EYE FIXATION; EYE MOVEMENT; HUMAN; MEMORY; ORIENTATION; PERCEPTION; PREDICTION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PSYCHOPHYSICS; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION; VISION; VISUAL FIELD;

NON-PROGRAMMATIC;

DISCRIMINATION (PSYCHOLOGY); HUMANS; MODELS, PSYCHOLOGICAL; PSYCHOMETRICS; PSYCHOPHYSICS; SENSORY THRESHOLDS; SIGNAL DETECTION (PSYCHOLOGY); VISUAL PERCEPTION;

EID: 0034000090     PISSN: 00426989     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0042-6989(99)00244-8     Document Type: Conference Paper

References (213)

1. Aiken, D. (1992). Comparing conjunction and disjunction visual search with equally similar targets. Unpublished Master's Thesis, University of Washington, Seattle, WA.
2. Andriessen J.J., Bouma H. Eccentric vision: adverse interactions between line segments. Vision Research. 16:1976;71-78.
3. Ashby G.A. Multidimensional models of perception and cognition. 1992;Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ.
4. Ashby F.G., Gott R.E. Decision rules in the perception and categorization of multidimensional stimuli. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition. 14:1988;33-53.
5. Barlow H.B. Retinal noise and absolute threshold. Journal of the Optical Society of America. 46:1956;634-639.
6. Bauer B., Jolicoeur P., Cowan W.B. Distractor heterogeneity versus linear separability in colour visual search. Perception. 25:1996a;1281-1293.
7. Bauer B., Jolicoeur P., Cowan W.B. Visual search for colour targets that are or are not linearly separable from distractors. Vision Research. 36:1996b;1439-1465.
8. Bennett P.J., Jaye P.D. Letter localization, not discrimination, is constrained by attention. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology. 49:1995;460-504.
9. Bergen J.R., Julesz B. Rapid discrimination of visual patterns. IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man and Cybernetics. 13:1983;857-863.
10. Bloomfield J.R. Visual search with embedded targets: color and texture differences. Human Factors. 21:1979;317-330.
11. Bouma H. Interaction effects in parafoveal letter recognition. Nature. 226:1970;177-178.
12. Breitmeyer B.G. Visual masking: an integrative approach. 1984;Oxford University Press, New York.
13. Broadbent D. Simple models for experimentable situations. Morris P. Modeling cognition. 1987;169-185 Wiley, New York.
14. Broadbent D.E. Perception and communication. 1958;Pergamon Press, London.
15. Broadbent D.E. Decision and stress. 1971;Academic Press, NY.
16. Bundesen C., Pedersen L.F. Color segregation and visual search. Perception & Psychophysics. 33:1983;487-493.
17. Bundesen C. A theory of visual attention. Psychological Review. 97:1990;523-547.
18. Burgess A., Barlow H.B. The precision of numerosity discrimination in arrays of random dots. Vision Research. 23:1983;811-820.
19. Burgess A.E., Ghandeharian H. Visual signal detection. II. Signal-location identification. Journal of the Optical Society of America A. 1:1984;906-910.
20. Burgess A.E., Wagner R.F., Jennings R.J., Barlow H.B. Efficiency of human visual signal discrimination. Science. 214:1981;93-94.
21. Busey, T. A., & Townsend, J. T. Independent sampling versus inter-item dependencies in whole report processing: Contributions of processing architecture and variable attention. Journal of Mathematical Psychology (in press).
22. Callaghan T.C., Lasaga M.I., Garner W.R. Visual texture segregation based on orientation and hue. Perception & Psychophysics. 39:1986;32-38.
23. Cannon M.W., Fullenkamp S.C. Spatial interactions in apparent contrast: inhibitory effects among grating patterns of different spatial frequencies, spatial positions and orientations. Vision Research. 31:1991;1985-1998.
24. Carrasco M., Frieder K.S. Cortical magnification neutralizes the eccentricity effect in visual search. Vision Research. 37:1997;63-82.
25. Carrasco M., McLean T.L., Katz S.M., Frieder K.S. Feature asymmetries in visual search: effects of display duration, target eccentricity, orientation and spatial frequency. Vision Research. 38:1998;347-374.
26. Cave K.R., Wolfe J.M. Modeling the role of parallel processing in visual search. Cognitive Psychology. 22:1990;225-271.
27. Chubb C., Sperling G., Solomon J.A. Texture interactions determine perceived contrast. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science. 86:1989;9631-9635.
28. Cohn T.E. Absolute threshold: analysis in terms of uncertainty. Journal of the Optical Society of America. 71:1981;783-785.
29. Cohn T.E., Lasley D.J. Detectability of a luminance increment: Effect of spatial uncertainty. Journal of the Optical Society of America. 64:1974;1715-1719.
30. Cohn T.E., Wardlaw J.C. Effect of large spatial uncertainty on foveal luminance increment delectability. Journal of the Optical Society of America A. 2:1985;820-825.
31. Davis E.T., Kramer P., Graham N. Uncertainty about spatial frequency, spatial position, or contrast of visual patterns. Perception & Psychophysics. 33:1983;20-28.
32. Davis, E. T., & Peterson, S. A. (1998). Effects of mirror-image distractors on visual search: Data and theory. Talk presented at the meeting of the Psychonomic Society.
33. Driver J., McLeod P. Reversing visual search asymmetries with conjunctions of movement and orientation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance. 18:1992;22-33.
34. Dorfman, D. D., & Alf, E., Jr. (1969). Maximum likelihood estimation of parameters of signal detection theory and determination of confidence intervals-rating method data, Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 6, 487-497.
35. Duda R.O., Hart P.E. Pattern classification and scene analysis. 1973;Wiley, New York.
36. Duncan J. The locus of interference in the perception of simultaneous stimuli. Psychological Review. 87:1980;272-300.
37. Duncan J. Boundary conditions on parallel processing in human vision. Perception. 18:1989;457-469.
38. Duncan J., Humphreys G. Visual search and stimulus similarity. Psychological Review. 96:1989;433-458.
39. Duncan J., Humphreys G. Beyond the search surface: visual search and attentional engagement. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance. 18:1992;578-588.
40. Eckstein M.P. The lower visual search efficiency for conjunctions is due to noise and not serial attentional processing. Psychological Science. 9:1998;111-118.
41. Eckstein, M.P., Ahumada, A. J., Jr., & Watson, A. B. (1997). Visual signal detection in structured backgrounds. II. Effects of contrast gain control, background variations, and white noise. Journal of the Optical Society of America A, 14, 2406-2419.
42. Eckstein, M. P., Beutter, B. R., & Stone, L. S. (submitted). Quantifying the performance limits of human saccadic targeting during visual search.
43. Eckstein, M. P., Thomas, J. P., Whiting, Palmer, J., & Shimozaki, S. S. A signal detection model predicts the effects of set-size on visual search accuracy for feature, conjunction and disjunction displays. Perception & Psychophysics (in press).
44. Egeth H.E., Virzi R.A., Garbart H. Searching for conjunctively defined targets. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance. 10:1984;32-39.
45. Engel F.L. Visual conspicuity, visual search and fixation tendencies of the eye. Vision Research. 17:1977;95-108.
46. Enns J.T., Rensink R.A. Preattentive recovery of three-dimensional orientation from line drawings. Psychological Review. 98:1991;335-351.
47. Eriksen C.W. Object location in a complex perceptual field. Journal of Experimental Psychology. 45:1953;126-132.
48. Eriksen C.W. The use of a visual mask may seriously confound your experiment. Perception & Psychophysics. 28:1980;89-92.
49. Estes W.K., Taylor H.A. A detection method and probabilistic models for assessing information processing from brief visual displays. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science. 52:1964;446-455.
50. Fahle M. Parallel perception of vernier offsets, curvature, and chevrons in humans. Vision Research. 31:1991;2148-2149.
51. Farmer E.W., Taylor R.M. Visual search through color displays: effects of target-background similarity and background uniformity. Perception & Psychophysics. 27:1980;267-272.
52. Feller W. An introduction to probability theory and its applications. 2nd ed. 1957;Wiley, New York.
53. Findlay J.M. Saccade target selection during visual search. Vision Research. 37:1997;617-631.
54. Foley J.M., Schwarz W. Spatial attention: effect of position uncertainty and number of distractor patterns on the threshold-versus-contrast function for contrast discrimination. Journal of the Optical Society of America A. 15:1998;1036-1047.
55. Gegenfurtner K.R., Kiper D.C. Contrast detection in luminance and chromatic noise. Journal of the Optical Society of America A. 9:1992;1880-1888.
56. Geisler W.S. Sequential ideal-observer analysis of visual discriminations. Psychological Review. 96:1989;267-314.
57. Geisler W.S., Chou K.L. Separation of low-level and high-level factors in complex tasks: visual search. Psychological Review. 102:1995;356-378.
58. Gescheider G.A. Psychophysics: method, theory, and application. 1985;Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ.
59. Gordon I.E. Interactions between items in visual search. Journal of Experimental Psychology. 76:1968;348-355.
60. Graham N. Visual pattern analyzers. 1989;Oxford University Press, New York.
61. Graham N., Kramer P., Yager D. Signal-detection models for multidimensional stimuli: Probability distributions and combination rules. Journal of Mathematical Psychology. 31:1987;366-409.
62. Graham N., Robson J.G., Nachmias J. Grating summation in fovea and periphery. Vision Research. 18:1978;815-826.
63. Green D.M. Detection of auditory sinusoids of uncertain frequency. Journal of the Acoustical Society. 33:1961;897-903.
64. Green D.M., Birdsall T.G. Detection and recognition. Psychological Review. 85:1978;192-206.
65. Green D.M., Luce R.D. Theoretical note: parallel psychometric functions from a set of independent detectors. Psychological Review. 82:1975;483-486.
66. Green D.M., Swets J.A. Signal detection theory and psychophysics. 1966;Krieger, New York.
67. Hampel F.R., Ronchetti E.M., Rousseeuw P.J., Stahel W.A. Robust statistics: the approach based on influence functions. 1986;Wiley, New York.
68. He P., Kowler E. The role of location probability in the programming of saccades: implications for 'center-of-gravity' tendencies. Vision Research. 29:1989;1165-1181.
69. He P., Kowler E. Saccadic localization of eccentric forms. Journal of the Optical Society of America A. 8:1991;440-449.
70. Hoffman J.E. A two-stage model of visual search. Perception & Psychophysics. 25:1979;319-327.
71. Hooge I.T.C., Erkelens C.J. Control of fixation duration in a simple search task. Perception & Psychophysics. 58:1996;969-976.
72. Hooge I.T.C., Erkelens C.J. Peripheral vision and oculomotor control during visual search. Vision Research. 39:1999;1567-1575.
73. Humphreys W., Quinlan P.T., Riddoch M.J. Grouping processes in visual search: effects with single- and combined-feature targets. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General. 118:1989;258-279.
74. Irwin D.E. Information integration across saccadic eye movements. Cognitive Psychology. 23:1991;420-456.
75. Ivry R.B., Cohen A. Asymmetry in visual search for targets defined by differences in movement speed. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance. 18:1992;1045-1057.
76. Kassam S.A. Signal detection in non-gaussian noise. 1988;Springer-Verlag, New York.
77. Koopman B.O. The theory of search. II. Target detection. The Journal of the Operations Research Society of America. 4:1956;503-531.
78. Kowler E. The role of visual and cognitive processes in the control of eye movement. Kowler E. Eye movements and their role in visual and cognitive processes. 1990;Elsevier, New York.
79. Krantz D.H. Threshold theories of signal detection. Psychological Review. 76:1969;308-324.
80. Kröse B.J., Burbeck C.A. Spatial interactions in rapid pattern discrimination. Spatial Vision. 4:1989;211-222.
81. Lappin J.S. The relativity of choice behavior and the effect of prior knowledge on the speed and accuracy of recognition. Casteller N.J., Restle F. Cognitive theory. 3:1978;139-168 Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ.
82. Legge G.E., Kersten D. Contrast discrimination in peripheral vision. Journal of the Optical Society of America A. 4:1987;1594-1598.
83. Legge G.E., Kersten D., Burgess A.E. Contrast discrimination in noise. Journal of the Optical Society of America A. 4:1987;391-404.
84. Leshowitz B., Taub H.B., Raab D.H. Visual detection of signals in the presence of continuous and pulsed backgrounds. Perception & Psychophysics. 4:1968;207-213.
85. Lindsay P.H., Taylor M.M., Forbes S.M. Attention and multidimensional discrimination. Perception & Psychophysics. 4:1968;113-117.
86. Logan G.D. Spatial attention and the apprehension of spatial relations. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance. 20:1994;1015-1036.
87. Lu Z.L., Dosher B.A. External noise distinguishes attention mechanisms. Vision Research. 38:1998;1183-1198.
88. Lu Z.L., Dosher B.A. Characterizing human perceptual inefficiencies with equivalent internal noise. Journal of the Optical Society of America A. 16:1999;764-778.
89. Luce, R. D. (1959) Individual choice behavior. New York: Wiley.
90. Luce R.D. Detection and recognition. Luce R.D., Bush R.R., Galanter E. Handbook of mathematical psychology. 1963a;105-189 Wiley, New York.
91. Luce R.D. A threshold theory for simple detection experiments. Psychological Review. 70:1963b;61-79.
92. Luce R.D. Response times. 1986;Oxford University Press, New York.
93. Luria S.M., Strauss M.S. Eye movements during search for coded and uncoded targets. Perception & Psychophysics. 17:1975;303-308.
94. Macmillan N.A., Creelman C.D. Detection theory: a user's guide. 1991;Cambridge University Press, New York.
95. Macquistan A.D. Heterogeneity effects in visual search predicted from the group scanning model. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology. 48:1994;495-514.
96. Maloney L.T. The slope of the psychometric function at different wavelengths. Vision Research. 30:1990;129-136.
97. Mansfield R.J.W. Latency functions in human vision. Vision Research. 13:1973;2219-2234.
98. McLean, J. E., Palmer, J., & Loftus, G. R. (1997). Comparison of set-size effects in visual search and memory. Talk presented at the meeting of the Association for Research in Vision and Ophthalmology, Ft Lauderdale, FL.
99. Miller J. Divided attention: evidence for coactivation with redundant signals. Cognitive Psychology. 14:1982;247-279.
100. Moore, C. M., Marrara, M. T., & Elsinger, C. L. (1998). Visual attention and the apprehension of spatial relations. Talk presented at the meeting of the Psychonomic Society.
101. Mordkoff J.T., Egeth H.E. Response time and accuracy revisited: converging support for the interactive race model. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance. 19:1993;981-991.
102. Mordkoff J.T., Yantis S., Egeth H.E. Detecting conjunctions of color and form in parallel. Perception & Psychophysics. 48:1990;157-168.
103. Morgan M.J., Ward R.M., Castet E. Visual search for a tilted target: tests of spatial uncertainty models. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology. 51A:1998;347-370.
104. Motter B.C., Belky E.J. The zone of focal attention during active visual search. Vision Research. 38:1998a;1007-1022.
105. Motter B.C., Belky E.J. The guidance of eye movements during active visual search. Vision Research. 38:1998b;1805-1815.
106. Mumford W.W., Scheibe E.H. Noise performance factors in communication systems. 1968;Horizon House-Microwave Inc, Dedham, MA.
107. Nachmias J. On the psychometric function for contrast detection. Vision Research. 21:1981;215-223.
108. Nachmias J., Kocher E.C. Visual detection and discrimination of luminance increments. Journal of the Optical Society of America. 60:1970;382-389.
109. Nagaraja N.S. Effect of luminance noise on contrast thresholds. Journal of the Optical Society of America. 54:1964;950-955.
110. Nagy, A.L. (1997). Color codes mediating searches for chromatic targets. Presented at the meeting of ARVO, Ft. Lauderdale, FL.
111. Nagy A.L., Sanchez R.R. Critical color differences determined with a visual search task. Journal of the Optical Society of America. 7:1990;1209-1225.
112. Nagy A.L., Cone S.M. Asymmetries in simple feature searches for color. Vision Research. 36:1996;2837-2847.
113. Nakayama K., Silverman G.H. Serial and parallel processing of visual feature conjunctions. Nature. 320:1986;264-265.
114. Neisser U. Decision-time without reaction-time: experiments in visual scanning. American Journal of Psychology. 76:1973;376-385.
115. Nissen M.J., Pokorny J., Smith V.C. Chromatic information processing. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance. 5:1979;406-419.
116. Nolte L.W., Jaarsma D. More on the detection of one of M orthogonal signals. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. 41:1966;497-505.
117. Nothdurft H.C. Sensitivity for structure gradient in texture discrimination tasks. Vision Research. 25:1985;1957-1968.
118. Nothdurft H.C. Texture segmentation and pop-out from orientation contrast. Vision Research. 31:1991;1073-1078.
119. Nothdurft H.C. Feature analysis and the role of similarity in preattentive vision. Perception & Psychophysics. 52:1992;355-375.
120. Nothdurft H.C. The role of features in preattentive vision: comparison of orientation, motion and color cues. Vision Research. 33:1993;1937-1958.
121. O'Connell, K. M. & Treisman, A. M. (1990). Is all orientation created equal? Talk presented at the meeting of the Association for Research in Vision and Ophthalmology, Sarasota, FL.
122. Overington I. Vision and acquisition: fundamentals of human visual performance, environmental influences and applications in instrumental optics. 1976;Pentech Press, London.
123. Palmer J. Very short-term visual memory for size and shape. Perception & Psychophysics. 43:1988;278-286.
124. Palmer J. Attentional limits on the perception and memory of visual information. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance. 16:1990;332-350.
125. Palmer J. Set-size effects in visual search: the effect of attention is independent of the stimulus for simple tasks. Vision Research. 34:1994;1703-1721.
126. Palmer J. Attention in visual search: distinguishing four causes of set-size effects. Current Directions in Psychological Science. 4:1995;118-123.
127. Palmer J. Attentional effects in visual search: relating search accuracy and search time. Wright R. Visual attention. 1998;348-388 Oxford University Press, New York.
128. Palmer J., Ames C.T. Measuring the effect of multiple eye fixations on memory for visual attributes. Perception & Psychophysics. 52:1992;295-306.
129. Palmer J, Ames C.T., Lindsey D.T. Measuring the effect of attention on simple visual search. Journal of Experimental psychology: Human Perception and Performance. 19:1993;108-130.
130. Palmer, J. & McLean, J. (1995). Imperfect, unlimited-capacity, parallel search yields large set-size effects. Talk presented at the 1995 meeting of the Society of Mathematical Psychology, Irvine, CA. Transcript available from the authors.
131. Pashler H. Detecting conjunctions of color and form: reassessing the serial search hypothesis. Perception & Psychophysics. 41:1987a;191-201.
132. Pashler H. Target-distractor discriminability in visual search. Perception & Psychophysics. 41:1987b;285-292.
133. Pashler H. Cross-dimensional interaction and texture segregation. Perception & Psychophysics. 43:1988;307-318.
134. Pashler H. The psychology of attention. 1998;MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
135. Pavel, M. (1990). A statistical model of preattentive visual search. Presented at the Meeting of the Psychonomic Society, New Orleans.
136. Pavel, M., Econopouli, J., & Landy, M. S. (1992). Psychophysics of rapid visual search. Talk presented at the meeting of the Association for Research in Vision and Ophthalmology, Sarasota, FL.
137. Pelli, D. G. (1981). Effects of visual noise. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Cambridge University, Cambridge, UK.
138. Pelli D.G. Uncertainty explains many aspects of visual contrast detection and discrimination. Journal of the Optical Society of America. 2:1985;1508-1532.
139. Pelli D.G. On the relation between summation and facilitation. Vision Research. 27:1987;119-123.
140. Pelli D.G. Vision: coding and efficiency. 1990;New York, Cambridge University Press.
141. Pelli D.G., Farell B. Why use noise? Journal of the Optical Society of America A. 16:1999;647-653.
142. Peterson W.W., Birdsall T.G., Fox W.C. The theory of signal detectability. Transactions of IRE Professional Group on Information Theory. 4:1954;171-212.
143. Piéron H. Recherches sur les lois de variation de latence sensorielle en fonction des intensités excitations. [On the laws of variation of sensory processing time as a function of excitatory intensity]. L'Année Psychologique. 22:1914;58-142.
144. Piéron H. Nouvelles recherches sur l'analyse du temps de latence sensorielle en fonction des intensités excitations. [Further evidence on the laws of sensory processing time as a function of excitatory intensity]. L'Année Psychologique. 22:1920;58-142.
145. Pins D., Bonnet C. On the relation between stimulus intensity and processing time: Piéron's law and choice reaction time. Perception & Psychophysics. 58:1996;390-400.
146. Põder E. Search for feature and relative position: measurement of capacity limitations. Vision Research. 39:1999;1321-1327.
147. Poirson A.B., Wandell B.A. Task-dependent color discrimination. Journal of the Optical Society of America A. 7:1990;776-782.
148. Poirson A.B., Wandell B.A., Varner D.C., Brainard D.H. Surface characterizations of color thresholds. Journal of the Optical Society of America A. 7:1990;783-789.
149. Quick R.F. A vector-magnitude model of contrast detection. Kybernetik. 16:1974;65-67.
150. Raab D.H. Statistical facilitation of simple reaction times. Transactions of the New York Academy of Sciences. 24:1961;574-590.
151. Ratcliff R. A theory of memory retrieval. Psychological Review. 85:1978;59-108.
152. Rayner K., Fisher D.L. Letter processing during eye fixations in visual search. Perception & Psychophysics. 42:1987;87-100.
153. Rayner K., McConkie G.W., Ehrlich S. Eye movements and integrating information across fixation. Journal of Experimental psychology: Human Perception and Performance. 4:1978;529-544.
154. Robson J.G., Graham N. Probability summation and regional variation in contrast sensitivity across the visual field. Vision Research. 21:1981;409-418.
155. Rolland J.P., Barrett H.H. Effect of random background inhomogeneity on observer detection performance. Journal of the Optical Society of America A. 9:1992;649-658.
156. Rose A. The sensitivity performance of the human eye on an absolute scale. Journal of the Optical Society of America. 38:1948;196-208.
157. Rubenstein B.S., Sagi D. Spatial variability as a limiting factor in texture-discrimination tasks: implications for performance asymmetries. Journal of the Optical Society of America A. 7:1990;1632-1643.
158. Sagi D., Julesz B. Short-range limitation on detection of feature differences. Spatial Vision. 2:1987;39-49.
159. Schweickert R. Separable effects of factors on speed and accuracy: memory scanning, lexical decision, and choice tasks. Psychological Bulletin. 97:1985;530-546.
160. Schweickert R. Separable effects of factors on activation functions in discrete and continuous models: d′ and evoked potentials. Psychological Bulletin. 106:1989;318-328.
161. Schweickert R., Dahn C., McGuigan K. Intensity and number of alternatives in hue identification: Piéron's law and choice reaction time. Perception & Psychophysics. 44:1988;383-389.
162. Scott-Brown, K., & Orbach, H. S. (1998). Contrast discrimination, non-uniform patterns and change blindness. Proceedings of the Royal Society, B 265, 2159-2166.
163. Shaw M.L. Identifying attentional and decision-making components in information processing. Nickerson R.S. Attention and performance VIII. 1980;106-121 Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ.
164. Shaw M.L. Attending to multiple sources of information. Cognitive Psychology. 14:1982;353-409.
165. Shaw M.L. Division of attention among spatial locations: A fundamental difference between detection of letters and detection of luminance increments. Bouma H., Bouwhais D.G. Attention & performance X. 1984;Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ.
166. Simpson A.J., Fitter M.J. What is the best index of detectability? Psychological Bulletin. 80:1973;481-488.
167. Smith P.L. Attention and luminance detection: a quantitative analysis. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance. 24:1998;105-133.
168. Solomon J.A., Lavie N., Morgan M.J. Contrast discrimination function: spatial cueing effects. Journal of the Optical Society of America A. 14:1997;2443-2448.
169. Sperling G. Three stages and two systems of visual processing. Spatial Vision. 4:1989;183-207.
170. Sperling G., Dosher B.A. Strategy and optimization in human information processing. Boff K.R., Kaufman L., Thomas J.P. Handbook of perception and human performance. 1986;2.1-2.65 Wiley, New York.
171. Spillmann L., Werner J.S. Long-range interactions in visual perception. Trends in Neural Sciences. 19:1996;428-434.
172. Steinman S.B. Serial and parallel search in pattern vision? Perception. 16:1987;389-398.
173. Swensson R.G. Unified measurement of observer performance in detecting and localizing target objects on images. Medical Physics. 23:1996;1709-1725.
174. Swensson R.G., Judy P.F. Detection of noisy visual targets: models for the effects of spatial uncertainty and signal-to-noise ratio. Perception & Psychophysics. 29:1981;521-534.
175. Swensson R.G., Judy P.F. Measuring performance efficiency and consistency in visual discriminations with noisy images. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance. 22:1996;1393-1415.
176. Swets J.A. Mathematical models of attention. Parasuraman R., Davis D.R. Varieties of attention. 1984;183-242 Academic Press, New York.
177. Swets J.A. Form of empirical ROCs in discrimination and diagnostic tasks: implications for theory and measurement of performance. Psychological Bulletin. 99:1986;181-198.
178. Swets J.A. Indices of discrimination or diagnostic accuracy: their ROCs and implied models. Psychological Bulletin. 99:1986;100-117.
179. Swets, J. A., Tanner, W.P., Jr., & Birdsall, T.G. (1961). Decision processes in perception. Psychological Review, 68, 301-340.
180. Tanner, W. P., Jr. (1961). Physiological implications of psychophysical data. Annals of the New York Academy of Science, 89, 752-765.
181. Tanner, W. P., Jr., & Swets, J. A. (1954). A decision-making theory of visual detection. Psychological Review, 61, 401-409.
182. Taylor M.M., Lindsay P.H., Forbes S.M. Quantification of shared capacity processing in auditory and visual discrimination. Acta Psychologica. 27:1967;223-229.
183. Teichner W.H., Krebs M.J. Visual search for simple targets. Psychological Bulletin. 81:1974;15-28.
184. Townsend J.T. Issues and models concerning the processing of a finite number of inputs. Kantowitz B.H. Human information processing: tutorials in performance and cognition. 1974;133-185 Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ.
185. Townsend J.T. Some characteristics of visual whole report behavior. Acta Psychologica. 47:1981;149-173.
186. Townsend J.T. Serial vs. parallel processing: sometimes they look like Tweedledum and Tweedledee but they can (and should) be distinguished. Psychological Science. 1:1990;46-54.
187. Townsend J.T., Ashby F.G. Stochastic modeling of elementary psychological processes. 1983;Cambridge University Press, New York.
188. Treisman A. Perceptual grouping and attention in visual search for features and for objects. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance. 8:1982;194-214.
189. Treisman A. Search, similarity, and integration of features between and within dimensions. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance. 17:1991;652-676.
190. Treisman A., Gelade G. A feature-integration theory of attention. Cognitive Psychology. 12:1980;97-136.
191. Treisman A., Gormican S. Feature analysis in early vision: evidence from search asymmetries. Psychological Review. 95:1988;15-48.
192. Treisman A., Sato S. Conjunction search revisited. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance. 16:1990;459-478.
193. Treisman A., Souther J. Search asymmetry: a diagnostic for preattentive processing of separable features. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General. 114:1985;285-310.
194. van Trees H.L. Detection, estimation, and modulation theory. 1968;Wiley, New York.
195. Verghese P., Nakayama K. Stimulus discriminability in visual search. Vision Research. 34:1994;2453-2467.
196. Verghese P., Stone L.S. Combining speed information across space. Vision Research. 35:1995;2811-2823.
197. Verghese P., Watamaniuk S.N.J., McKee S.P., Grzywacz N.M. Local motion detectors cannot account for the detectability of an extended trajectory in noise. Vision Research. 39:1999;19-30.
198. Viviani P. Eye movements in visual search: cognitive, perceptual and motor control aspects. Kowler E. Eye movements and their role in visual and cognitive processes. 1990;Elsevier, New York.
199. von Grünau M., Dubé S. Visual search asymmetry for viewing direction. Perception & Psychophysics. 56:1994;211-220.
200. Ward R., McClelland J.L. Conjunctive search for one and two identical targets. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception & Performance. 15:1989;664-672.
201. Watson A.B. Probability summation over time. Vision Research. 19:1979;515-522.
202. Williams D., Julesz B. Perceptual asymmetry in texture perception. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science. 89:1992;6531-6534.
203. Williams L.G. Target conspicuity and visual search. Human Factors. 8:1966a;80-92.
204. Williams L.G. The effect of target specification on objects fixated during visual search. Perception & Psychophysics. 1:1966b;315-318.
205. Wolfe J.M. Guided Search 2.0. A revised model of visual search. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review. 1:1994;202-238.
206. Wolfe J.M., Cave K.R., Franzel S.L. Guided search: an alternative to the feature integration model for visual search. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance. 15:1989;419-433.
207. Yager D., Davis E.T. Special issue on: variations of visual function across the visual field. Journal of the Optical Society of America. 4:1987;1478-1703.
208. Zacks J.L., Zacks R.T. Visual search times assessed without reaction times: a new method and an application to aging. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance. 19:1993;798-813.
209. Zenger B., Fahle M. Missed targets are more frequent than false alarms: a model for error rates in visual search. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance. 23:1997;1783-1791.
210. Zelinsky G.J. Precuing target location in variable set size 'nonsearch' task: dissociating search-based and interference-based explanations for set-size effects. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance. 25:1999;875-903.
211. Zelinsky G.J., Rao R.P.N., Hayhoe M.M., Ballard D.H. Eye movements reveal the spatiotemporal dynamics of visual search. Psychological Science. 8:1997;448-453.
212. Zingale C.M., Kowler E. Planning sequences of saccades. Vision Research. 27:1987;1327-1341.
213. Zucker S.W., Davis S. Points and endpoints: a size/spacing constraint for dot grouping. Perception. 17:1988;229-247.