The dynamics of Aymara duality: Change and continuity in sociopolitical structures in the Bolivian Andes

Journal of Latin American Studies

Volumn 32, Issue 1, 2000, Pages 145-174

  Astvaldsson, Astvaldur ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF LIVERPOOL   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

COLONIALISM; CULTURAL GEOGRAPHY; CULTURAL TRADITION; INDIGENOUS POPULATION;

BOLIVIA;

EID: 0033999940     PISSN: 0022216X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0022216X99005490     Document Type: Article

References (89)

1. See, for example. T. Platt, 'Mirrors and maize: the concept of yanantin among the Macha of Bolivia', in John V. Murra et al. (eds.), Anthropological History of Andean Polities (Cambridge, 1986), pp. 228-59; O. Harris, 'From asymmetry to triangle; symbolic transformations in northern Potosís', ibid., pp. 260-79; R. T. Zuidema, Inca Civilization in Cuzco, (Austin, 1990), G. Urton, The History of a Myth: Pacariqtambo and the Origin of the Inkas (Austin, 1990), p. 16.
2. See, for example. T. Platt, 'Mirrors and maize: the concept of yanantin among the Macha of Bolivia', in John V. Murra et al. (eds.), Anthropological History of Andean Polities (Cambridge, 1986), pp. 228-59; O. Harris, 'From asymmetry to triangle; symbolic transformations in northern Potosís', ibid., pp. 260-79; R. T. Zuidema, Inca Civilization in Cuzco, (Austin, 1990), G. Urton, The History of a Myth: Pacariqtambo and the Origin of the Inkas (Austin, 1990), p. 16.
3. See, for example. T. Platt, 'Mirrors and maize: the concept of yanantin among the Macha of Bolivia', in John V. Murra et al. (eds.), Anthropological History of Andean Polities (Cambridge, 1986), pp. 228-59; O. Harris, 'From asymmetry to triangle; symbolic transformations in northern Potosís', ibid., pp. 260-79; R. T. Zuidema, Inca Civilization in Cuzco, (Austin, 1990), G. Urton, The History of a Myth: Pacariqtambo and the Origin of the Inkas (Austin, 1990), p. 16.
4. See, for example. T. Platt, 'Mirrors and maize: the concept of yanantin among the Macha of Bolivia', in John V. Murra et al. (eds.), Anthropological History of Andean Polities (Cambridge, 1986), pp. 228-59; O. Harris, 'From asymmetry to triangle; symbolic transformations in northern Potosís', ibid., pp. 260-79; R. T. Zuidema, Inca Civilization in Cuzco, (Austin, 1990), G. Urton, The History of a Myth: Pacariqtambo and the Origin of the Inkas (Austin, 1990), p. 16.
5. A. Astvaldsson, Sociopolitical Organization, Authority, Gender and Kinship in the Bolivian Andes (Liverpool, 1996); 'Las cabezas que hablan: autoridad, parentesco y género en una comunidad andina', in D. Arnold (ed.), Gente de carne y hueso: las tramas de parentesco en los Andes (La Paz, 1998), pp. 227-61.
6. A. Astvaldsson, Sociopolitical Organization, Authority, Gender and Kinship in the Bolivian Andes (Liverpool, 1996); 'Las cabezas que hablan: autoridad, parentesco y género en una comunidad andina', in D. Arnold (ed.), Gente de carne y hueso: las tramas de parentesco en los Andes (La Paz, 1998), pp. 227-61.
7. X. Albó, 'Dinámica en la estructura inter-comunitaria de Jesús de Machaca', América Indígena, vol. 32 (1972), p. 773.
8. Ibid., p. 775. No other study based on fieldwork in the region was published in the next twenty years. Recent publications include: X. Albó, 'El Thakhi o "camino" en Jesús de Machaca', in R. Thiercelin (ed.), Cultures et sociétés, Andes et Méso-Amérique. Mélanges en hommage à Pierre Duviols (Aix-en Provence, 1993), pp. 51-65; CIPCA's four volume series, Jesús de Machaqa: La marka rebelde; and A. Orta, 'Ambivalent converts: Aymara catechists and contemporary catholic missionization on the Bolivian Altiplano', unpubl. PhD diss., University of Chicago, 1996, is based on two years of fieldwork (1990-2).
9. Ibid., p. 775. No other study based on fieldwork in the region was published in the next twenty years. Recent publications include: X. Albó, 'El Thakhi o "camino" en Jesús de Machaca', in R. Thiercelin (ed.), Cultures et sociétés, Andes et Méso-Amérique. Mélanges en hommage à Pierre Duviols (Aix-en Provence, 1993), pp. 51-65; CIPCA's four volume series, Jesús de Machaqa: La marka rebelde; and A. Orta, 'Ambivalent converts: Aymara catechists and contemporary catholic missionization on the Bolivian Altiplano', unpubl. PhD diss., University of Chicago, 1996, is based on two years of fieldwork (1990-2).
10. Ibid., p. 775. No other study based on fieldwork in the region was published in the next twenty years. Recent publications include: X. Albó, 'El Thakhi o "camino" en Jesús de Machaca', in R. Thiercelin (ed.), Cultures et sociétés, Andes et Méso-Amérique. Mélanges en hommage à Pierre Duviols (Aix-en Provence, 1993), pp. 51-65; CIPCA's four volume series, Jesús de Machaqa: La marka rebelde; and A. Orta, 'Ambivalent converts: Aymara catechists and contemporary catholic missionization on the Bolivian Altiplano', unpubl. PhD diss., University of Chicago, 1996, is based on two years of fieldwork (1990-2).
11. Ibid., p. 775. No other study based on fieldwork in the region was published in the next twenty years. Recent publications include: X. Albó, 'El Thakhi o "camino" en Jesús de Machaca', in R. Thiercelin (ed.), Cultures et sociétés, Andes et Méso-Amérique. Mélanges en hommage à Pierre Duviols (Aix-en Provence, 1993), pp. 51-65; CIPCA's four volume series, Jesús de Machaqa: La marka rebelde; and A. Orta, 'Ambivalent converts: Aymara catechists and contemporary catholic missionization on the Bolivian Altiplano', unpubl. PhD diss., University of Chicago, 1996, is based on two years of fieldwork (1990-2).
12. Albó, 'Dinámica', pp. 803-13.
13. Ibid., p. 804.
14. E. Ticona et al., Jesús de Machaqa: La marka rebelde, 3. La lucha por el poder comunal (La Paz, 1997).
15. I will use 'Collao' to refer to the Aymara chiefdoms as a whole before the Inka conquest.
16. Astvaldsson, 'Wak'a: An Andean Religious Concept in the Context of Aymara Social and Political Life', unpubl. PhD diss., University of London, 1995.
17. T. Bouysse Cassagne, La identidad Aymara: Aproximación histórica (Siglo XV, Siglo XVII) (La Paz, 1987), p. 207.
18. I. Capoche, Relación general de la villa de Potosí (Madrid, 1959), pp. 139-40.
19. Bouysse Cassagne, La identidad Aymara, pp. 215-16. Today, the masculine deities called wak'a achachila, as the source of Aymara political powers and protectors of the communities, are attributed with the same qualities (A. Astvaldsson, 'The Powers of Hard Rock: Meaning, Transformation and Continuity in Cultural Symbols in the Andes', Journal of Latin American Cultural Studies, vol. 7, no. 2 (1998), pp. 203-23).
20. Bouysse Cassagne, La identidad Aymara, pp. 215-16. Today, the masculine deities called wak'a achachila, as the source of Aymara political powers and protectors of the communities, are attributed with the same qualities (A. Astvaldsson, 'The Powers of Hard Rock: Meaning, Transformation and Continuity in Cultural Symbols in the Andes', Journal of Latin American Cultural Studies, vol. 7, no. 2 (1998), pp. 203-23).
21. Bouysse Cassagne, La identidad Aymara, p. 221 (emphasis in original).
22. Ibid., pp. 209-13.
23. Ibid., pp. 226-8.
24. Ibid., p. 230.
25. Ibid., p. 326.
26. Ibid., pp. 253-5.
27. Ibid., p. 223.
28. Ibid., p. 244.
29. Ibid., p. 245 (emphasis in original).
30. Ibid., p. 254.
31. Ibid., p. 253.
32. Machaqa constituted one territorial domain divided into Machaqa la Grande, present-day San Andrés and Santiago de Machaqa, and Machaqa la Chica, now Jesús de Machaqa.
33. Maks Portugal, 'El Misterio de las Tumbas de WANQANI', in Khana 11-12 (1955), pp. 51-67. A. Kolata, The "Tiwanaku: Portrait of an Andean Civilization (Oxford, 1993).
34. Maks Portugal, 'El Misterio de las Tumbas de WANQANI', in Khana 11-12 (1955), pp. 51-67. A. Kolata, The "Tiwanaku: Portrait of an Andean Civilization (Oxford, 1993).
35. Bouysse Cassagne, La Identidad Aymara. T. Gisbert et al., Arte textil y mundo andino (La Paz, 1987).
36. Bouysse Cassagne, La Identidad Aymara. T. Gisbert et al., Arte textil y mundo andino (La Paz, 1987).
37. M. Jiménez de la Espada (ed.), Relaciones geográficas de Indias (Madrid, 1965 [1585]), R. Choque, Sociedad y economía colonial en el sur andino (La Paz, 1993). R. Choque Chonqui and E. Ticona Alejo, Jesús de Machaqa: La marka rebelde. I: Cinco siglos de historia (La Paz, forthcoming).
38. M. Jiménez de la Espada (ed.), Relaciones geográficas de Indias (Madrid, 1965 [1585]), R. Choque, Sociedad y economía colonial en el sur andino (La Paz, 1993). R. Choque Chonqui and E. Ticona Alejo, Jesús de Machaqa: La marka rebelde. I: Cinco siglos de historia (La Paz, forthcoming).
39. M. Jiménez de la Espada (ed.), Relaciones geográficas de Indias (Madrid, 1965 [1585]), R. Choque, Sociedad y economía colonial en el sur andino (La Paz, 1993). R. Choque Chonqui and E. Ticona Alejo, Jesús de Machaqa: La marka rebelde. I: Cinco siglos de historia (La Paz, forthcoming).
40. Albó, 'Dinámica', pp. 791-2.
41. The historical evidence suggests that this division was more pronounced in the past and it is likely that it began to chance after the Inka invasion.
42. Albó, 'Dinámica', pp. 775-7.
43. Ibid., pp. 777-8.
44. This does not mean that there were no Aymara in the region before it was conquered by them (it is possible that those from the north, linked to Tiwanaku, were already present; see Kolata, The Tiwanaku) nor that earlier cultures did not have dualism as an organisational principle.
45. I do not propose that my arguments nullify Albó's proposition. The available evidence is not conclusive and it is only prudent to keep various hypotheses open at this stage (I extend my gratitude to Albó for his personal communications/suggestions regarding this matter).
46. Somatic means 'of or pertaining to the body' and 'of parts of the body'. Here it refers to a structure based on an analogy with parts of a body of an Andean mountain cat (titi) (Albó, 'Dinámica', pp. 788-90).
47. Ticona et al., Jesús de Machaqa, p. 30.
48. G. Urton, The Hisiory of a Myth, p. 16.
49. See, for example, Joanne Rappaport, 'History and Everyday Life in the Colombian Andes', Man (New Series), vol. 23 (1988), pp. 718-39; 'Textos legales e interpretación histórica: una etnografía andina de la lectura', Iberoamericana, vol. 16, nos. 3/4 [47/48] (1992), pp. 67-81; Tristan Platt, "Writing, Shamanism and Identity or Voices from Abya-Yala', History Workshop Journal, vol. 34 (1992), pp. 132-47.
50. See, for example, Joanne Rappaport, 'History and Everyday Life in the Colombian Andes', Man (New Series), vol. 23 (1988), pp. 718-39; 'Textos legales e interpretación histórica: una etnografía andina de la lectura', Iberoamericana, vol. 16, nos. 3/4 [47/48] (1992), pp. 67-81; Tristan Platt, "Writing, Shamanism and Identity or Voices from Abya-Yala', History Workshop Journal, vol. 34 (1992), pp. 132-47.
51. See, for example, Joanne Rappaport, 'History and Everyday Life in the Colombian Andes', Man (New Series), vol. 23 (1988), pp. 718-39; 'Textos legales e interpretación histórica: una etnografía andina de la lectura', Iberoamericana, vol. 16, nos. 3/4 [47/48] (1992), pp. 67-81; Tristan Platt, "Writing, Shamanism and Identity or Voices from Abya-Yala', History Workshop Journal, vol. 34 (1992), pp. 132-47.
52. Urton, The History of a Myth, p. 16.
53. See, for example, Rappaport, 'History'; and 'Textos legales'; Platt, 'Writing'.
54. R. Choque, La masacre de Jesús de Machaca (La Paz, 1986), p. 10; also in Choque Canqui and E. Ticona Alejo, Jesús de Machaqa. Don Félix Layme does not provide a reference, but the information is taken from documents owned by members of the communities in Jesús de Machaqa and from oral traditions he has collected. An established Aymara linguist who lives in La Paz, Don Félix is originally from Sullka Titi Titiri and assisted me during fieldwork. He is well informed about Andean and Aymara culture and interested in rediscovering his roots, and in investigating and documenting the history and traditions of his community.
55. R. Choque, La masacre de Jesús de Machaca (La Paz, 1986), p. 10; also in Choque Canqui and E. Ticona Alejo, Jesús de Machaqa. Don Félix Layme does not provide a reference, but the information is taken from documents owned by members of the communities in Jesús de Machaqa and from oral traditions he has collected. An established Aymara linguist who lives in La Paz, Don Félix is originally from Sullka Titi Titiri and assisted me during fieldwork. He is well informed about Andean and Aymara culture and interested in rediscovering his roots, and in investigating and documenting the history and traditions of his community.
56. P. Mercado de Peñalosa, 'Relación de la Provincia de Pacajes', in Jiménez de la Espada (ed.), Relaciones geográficas, pp. 335-6 and p. 338; also Gisbert et al., Arte Textil, p. 143.
57. P. Mercado de Peñalosa, 'Relación de la Provincia de Pacajes', in Jiménez de la Espada (ed.), Relaciones geográficas, pp. 335-6 and p. 338; also Gisbert et al., Arte Textil, p. 143.
58. P. Mercado de Peñalosa, 'Description y Relación de la Ciudad de La Paz, in Jiménez de la Espada (ed.), Relaciones geográficas, p. 346 (emphasis in original).
59. Jiménez de la Espada (ed.), Relaciones geográficas; H. S. Klein, Bolivia: The Evolution of a Multi-Ethnic Society (New York, 1982).
60. Jiménez de la Espada (ed.), Relaciones geográficas; H. S. Klein, Bolivia: The Evolution of a Multi-Ethnic Society (New York, 1982).
61. This purchase is well documented and my transcription of long extracts of these documents is published in Choque Canqui and Ticona Alejo, Jesús de Machaqa.
62. I have not seen documents regarding the 1746 land purchase. However, Don Félix Layme says they exist and claims the lands were acquired by the 'doce principales', the jilaqata (main leaders), of the old communities, who at this late date in the colony seem to have surpassed the cacique as the most important political authorities in the region.
63. T. Gisbert, Iconografía y mitos indígenas en el arte (La Paz, 1980); Teresa Gisbert, 'Los curacas del Collao y la conformación de la cultura mestiza andina. 500 Años de Mestizaje en los Andes", Senri Ethnological Studies, vol. 33 (1992), pp. 52-102; Gisbert et al., Arte Textil.
64. T. Gisbert, Iconografía y mitos indígenas en el arte (La Paz, 1980); Teresa Gisbert, 'Los curacas del Collao y la conformación de la cultura mestiza andina. 500 Años de Mestizaje en los Andes", Senri Ethnological Studies, vol. 33 (1992), pp. 52-102; Gisbert et al., Arte Textil.
65. T. Gisbert, Iconografía y mitos indígenas en el arte (La Paz, 1980); Teresa Gisbert, 'Los curacas del Collao y la conformación de la cultura mestiza andina. 500 Años de Mestizaje en los Andes", Senri Ethnological Studies, vol. 33 (1992), pp. 52-102; Gisbert et al., Arte Textil.
66. The historical role of the Guarachi family is also a central theme in Choque Canqui and Ticona Alejo, Jesús de Machaqa, and in various articles by Choque.
67. Gisbert's arguments owe much to one particular document from 1805, extracts of which are published and studied in M. Urioste de Aguirre, 'Los Caciques Guarache', in Estudios bolivianos en homenaje a Gunnar Mendoza (La Paz, 1978), pp. 131-40.
68. See Astvaldsson, 'The Powers of Hard Rock'.
69. Urioste de Aguirre, 'Los Caciques Guarache'.
70. See my transcription of these documents in Choque Canqui and Ticona Alejo, Jesús de Machaqa.
71. A full version of the tale can be found in Astvaldsson, Wak'a; and in A. Astvaldsson, Jesús de Machaqa: La marka rebelde, 4. Las voces de los wak'a; fuentes principales del poder político aymara (La Paz, forthcoming).
72. A full version of the tale can be found in Astvaldsson, Wak'a; and in A. Astvaldsson, Jesús de Machaqa: La marka rebelde, 4. Las voces de los wak'a; fuentes principales del poder político aymara (La Paz, forthcoming).
73. The Aymara also used the knotted device called kipu in Quechua, and call it chinu.
74. In a text cited earlier, Don Félix called Don Gabriel Qamaqi's son-in-law (yerno).
75. Salasala is derived from the Spanish sala, room. A double composition in Aymara suggests greatness or quantity, so Salasala means a big house.
76. The intriguing relations between the semi-mythical figure of Axata Qamaqi and the most powerful of Sullka Titi Titiri's wak'a achahila are discussed in Astvaldsson, 'The Powers of Hard Rock'. The mask bears every mark of having been a ceremonial object, perhaps put over the face of the wak'a during rituals (the size is right). The surnames Axata and Llanki are still common in the community of Kalla.
77. See, for example, J. Ossio (ed.), Ideología mesiánica del mundo andino (Lima, 1973); M. López-Baralt, El retorno del Inca rey: mito y profecía en el mundo andino (La Paz, 1989).
78. See, for example, J. Ossio (ed.), Ideología mesiánica del mundo andino (Lima, 1973); M. López-Baralt, El retorno del Inca rey: mito y profecía en el mundo andino (La Paz, 1989).
79. Rappaport, 'Textos legales', p. 68.
80. Ibid., pp. 70-1.
81. Albó, "Dinámica", pp. 800-1.
82. See also Ticona et al., Jesús de Machaqa, in particular chapter 8.
83. Albó mentions this as one reason for the subdivision of the old communities (ibid., p. 800).
84. See Ticona et al., Jesús de Machaqa, pp. 56-9, 243-4, in particular, Figures 2.2. and 8.2; also Orta, 'Ambivalent converts', p. 385.
85. See Ticona et al., Jesús de Machaqa, pp. 56-9, 243-4, in particular, Figures 2.2. and 8.2; also Orta, 'Ambivalent converts', p. 385.
86. D. Arnold, 'Matrilineal Practice in a Patrilineal Setting: Ritual and Metaphors of Kinship in an Andean Ayllu', unpubl. PhD diss., University of London, 1988, comes to the same conclusion, and others have shown that similar structures exist elsewhere in the Andes (e.g. Rappaport, 'History'; 'Textos legales').
87. Albó, 'Dinámica', p. 788: this rotation is based on the hierarchy of the somatic structure.
88. Ibid., p. 784. See also Albó, "El Thakhi' and Ticona et al., Jesús de Machaqa. They mention more complex rotative systems.
89. Ibid., p. 784. See also Albó, "El Thakhi' and Ticona et al., Jesús de Machaqa. They mention more complex rotative systems.