'Cater to the children': The role of the lead industry in a public health tragedy, 1900-1955

American Journal of Public Health

Volumn 90, Issue 1, 2000, Pages 36-46

  Markowitz, Gerald ^a   Rosner, David ^b  

^a JOHN JAY COLLEGE OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE   (United States)

^b Columbia University ^*  (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

LEAD; PAINT;

CHILD; CHILD CARE; CONSUMER; HUMAN; LEAD POISONING; MARKETING; PUBLIC HEALTH; REVIEW; STANDARD; UNITED STATES;

EID: 0033970989     PISSN: 00900036     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2105/AJPH.90.1.36     Document Type: Review

References (137)

1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 46 (1997): 141, cited in B. P. Lanphear, "The Paradox of Lead Poisoning Prevention," Science 281 (1998): 1617-1618.
2. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 46 (1997): 141, cited in B. P. Lanphear, "The Paradox of Lead Poisoning Prevention," Science 281 (1998): 1617-1618.
3. B. P. Lanphear, "The Paradox of Lead Poisoning Prevention." See also D. Ryan, B. Levy, S. Pollack, and B. Walker, Jr, "Protecting Children From Lead Poisoning and Building Healthy Communities," American Journal of Public Health 89 (1999): 822-824.
4. B. P. Lanphear, "The Paradox of Lead Poisoning Prevention." See also D. Ryan, B. Levy, S. Pollack, and B. Walker, Jr, "Protecting Children From Lead Poisoning and Building Healthy Communities," American Journal of Public Health 89 (1999): 822-824.
5. D. Rosner and G. Markowitz, "A 'Gift of God'? The Public Health Controversy Over Leaded Gasoline During the 1920s," American Journal of Public Health 75 (1985): 344-352; W. Graebner, "Hegemony Through Science: Information Engineering and Lead Toxicology, 1925-1965," in Dying for Work: Workers' Safety and Health in Twentieth Century America, ed D. Rosner and G. Markowitz (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987), 140-159.
6. D. Rosner and G. Markowitz, "A 'Gift of God'? The Public Health Controversy Over Leaded Gasoline During the 1920s," American Journal of Public Health 75 (1985): 344-352; W. Graebner, "Hegemony Through Science: Information Engineering and Lead Toxicology, 1925-1965," in Dying for Work: Workers' Safety and Health in Twentieth Century America, ed D. Rosner and G. Markowitz (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987), 140-159.
7. R. Rabin, "Warnings Unheeded: A History of Child Lead Poisoning," American Journal of Public Health 79 (1989): 1668-1674; E. Silbergeld, "Preventing Lead Poisoning in Children," Annual Review of Public Health 18 (1997): 187-210; P. Reich, The Hour of Lead: A Brief History of Lead Poisoning in the United States Over the Past Century, and of Efforts by the Lead Industry to Delay Regulation (Washington, DC: Environmental Defense Fund, 1992); R. Wedeen, "Shaping Environmental Research: The Lead Industries Association 1928-1946," Mount Sinai Journal of Medicine 62 (1995): 386-389.
8. R. Rabin, "Warnings Unheeded: A History of Child Lead Poisoning," American Journal of Public Health 79 (1989): 1668-1674; E. Silbergeld, "Preventing Lead Poisoning in Children," Annual Review of Public Health 18 (1997): 187-210; P. Reich, The Hour of Lead: A Brief History of Lead Poisoning in the United States Over the Past Century, and of Efforts by the Lead Industry to Delay Regulation (Washington, DC: Environmental Defense Fund, 1992); R. Wedeen, "Shaping Environmental Research: The Lead Industries Association 1928-1946," Mount Sinai Journal of Medicine 62 (1995): 386-389.
9. R. Rabin, "Warnings Unheeded: A History of Child Lead Poisoning," American Journal of Public Health 79 (1989): 1668-1674; E. Silbergeld, "Preventing Lead Poisoning in Children," Annual Review of Public Health 18 (1997): 187-210; P. Reich, The Hour of Lead: A Brief History of Lead Poisoning in the United States Over the Past Century, and of Efforts by the Lead Industry to Delay Regulation (Washington, DC: Environmental Defense Fund, 1992); R. Wedeen, "Shaping Environmental Research: The Lead Industries Association 1928-1946," Mount Sinai Journal of Medicine 62 (1995): 386-389.
10. R. Rabin, "Warnings Unheeded: A History of Child Lead Poisoning," American Journal of Public Health 79 (1989): 1668-1674; E. Silbergeld, "Preventing Lead Poisoning in Children," Annual Review of Public Health 18 (1997): 187-210; P. Reich, The Hour of Lead: A Brief History of Lead Poisoning in the United States Over the Past Century, and of Efforts by the Lead Industry to Delay Regulation (Washington, DC: Environmental Defense Fund, 1992); R. Wedeen, "Shaping Environmental Research: The Lead Industries Association 1928-1946," Mount Sinai Journal of Medicine 62 (1995): 386-389.
11. Elizabeth Fee's article on lead poisoning among children in Baltimore (E. Fee, "Public Health in Practice: An Early Confrontation With the 'Silent Epidemic' of Childhood Lead Paint Poisoning," Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences 45 [1990]: 588) was perhaps the most detailed community study.
12. C. C. Sellers, Hazards of the Job: From Industrial Disease to Environmental Health Science (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997).
13. C. Warren, Brush with Death: A Social History of Lead Poisoning (Baltimore, Md: Johns Hopkins University Press, forthcoming). To date, this is perhaps the most detailed and sophisticated analysis of the ways that lead has been introduced into the broader environment.
14. See Lead Diseases: A Treatise from the French of L. Tanqueral des Planches, trans. S. L. Dana (Lowell, 1848). Boston, Mass: Tappan, Whittmore & Mason.
15. M. D. Stewart, "Notes on Some Obscure Cases of Poisoning by Lead Chromate Manifested Chiefly by Encephalopathy," Medical News 1 (1887): 676-681.
16. A. Hamilton, "Industrial Diseases, With Special Reference to the Trades in Which Women are Employed," Charities and the Commons 20 (1908): 655, 658. See also T. Legge and K. Goadby, Lead Poisoning and Lead Absorption (New York, NY: Longmont, Green & Co, 1912), 35; T. Oliver, Lead Poisoning: From the Industrial, Medical, and Social Points of View (New York, NY: Paul B. Hombre, 1914), vii, 55-65.
17. A. Hamilton, "Industrial Diseases, With Special Reference to the Trades in Which Women are Employed," Charities and the Commons 20 (1908): 655, 658. See also T. Legge and K. Goadby, Lead Poisoning and Lead Absorption (New York, NY: Longmont, Green & Co, 1912), 35; T. Oliver, Lead Poisoning: From the Industrial, Medical, and Social Points of View (New York, NY: Paul B. Hombre, 1914), vii, 55-65.
18. A. Hamilton, "Industrial Diseases, With Special Reference to the Trades in Which Women are Employed," Charities and the Commons 20 (1908): 655, 658. See also T. Legge and K. Goadby, Lead Poisoning and Lead Absorption (New York, NY: Longmont, Green & Co, 1912), 35; T. Oliver, Lead Poisoning: From the Industrial, Medical, and Social Points of View (New York, NY: Paul B. Hombre, 1914), vii, 55-65.
19. US Department of Commerce and Labor, Bureau of Labor, "List of Industrial Poisons," Bulletin 86 (1910): 163.
20. Edward J. Cornish to David Edsall, 12 May 1921, courtesy of Christopher Sellers.
21. J. L. Gibson, "A Plea for Painted Railings and Painted Walls of Rooms as the Source of Lead Poisoning Amongst Queensland Children," Australasian Medical Gazette (1904): 149-153.
22. See also J. C. Burnham, "Biomedical Communication and the Reaction to the Queensland Childhood Lead Poisoning Cases Elsewhere in the World," Medical History 43 (1999): 155-172.
23. J. L. Gibson, "The Importance of Lumbar Puncture in the Plumbic Ocular Neuritis of Children," Australian Medical Congress Transactions 11 (1905): 750-754.
24. A. J. Turner, "Lead Poisoning in Childhood," Australasian Medical Congress (1908): 2-9; J. L. Gibson, "Plumbic Ocular Neuritis in Queensland Children" British Medical Journal 2 (1908): 1488-1490; T. Oliver, "A Lecture on Lead Poisoning and the Race," British Medical Journal 1911 (May 13): 1096-1098.
25. A. J. Turner, "Lead Poisoning in Childhood," Australasian Medical Congress (1908): 2-9; J. L. Gibson, "Plumbic Ocular Neuritis in Queensland Children" British Medical Journal 2 (1908): 1488-1490; T. Oliver, "A Lecture on Lead Poisoning and the Race," British Medical Journal 1911 (May 13): 1096-1098.
26. A. J. Turner, "Lead Poisoning in Childhood," Australasian Medical Congress (1908): 2-9; J. L. Gibson, "Plumbic Ocular Neuritis in Queensland Children" British Medical Journal 2 (1908): 1488-1490; T. Oliver, "A Lecture on Lead Poisoning and the Race," British Medical Journal 1911 (May 13): 1096-1098.
27. H. M. Thomas and K. D. Blackfan, "Recurrent Meningitis, Due to Lead in a Child of Five Years," American Journal of Diseases of Children 8 (1914): 377-380; A. Breinl and W. J. Young, "The Occurrence of Lead Poisoning Amongst North Queensland Children," Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 8 (1914): 575-590; J. L. Gibson, "The Diagnosis, Prophylaxis and Treatment of Plumbic Ocular Neuritis Amongst Queensland Children," Medical Journal of Australia 2 (1917): 201-204.
28. H. M. Thomas and K. D. Blackfan, "Recurrent Meningitis, Due to Lead in a Child of Five Years," American Journal of Diseases of Children 8 (1914): 377-380; A. Breinl and W. J. Young, "The Occurrence of Lead Poisoning Amongst North Queensland Children," Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 8 (1914): 575-590; J. L. Gibson, "The Diagnosis, Prophylaxis and Treatment of Plumbic Ocular Neuritis Amongst Queensland Children," Medical Journal of Australia 2 (1917): 201-204.
29. H. M. Thomas and K. D. Blackfan, "Recurrent Meningitis, Due to Lead in a Child of Five Years," American Journal of Diseases of Children 8 (1914): 377-380; A. Breinl and W. J. Young, "The Occurrence of Lead Poisoning Amongst North Queensland Children," Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 8 (1914): 575-590; J. L. Gibson, "The Diagnosis, Prophylaxis and Treatment of Plumbic Ocular Neuritis Amongst Queensland Children," Medical Journal of Australia 2 (1917): 201-204.
30. K. D. Blackfan, "Lead Poisoning in Children with Especial Reference to Lead as a Cause of Convulsions," American Journal of the Medical Sciences 153 (1917): 877-887.
31. See, for example, R. Strong, "Meningitis, Caused by Lead Poisoning, in a Child of Nineteen Months," Archives of Pediatrics 37 (1920): 532-537; L. E. Holt, "General and Functional Nervous Diseases," chap 2 in The Diseases of Infancy and Childhood for the Use of Students and Practitioners of Medicine, 8th ed (New York, NY: Appleton & Co, 1923); L. E. Holt, "Lead Poisoning in Infancy," American Journal of Diseases of Children 25 (1923): 229-233; Council of the Queensland Branch BMA, "An Historical Account of the Occurrence and Causation of Lead Poisoning Among Queensland Children," Medical Journal of Australia 1 (1922): 148-152; J. Ruddock, "Lead Poisoning in Children With Special Reference to Pica," Journal of the American Medical Association 82 (1924): 1682-1684; C. V. Weller, "Some Clinical Aspects of Lead Meningo-Encephalopathy," Annals of Clinical Medicine 3 (1925): 604-613; C. F. McKhann, "Lead Poisoning in Children," American Journal of Diseases of Children 32 (1926): 386-392; L. W. Holloway, "Lead Poisoning in Children," Journal of the Florida Medical Association 13 (1926): 94-100; F. L. Hoffman, "Deaths from Lead Poisoning," US. Bureau of Labor Statistics Bulletin 426 (1927): 33-34 (Hoffman lists 11 boys and 8 girls under the age of 18 years who died from lead poisoning; a number of these children were poisoned by paint from windows, walls, toys, or cribs).
32. See, for example, R. Strong, "Meningitis, Caused by Lead Poisoning, in a Child of Nineteen Months," Archives of Pediatrics 37 (1920): 532-537; L. E. Holt, "General and Functional Nervous Diseases," chap 2 in The Diseases of Infancy and Childhood for the Use of Students and Practitioners of Medicine, 8th ed (New York, NY: Appleton & Co, 1923); L. E. Holt, "Lead Poisoning in Infancy," American Journal of Diseases of Children 25 (1923): 229-233; Council of the Queensland Branch BMA, "An Historical Account of the Occurrence and Causation of Lead Poisoning Among Queensland Children," Medical Journal of Australia 1 (1922): 148-152; J. Ruddock, "Lead Poisoning in Children With Special Reference to Pica," Journal of the American Medical Association 82 (1924): 1682-1684; C. V. Weller, "Some Clinical Aspects of Lead Meningo-Encephalopathy," Annals of Clinical Medicine 3 (1925): 604-613; C. F. McKhann, "Lead Poisoning in Children," American Journal of Diseases of Children 32 (1926): 386-392; L. W. Holloway, "Lead Poisoning in Children," Journal of the Florida Medical Association 13 (1926): 94-100; F. L. Hoffman, "Deaths from Lead Poisoning," US. Bureau of Labor Statistics Bulletin 426 (1927): 33-34 (Hoffman lists 11 boys and 8 girls under the age of 18 years who died from lead poisoning; a number of these children were poisoned by paint from windows, walls, toys, or cribs).
33. See, for example, R. Strong, "Meningitis, Caused by Lead Poisoning, in a Child of Nineteen Months," Archives of Pediatrics 37 (1920): 532-537; L. E. Holt, "General and Functional Nervous Diseases," chap 2 in The Diseases of Infancy and Childhood for the Use of Students and Practitioners of Medicine, 8th ed (New York, NY: Appleton & Co, 1923); L. E. Holt, "Lead Poisoning in Infancy," American Journal of Diseases of Children 25 (1923): 229-233; Council of the Queensland Branch BMA, "An Historical Account of the Occurrence and Causation of Lead Poisoning Among Queensland Children," Medical Journal of Australia 1 (1922): 148-152; J. Ruddock, "Lead Poisoning in Children With Special Reference to Pica," Journal of the American Medical Association 82 (1924): 1682-1684; C. V. Weller, "Some Clinical Aspects of Lead Meningo-Encephalopathy," Annals of Clinical Medicine 3 (1925): 604-613; C. F. McKhann, "Lead Poisoning in Children," American Journal of Diseases of Children 32 (1926): 386-392; L. W. Holloway, "Lead Poisoning in Children," Journal of the Florida Medical Association 13 (1926): 94-100; F. L. Hoffman, "Deaths from Lead Poisoning," US. Bureau of Labor Statistics Bulletin 426 (1927): 33-34 (Hoffman lists 11 boys and 8 girls under the age of 18 years who died from lead poisoning; a number of these children were poisoned by paint from windows, walls, toys, or cribs).
34. See, for example, R. Strong, "Meningitis, Caused by Lead Poisoning, in a Child of Nineteen Months," Archives of Pediatrics 37 (1920): 532-537; L. E. Holt, "General and Functional Nervous Diseases," chap 2 in The Diseases of Infancy and Childhood for the Use of Students and Practitioners of Medicine, 8th ed (New York, NY: Appleton & Co, 1923); L. E. Holt, "Lead Poisoning in Infancy," American Journal of Diseases of Children 25 (1923): 229-233; Council of the Queensland Branch BMA, "An Historical Account of the Occurrence and Causation of Lead Poisoning Among Queensland Children," Medical Journal of Australia 1 (1922): 148-152; J. Ruddock, "Lead Poisoning in Children With Special Reference to Pica," Journal of the American Medical Association 82 (1924): 1682-1684; C. V. Weller, "Some Clinical Aspects of Lead Meningo-Encephalopathy," Annals of Clinical Medicine 3 (1925): 604-613; C. F. McKhann, "Lead Poisoning in Children," American Journal of Diseases of Children 32 (1926): 386-392; L. W. Holloway, "Lead Poisoning in Children," Journal of the Florida Medical Association 13 (1926): 94-100; F. L. Hoffman, "Deaths from Lead Poisoning," US. Bureau of Labor Statistics Bulletin 426 (1927): 33-34 (Hoffman lists 11 boys and 8 girls under the age of 18 years who died from lead poisoning; a number of these children were poisoned by paint from windows, walls, toys, or cribs).
35. See, for example, R. Strong, "Meningitis, Caused by Lead Poisoning, in a Child of Nineteen Months," Archives of Pediatrics 37 (1920): 532-537; L. E. Holt, "General and Functional Nervous Diseases," chap 2 in The Diseases of Infancy and Childhood for the Use of Students and Practitioners of Medicine, 8th ed (New York, NY: Appleton & Co, 1923); L. E. Holt, "Lead Poisoning in Infancy," American Journal of Diseases of Children 25 (1923): 229-233; Council of the Queensland Branch BMA, "An Historical Account of the Occurrence and Causation of Lead Poisoning Among Queensland Children," Medical Journal of Australia 1 (1922): 148-152; J. Ruddock, "Lead Poisoning in Children With Special Reference to Pica," Journal of the American Medical Association 82 (1924): 1682-1684; C. V. Weller, "Some Clinical Aspects of Lead Meningo-Encephalopathy," Annals of Clinical Medicine 3 (1925): 604-613; C. F. McKhann, "Lead Poisoning in Children," American Journal of Diseases of Children 32 (1926): 386-392; L. W. Holloway, "Lead Poisoning in Children," Journal of the Florida Medical Association 13 (1926): 94-100; F. L. Hoffman, "Deaths from Lead Poisoning," US. Bureau of Labor Statistics Bulletin 426 (1927): 33-34 (Hoffman lists 11 boys and 8 girls under the age of 18 years who died from lead poisoning; a number of these children were poisoned by paint from windows, walls, toys, or cribs).
36. See, for example, R. Strong, "Meningitis, Caused by Lead Poisoning, in a Child of Nineteen Months," Archives of Pediatrics 37 (1920): 532-537; L. E. Holt, "General and Functional Nervous Diseases," chap 2 in The Diseases of Infancy and Childhood for the Use of Students and Practitioners of Medicine, 8th ed (New York, NY: Appleton & Co, 1923); L. E. Holt, "Lead Poisoning in Infancy," American Journal of Diseases of Children 25 (1923): 229-233; Council of the Queensland Branch BMA, "An Historical Account of the Occurrence and Causation of Lead Poisoning Among Queensland Children," Medical Journal of Australia 1 (1922): 148-152; J. Ruddock, "Lead Poisoning in Children With Special Reference to Pica," Journal of the American Medical Association 82 (1924): 1682-1684; C. V. Weller, "Some Clinical Aspects of Lead Meningo-Encephalopathy," Annals of Clinical Medicine 3 (1925): 604-613; C. F. McKhann, "Lead Poisoning in Children," American Journal of Diseases of Children 32 (1926): 386-392; L. W. Holloway, "Lead Poisoning in Children," Journal of the Florida Medical Association 13 (1926): 94-100; F. L. Hoffman, "Deaths from Lead Poisoning," US. Bureau of Labor Statistics Bulletin 426 (1927): 33-34 (Hoffman lists 11 boys and 8 girls under the age of 18 years who died from lead poisoning; a number of these children were poisoned by paint from windows, walls, toys, or cribs).
37. See, for example, R. Strong, "Meningitis, Caused by Lead Poisoning, in a Child of Nineteen Months," Archives of Pediatrics 37 (1920): 532-537; L. E. Holt, "General and Functional Nervous Diseases," chap 2 in The Diseases of Infancy and Childhood for the Use of Students and Practitioners of Medicine, 8th ed (New York, NY: Appleton & Co, 1923); L. E. Holt, "Lead Poisoning in Infancy," American Journal of Diseases of Children 25 (1923): 229-233; Council of the Queensland Branch BMA, "An Historical Account of the Occurrence and Causation of Lead Poisoning Among Queensland Children," Medical Journal of Australia 1 (1922): 148-152; J. Ruddock, "Lead Poisoning in Children With Special Reference to Pica," Journal of the American Medical Association 82 (1924): 1682-1684; C. V. Weller, "Some Clinical Aspects of Lead Meningo-Encephalopathy," Annals of Clinical Medicine 3 (1925): 604-613; C. F. McKhann, "Lead Poisoning in Children," American Journal of Diseases of Children 32 (1926): 386-392; L. W. Holloway, "Lead Poisoning in Children," Journal of the Florida Medical Association 13 (1926): 94-100; F. L. Hoffman, "Deaths from Lead Poisoning," US. Bureau of Labor Statistics Bulletin 426 (1927): 33-34 (Hoffman lists 11 boys and 8 girls under the age of 18 years who died from lead poisoning; a number of these children were poisoned by paint from windows, walls, toys, or cribs).
38. See, for example, R. Strong, "Meningitis, Caused by Lead Poisoning, in a Child of Nineteen Months," Archives of Pediatrics 37 (1920): 532-537; L. E. Holt, "General and Functional Nervous Diseases," chap 2 in The Diseases of Infancy and Childhood for the Use of Students and Practitioners of Medicine, 8th ed (New York, NY: Appleton & Co, 1923); L. E. Holt, "Lead Poisoning in Infancy," American Journal of Diseases of Children 25 (1923): 229-233; Council of the Queensland Branch BMA, "An Historical Account of the Occurrence and Causation of Lead Poisoning Among Queensland Children," Medical Journal of Australia 1 (1922): 148-152; J. Ruddock, "Lead Poisoning in Children With Special Reference to Pica," Journal of the American Medical Association 82 (1924): 1682-1684; C. V. Weller, "Some Clinical Aspects of Lead Meningo-Encephalopathy," Annals of Clinical Medicine 3 (1925): 604-613; C. F. McKhann, "Lead Poisoning in Children," American Journal of Diseases of Children 32 (1926): 386-392; L. W. Holloway, "Lead Poisoning in Children," Journal of the Florida Medical Association 13 (1926): 94-100; F. L. Hoffman, "Deaths from Lead Poisoning," US. Bureau of Labor Statistics Bulletin 426 (1927): 33-34 (Hoffman lists 11 boys and 8 girls under the age of 18 years who died from lead poisoning; a number of these children were poisoned by paint from windows, walls, toys, or cribs).
39. See, for example, R. Strong, "Meningitis, Caused by Lead Poisoning, in a Child of Nineteen Months," Archives of Pediatrics 37 (1920): 532-537; L. E. Holt, "General and Functional Nervous Diseases," chap 2 in The Diseases of Infancy and Childhood for the Use of Students and Practitioners of Medicine, 8th ed (New York, NY: Appleton & Co, 1923); L. E. Holt, "Lead Poisoning in Infancy," American Journal of Diseases of Children 25 (1923): 229-233; Council of the Queensland Branch BMA, "An Historical Account of the Occurrence and Causation of Lead Poisoning Among Queensland Children," Medical Journal of Australia 1 (1922): 148-152; J. Ruddock, "Lead Poisoning in Children With Special Reference to Pica," Journal of the American Medical Association 82 (1924): 1682-1684; C. V. Weller, "Some Clinical Aspects of Lead Meningo-Encephalopathy," Annals of Clinical Medicine 3 (1925): 604-613; C. F. McKhann, "Lead Poisoning in Children," American Journal of Diseases of Children 32 (1926): 386-392; L. W. Holloway, "Lead Poisoning in Children," Journal of the Florida Medical Association 13 (1926): 94-100; F. L. Hoffman, "Deaths from Lead Poisoning," US. Bureau of Labor Statistics Bulletin 426 (1927): 33-34 (Hoffman lists 11 boys and 8 girls under the age of 18 years who died from lead poisoning; a number of these children were poisoned by paint from windows, walls, toys, or cribs).
40. F. E. Pratt, Occupational Diseases, A Preliminary Report on Lead Poisoning in the City of New York (Albany, NY: J. B. Lyon & Co, 1912), 373-377; T. Oliver, Lead Poisoning: From the Industrial, Medical, and Social Points of View (New York, NY: Paul B. Hoeber, 1914), 56-57; F. L. Hoffman, Lead-Poisoning Legislation and Statistics (Newark, NJ: Prudential Press, 1933); International Labour Office, White-Lead: Data Collected by the International Labour Office in Regard to the Use of White Lead in the Painting Industry, Studies and Reports, Series F, Industrial Hygiene, No. 11 (Geneva, Switzerland: International Labour Office, 1927).
41. F. E. Pratt, Occupational Diseases, A Preliminary Report on Lead Poisoning in the City of New York (Albany, NY: J. B. Lyon & Co, 1912), 373-377; T. Oliver, Lead Poisoning: From the Industrial, Medical, and Social Points of View (New York, NY: Paul B. Hoeber, 1914), 56-57; F. L. Hoffman, Lead-Poisoning Legislation and Statistics (Newark, NJ: Prudential Press, 1933); International Labour Office, White-Lead: Data Collected by the International Labour Office in Regard to the Use of White Lead in the Painting Industry, Studies and Reports, Series F, Industrial Hygiene, No. 11 (Geneva, Switzerland: International Labour Office, 1927).
42. F. E. Pratt, Occupational Diseases, A Preliminary Report on Lead Poisoning in the City of New York (Albany, NY: J. B. Lyon & Co, 1912), 373-377; T. Oliver, Lead Poisoning: From the Industrial, Medical, and Social Points of View (New York, NY: Paul B. Hoeber, 1914), 56-57; F. L. Hoffman, Lead-Poisoning Legislation and Statistics (Newark, NJ: Prudential Press, 1933); International Labour Office, White-Lead: Data Collected by the International Labour Office in Regard to the Use of White Lead in the Painting Industry, Studies and Reports, Series F, Industrial Hygiene, No. 11 (Geneva, Switzerland: International Labour Office, 1927).
43. F. E. Pratt, Occupational Diseases, A Preliminary Report on Lead Poisoning in the City of New York (Albany, NY: J. B. Lyon & Co, 1912), 373-377; T. Oliver, Lead Poisoning: From the Industrial, Medical, and Social Points of View (New York, NY: Paul B. Hoeber, 1914), 56-57; F. L. Hoffman, Lead-Poisoning Legislation and Statistics (Newark, NJ: Prudential Press, 1933); International Labour Office, White-Lead: Data Collected by the International Labour Office in Regard to the Use of White Lead in the Painting Industry, Studies and Reports, Series F, Industrial Hygiene, No. 11 (Geneva, Switzerland: International Labour Office, 1927).
44. "Prohibition of White Lead in Belgium," American Journal of Public Health 13 (1923): 337.
45. A. Hamilton, "Hygiene of the Painters' Trade," Bureau of Labor Statistics Bulletin 120 (1913): 66.
46. N. Porritt, "Cumulative Effects of Infinitesimal Doses of Lead," British Medical Journal (1931): 92-94.
47. Hoffman, Lead-Poisoning Legislation and Statistics.
48. C. F. McKhann, "Lead Poisoning in Children," Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry 27 (1932): 294-304.
49. E. Vogt, "Roentgenologic Diagnosis of Lead Poisoning in Infants and Children," Journal of the American Medical Association 98 (1932): 125-129.
50. "If Your Children Chew Paint," Scientific American 149 (1933): 291.
51. C. F. McKhann and E. C. Vogt, "Lead Poisoning in Children," Journal of the American Medical Association 49 (1933): 1131-1135.
52. R. Kehoe, abstract of discussion in C. F. McKhann and E. C. Vogt, "Lead Poisoning in Children," Journal of the American Medical Association 101 (1933): 1131-1135.
53. H. A. Gardner, The Toxic and Antiseptic Properties of Paints, Bulletin 41 of the Educational Bureau of the Paint Manufacturers' Association (Philadelphia, Penn: Paint Manufacturers' Association, 1914), 12.
54. Report of the Secretary, Annual Meeting of the Lead Industries Association, 5 June 1934, New York City Law Department Lead Industries Association Documents (hereafter cited as LIA Papers). See Christian Warren, "Toxic Purity: How America Became a Nation of White-Leaders," Business History Review (forthcoming).
55. Report of the Secretary, Annual Meeting of the Lead Industries Association, 5 June 1934, New York City Law Department Lead Industries Association Documents (hereafter cited as LIA Papers). See Christian Warren, "Toxic Purity: How America Became a Nation of White-Leaders," Business History Review (forthcoming).
56. [Wormser ?] to William J. Donovan, 21 September 1928, National Archives, Federal Trade Commission Documents.
57. Wormser to Members Supporting the White Lead Promotion Program, 20 February 1939, Bulletin No. 1, LIA Papers.
58. LIA Directors Meeting, 29 May 1929, LIA Papers.
59. "Lead-Free Paint on Furniture and Toys to Protect Children," United States Daily, 20 November 1930, p.1.
60. McKahnn and Vogt, "Lead Poisoning in Children."
61. The A. Shoenhut Company to Ella Oppenheimer, Children's Bureau, 17 April 1935, National Archives, Record Group 102 (Children's Bureau), Central File, 1933-1936, File: Diseases Due to Metallic, 4-5-17.
62. Newark Varnish Works to Ella Oppenheimer, 25 April 1935, National Archives, Record Group 102 (Children's Bureau), Central File, 1933-1936, File: Diseases Due to Metallic, 4-5-17.
63. LIA Annual Meeting, 13 June 1935, LIA Papers.
64. LIA Board of Directors Meeting, 17 January 1940, Exhibit A, "Report of the Secretary," LIA Papers.
65. Louis Dublin to Ella Oppenheimer, 14 September 1993, courtesy of Christian Warren.
66. NPVLA Executive Committee Minutes, 11 July 1939, LIA Papers.
67. NPVLA letter "To Class 'A' Members," 18 July 1939, LIA Papers.
68. "Do Not Forget The Children - Some Day They May Be Customers," The Dutch Boy Painter (August 1920): 126.
69. "The Dutch Boy's Lead Party," The Dutch Boy Painter (July 1924): 139.
70. "When the School Room is Empty," The Dutch Boy Painter (July 1924): back page.
71. The Dutch Boy Conquers Old Man Gloom - A Paint Book for Boys and Girls (New York, NY: National Lead Company, 1930).
72. "Takes a Scrubbing with a Smile" (advertisement), The Modern Hospital 48 (1937): 35.
73. "Fingerprints," The Dutch Boy Painter (August 1927): 117.
74. Dutch Boy Painter-Carter Times (January-February 1931 and September-October 1931).
75. "Types of Stencils . . . How to Use Them," Dutch Boy Painter-Carter Times (1933): 75-80.
76. National Lead Company Sales Manual, "Important" [ca 1949], LIA Papers.
77. National Lead Company, Modern Packaging, April 1949.
78. "Lead Helps to Guard Your Health" (advertisement), National Geographic Magazine (November 1923): 44.
79. "Clean and Bright Hospital Walls" (advertisement). The Modern Hospital (July 1921): 171; "Color - the Doctor's Assistant," The Modern Hospital (July 1922): 169.
80. "Clean and Bright Hospital Walls" (advertisement). The Modern Hospital (July 1921): 171; "Color - the Doctor's Assistant," The Modern Hospital (July 1922): 169.
81. "Every Room in a Modern Hospital Deserves a Dutch Boy Quality Painting Job" (advertisement), The Modern Hospital (July 1930).
82. Lead Industries Association, Useful Information About Lead, 1st ed (New York, NY: Lead Industries Association, 1931), 49-53, 104.
83. "These 4 Points Will Help You Sell Paint Jobs TODAY!" National Painters Magazine (1943).
84. Wormser to Members Supporting the White Lead Promotion Program, LIA Papers, Letter, February 20, 1939.
85. LIA Advisory Committee, White Lead Promotion, Minutes of 10th Meeting, 20 October 1941, LIA Papers.
86. LIA Advisory Committee, White Lead Promotion, Minutes of 2nd Meeting, 12 April 1939, LIA Papers.
87. "White Lead Paint Economical for Interiors," Lead 8 (1938): 7, LIA Papers.
88. "Modern Exteriors, Interiors Combine Plywood and White Lead" Lead 9 (1939): 5, LIA Papers; the same issue of Lead contained other articles about interior decoration of low-cost housing: "Successful Low Cost Homes Benefit with White Lead," p. 11; "A New Simplified White Lead Painting Guide," p. 5; "Lead Products Aid in Pierce Foundation Experimental Home: Low Cost House Styled with White Lead and Flashed with Sheet Lead," p. 10.
89. "Modern Exteriors, Interiors Combine Plywood and White Lead" Lead 9 (1939): 5, LIA Papers; the same issue of Lead contained other articles about interior decoration of low-cost housing: "Successful Low Cost Homes Benefit with White Lead," p. 11; "A New Simplified White Lead Painting Guide," p. 5; "Lead Products Aid in Pierce Foundation Experimental Home: Low Cost House Styled with White Lead and Flashed with Sheet Lead," p. 10.
90. "Modern Exteriors, Interiors Combine Plywood and White Lead" Lead 9 (1939): 5, LIA Papers; the same issue of Lead contained other articles about interior decoration of low-cost housing: "Successful Low Cost Homes Benefit with White Lead," p. 11; "A New Simplified White Lead Painting Guide," p. 5; "Lead Products Aid in Pierce Foundation Experimental Home: Low Cost House Styled with White Lead and Flashed with Sheet Lead," p. 10.
91. "Modern Exteriors, Interiors Combine Plywood and White Lead" Lead 9 (1939): 5, LIA Papers; the same issue of Lead contained other articles about interior decoration of low-cost housing: "Successful Low Cost Homes Benefit with White Lead," p. 11; "A New Simplified White Lead Painting Guide," p. 5; "Lead Products Aid in Pierce Foundation Experimental Home: Low Cost House Styled with White Lead and Flashed with Sheet Lead," p. 10.
92. LIA Advisory Committee, White Lead Promotion, Minutes of 8th Meeting, 18 October 1940, Exhibit A, Progress Report, LIA Papers.
93. White Lead Promotion Campaign, Bulletin 37, 23 May 1941, LIA Papers.
94. White Lead Promotion Campaign, Annual Summary, 11 October 1940, LIA Papers.
95. White Lead Promotion Campaign, Bulletin 42, 23 January 1942, LIA Papers.
96. White Lead Promotion Campaign, Bulletin 47, 20 May 1942, LIA Papers.
97. White Lead Promotion Campaign, Bulletin 40, 2 October 1941, LIA Papers.
98. White Lead Promotion Campaign, Bulletin 43, 23 February 1942, LIA Papers.
99. White Lead Promotion Campaign, Bulletin 40.
100. White Lead Promotion Campaign, Bulletin 32, 15 January 1941, LIA Papers.
101. White Lead Promotion Campaign, Bulletin 25, 11 October 1940, LIA Papers.
102. White Lead Promotion Campaign, Bulletin 32.
103. White Lead Promotion Campaign, Annual Summary, October 11, 1940.
104. "Lead Industry Begins Campaign to Advertise White-Lead," The Dutch Boy Painter 32 (1939): 27, LIA Papers.
105. Board of Directors Meeting, 16 May 1939, Secretary's Report, "Summarizing the Activities of the Lead Industries Association for 1938," LIA Papers.
106. Report of the Secretary, Annual Meeting, 6 June 1940, LIA Papers.
107. Annual Report, 22 September 1941, LIA Papers.
108. "Paint Eaters," Time, 20 December 1943, 49.
109. Lead Industries Association, "Preliminary Report of Investigation of 'Time' Article 'Paint Eaters,'" Lead Hygiene and Safety Bulletin (1944): 40.
110. Kehoe to Wormser, 7 February 1944, LIA Papers.
111. Kehoe to J. H. Schaefer (Vice President, Ethyl Corp), 29 January 1945, Box 90, LIA Papers.
112. Kehoe to Dr. R. L. Gorrell, City-County Health Unit, Las Animas County, Trinidad, Colo, 5 September 1945, LIA Papers.
113. Kehoe to R. H. Kotte, 14 February 1951, LIA Papers.
114. Executive Committee Meeting, Exhibit D, 28 December 1945, LIA Papers.
115. LIA Annual Meeting, Minutes, Report of the Secretary, 26 April 1946.
116. F. Wormser, "Facts and Fallacies of Lead Exposure" (1946), 10 [courtesy of Christian Warren].
117. Lead Industries Association, Lead in Modern Industry (New York, NY: Lead Industries Association, 1952), 153-54; this book continued to be promoted by the LIA until at least 1962. See "Lead Library of Technical Information," Lead (1962), 26.
118. Lead Industries Association, Lead in Modern Industry (New York, NY: Lead Industries Association, 1952), 153-54; this book continued to be promoted by the LIA until at least 1962. See "Lead Library of Technical Information," Lead (1962), 26.
119. Manfred Bowditch to Ziegfield, "1952 Activities," 16 December 1952;
120. "Lead Hygiene" (minutes of the Annual Meeting, 9-10 April 1953), LIA Papers.
121. New York Times, 9 November 1954, p. 26.
122. "Lead Hygiene," LIA Papers.
123. Quarterly Report of the Secretary, 2 April 1956, LIA Papers.
124. Quarterly Report of the Secretary, 1 October 1956, LIA Papers.
125. Bowditch to Ziegfield, 16 December 1952, courtesy of Christian Warren.
126. Report of Health and Safety Division, Manfred Bowditch, Director, Annual Meeting, 24-25 April 1957, LIA Papers.
127. Bowditch to Kehoe, 26 December 1957, courtesy of Christian Warren.
128. National Paint, Varnish and Lacquer Association, "Watch Your Child's 'Eating Habits'!"
129. Annual Report for 1959, LIA Papers.
130. Annual Meeting, Report of the Secretary, 13-14 April 1950, LIA Papers.
131. T. J. McDowell, "Suggested Course of Action for NPVL Association Re: Labeling Laws," [ca July 1954] in NPVLA, Minutes, Subcommittee on Model Labeling, 15 July 1954, LIA Papers.
132. J. Trichter (Assistant Commissioner of Environmental Sanitation, New York City Department of Health) to C. W. Slocum (Devoe & Reynolds [paint] Company), 24 August 1954, LIA Papers.
133. B. E. Conley (Secretary, American Medical Association) to J. Trichter, 9 September 1954, LIA Papers.
134. American Standards Association, "American Standards Specifications to Minimize Hazards to Children from Residual Surface Coating Materials" (Z66.1-1955), approved 16 February 1955.
135. Quarterly Report of the Secretary, 10 January 1958, LIA Papers.
136. Rabin, "Warnings Unheeded," 1672.
137. Ibid.