Unfinished agendas: Writing the history of medicine of sub-Saharan Africa

African Affairs

Volumn 99, Issue 395, 2000, Pages 325-349

  Malowany, Maureen ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

HEALTH CARE; HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE;

AFRICA SOUTH OF THE SAHARA; ARTICLE; CLASSIFICATION; ECONOMICS; HISTORY; HISTORY OF MEDICINE; METHODOLOGY; POLITICAL SYSTEM; SOCIOLOGY;

AFRICA SOUTH OF THE SAHARA; COLONIALISM; ECONOMICS; HISTORIOGRAPHY; HISTORY OF MEDICINE; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; SOCIOLOGY;

AFRICA;

EID: 0033949807     PISSN: 00019909     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/afraf/99.395.325     Document Type: Article

References (71)

1. 'Towards the 21st Century: Meeting Africa's Health Challenges' (African Medical and Research Foundation, Nairobi, 1996).
2. Paul R. Epstein, Henry F. Diaz, Scott Elias, George Grabherr, Nicholas E. Graham, Willem J. M. Martens, Ellen Mosley-Thompson and Joel Susskind, 'Biological and physical signs of climate change: focus on mosquito-borne diseases', Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 79, 3 (March 1998), pp. 409-17.
3. John Ford, The Role of the Trypanosomiases in African Ecology. A study of the tsetse fly problem (Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1971) and Helge Kjekshus, Ecology Control and Economic Development in East African History. The case of Tanganyika 1850-1950 (Heinemann, London, 1977).
4. John Ford, The Role of the Trypanosomiases in African Ecology. A study of the tsetse fly problem (Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1971) and Helge Kjekshus, Ecology Control and Economic Development in East African History. The case of Tanganyika 1850-1950 (Heinemann, London, 1977).
5. Christopher J. L. Murray and Alan D. Lopez (eds), The Global Burden of Disease. A comprehensive assessment of mortality and disability from diseases, injuries, and risk factors in 1990 and projected to 2020 (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, and World Health Organization, Geneva, 1996).
6. Malcolm W. Brown, '"Epidemic!": Like a Roller-Coaster Ride With Germs', New York Times, 26 February 1999.
7. Fred Pearce, 'On the march. Tropical diseases are spreading as the world's climate changes', New Scientist, 158, no. 2130 (18 April 1998), p. 20.
8. M. Craig, R. W. Snow and D. le Sueur, 'A climate-based distribution model of malaria transmission in sub-Saharan Africa', Parasitology Today, 15 (1999), pp. 105-11; and Brian Greenwood, 'Meningococcal meningitis in Africa', Manson Lecture, Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 93 (1999), pp. 341-53.
9. M. Craig, R. W. Snow and D. le Sueur, 'A climate-based distribution model of malaria transmission in sub-Saharan Africa', Parasitology Today, 15 (1999), pp. 105-11; and Brian Greenwood, 'Meningococcal meningitis in Africa', Manson Lecture, Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 93 (1999), pp. 341-53.
10. Gert Brieger, 'The historiography of medicine', in W. F. Bynum and Roy Porter (eds), Companion Encyclopedia of the History of Medicine (Routledge, London, 1993), Vol. 1, pp. 24-44.
11. G. W. Hartwig and K. David Paterson (eds), Disease in African History: an introductory survey and case studies (Duke University Press, Durham NC, 1978).
12. By focusing on the system of medical knowledge, Abdalla has brought an anthropological subject into the history of medicine; Ismail H. Abdalla, Islam, Medicine, and Practitioners in Northern Nigeria (Edwin Meilen Press, Lampeter, 1997).
13. John Janzen, The Quest for Therapy in Lower Zaire (University of California Press, Berkeley, CA, 1978). Gilbert Lewis, Knowledge of Illness in a Sepik Society (Athlone Press, London, 1975).
14. John Janzen, The Quest for Therapy in Lower Zaire (University of California Press, Berkeley, CA, 1978). Gilbert Lewis, Knowledge of Illness in a Sepik Society (Athlone Press, London, 1975).
15. The question paraphrases one asked by Shula Marks, 'What is colonial about colonial medicine? And what has happened to imperialism and health?,' Presidential Address, Social History of Medicine, 10, 2 (1997), pp. 205-19.
16. M. Lyons, 'African Trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness)', in Kenneth F. Kiple (ed.), The Cambridge World History of Human Disease (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1993), pp. 552-61.
17. J. E. Dutton, 'Preliminary note upon a trypanosome occurring in the blood of man', Thomson Yates Laboratory Reports, 4 (1902), pp. 455-67; A. Castellani, 'Presence of Trypanosoma in sleeping sickness', Reports of the Sleeping Sickness Commission of the Royal Society, 3 (1903), pp. 2-10; D. Bruce, 'Sleeping sickness in Africa', Journal of the African Society, 7 (1908), p. 249.
18. J. E. Dutton, 'Preliminary note upon a trypanosome occurring in the blood of man', Thomson Yates Laboratory Reports, 4 (1902), pp. 455-67; A. Castellani, 'Presence of Trypanosoma in sleeping sickness', Reports of the Sleeping Sickness Commission of the Royal Society, 3 (1903), pp. 2-10; D. Bruce, 'Sleeping sickness in Africa', Journal of the African Society, 7 (1908), p. 249.
19. J. E. Dutton, 'Preliminary note upon a trypanosome occurring in the blood of man', Thomson Yates Laboratory Reports, 4 (1902), pp. 455-67; A. Castellani, 'Presence of Trypanosoma in sleeping sickness', Reports of the Sleeping Sickness Commission of the Royal Society, 3 (1903), pp. 2-10; D. Bruce, 'Sleeping sickness in Africa', Journal of the African Society, 7 (1908), p. 249.
20. Maryinez Lyons, 'African sleeping sickness: an historical review', International Journal of STD & AIDS (supplement 1), 2 (1991), pp. 20-5.
21. Maryinez Lyons, 'Sleeping sickness epidemics and public health in the Belgian Congo', in David Arnold (ed.), Imperial Medicine and Indigenous Societies (Manchester University Press, Manchester, 1988), pp. 105-24.
22. The historiography of human trypanosomiasis is extensive and, for the most part, familiar territory. The most comprehensive historical review is in James Giblin, 'Trypanosomiasis control in African history: an evaded issue?', Journal of African History, 31, 1 (1990), pp. 59-80. Published primary source materials include the various Reports of the Royal Society's Sleeping Sickness Commission. For East Africa see Cuthbert Christy, 'The distribution of sleeping sickness, filaria perstans, &c., in East Equatorial Africa'. Reports of the Sleeping Sickness Commission of The Royal Society (London, 1903). The authoritative source, although not without its critics, is Ford, The Role of the Trypanosomiases. For an excellent examination of human sleeping sickness within a specific colonial context, see Maryinez Lyons, The Colonial Disease: A social history of sleeping sickness in northern Zaire, 1900-1940 (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1992). For contexts that focus on the vector, environment and links to bovine trypanosomiasis, see John J. McKelvey, Man Against Tsetse: Struggle for Africa (Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY, 1973); John M. MacKenzie, 'Experts and amateurs: tsetse, nagana and sleeping sickness in East and Central Africa', in John M. MacKenzie (ed.), Imperialism and the Natural World (Manchester University Press, Manchester, 1990), pp. 187-212. For the most recent scientific monograph from the field to incorporate historical evidence, see Stephen G. A. Leak, Tsetse Biology and Ecology. Their role in the epidemiology and control of trypanosomosis (CABI, in association with the International Livestock Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya, 1999).
23. The historiography of human trypanosomiasis is extensive and, for the most part, familiar territory. The most comprehensive historical review is in James Giblin, 'Trypanosomiasis control in African history: an evaded issue?', Journal of African History, 31, 1 (1990), pp. 59-80. Published primary source materials include the various Reports of the Royal Society's Sleeping Sickness Commission. For East Africa see Cuthbert Christy, 'The distribution of sleeping sickness, filaria perstans, &c., in East Equatorial Africa'. Reports of the Sleeping Sickness Commission of The Royal Society (London, 1903). The authoritative source, although not without its critics, is Ford, The Role of the Trypanosomiases. For an excellent examination of human sleeping sickness within a specific colonial context, see Maryinez Lyons, The Colonial Disease: A social history of sleeping sickness in northern Zaire, 1900-1940 (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1992). For contexts that focus on the vector, environment and links to bovine trypanosomiasis, see John J. McKelvey, Man Against Tsetse: Struggle for Africa (Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY, 1973); John M. MacKenzie, 'Experts and amateurs: tsetse, nagana and sleeping sickness in East and Central Africa', in John M. MacKenzie (ed.), Imperialism and the Natural World (Manchester University Press, Manchester, 1990), pp. 187-212. For the most recent scientific monograph from the field to incorporate historical evidence, see Stephen G. A. Leak, Tsetse Biology and Ecology. Their role in the epidemiology and control of trypanosomosis (CABI, in association with the International Livestock Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya, 1999).
24. The historiography of human trypanosomiasis is extensive and, for the most part, familiar territory. The most comprehensive historical review is in James Giblin, 'Trypanosomiasis control in African history: an evaded issue?', Journal of African History, 31, 1 (1990), pp. 59-80. Published primary source materials include the various Reports of the Royal Society's Sleeping Sickness Commission. For East Africa see Cuthbert Christy, 'The distribution of sleeping sickness, filaria perstans, &c., in East Equatorial Africa'. Reports of the Sleeping Sickness Commission of The Royal Society (London, 1903). The authoritative source, although not without its critics, is Ford, The Role of the Trypanosomiases. For an excellent examination of human sleeping sickness within a specific colonial context, see Maryinez Lyons, The Colonial Disease: A social history of sleeping sickness in northern Zaire, 1900-1940 (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1992). For contexts that focus on the vector, environment and links to bovine trypanosomiasis, see John J. McKelvey, Man Against Tsetse: Struggle for Africa (Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY, 1973); John M. MacKenzie, 'Experts and amateurs: tsetse, nagana and sleeping sickness in East and Central Africa', in John M. MacKenzie (ed.), Imperialism and the Natural World (Manchester University Press, Manchester, 1990), pp. 187-212. For the most recent scientific monograph from the field to incorporate historical evidence, see Stephen G. A. Leak, Tsetse Biology and Ecology. Their role in the epidemiology and control of trypanosomosis (CABI, in association with the International Livestock Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya, 1999).
25. The historiography of human trypanosomiasis is extensive and, for the most part, familiar territory. The most comprehensive historical review is in James Giblin, 'Trypanosomiasis control in African history: an evaded issue?', Journal of African History, 31, 1 (1990), pp. 59-80. Published primary source materials include the various Reports of the Royal Society's Sleeping Sickness Commission. For East Africa see Cuthbert Christy, 'The distribution of sleeping sickness, filaria perstans, &c., in East Equatorial Africa'. Reports of the Sleeping Sickness Commission of The Royal Society (London, 1903). The authoritative source, although not without its critics, is Ford, The Role of the Trypanosomiases. For an excellent examination of human sleeping sickness within a specific colonial context, see Maryinez Lyons, The Colonial Disease: A social history of sleeping sickness in northern Zaire, 1900-1940 (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1992). For contexts that focus on the vector, environment and links to bovine trypanosomiasis, see John J. McKelvey, Man Against Tsetse: Struggle for Africa (Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY, 1973); John M. MacKenzie, 'Experts and amateurs: tsetse, nagana and sleeping sickness in East and Central Africa', in John M. MacKenzie (ed.), Imperialism and the Natural World (Manchester University Press, Manchester, 1990), pp. 187-212. For the most recent scientific monograph from the field to incorporate historical evidence, see Stephen G. A. Leak, Tsetse Biology and Ecology. Their role in the epidemiology and control of trypanosomosis (CABI, in association with the International Livestock Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya, 1999).
26. The historiography of human trypanosomiasis is extensive and, for the most part, familiar territory. The most comprehensive historical review is in James Giblin, 'Trypanosomiasis control in African history: an evaded issue?', Journal of African History, 31, 1 (1990), pp. 59-80. Published primary source materials include the various Reports of the Royal Society's Sleeping Sickness Commission. For East Africa see Cuthbert Christy, 'The distribution of sleeping sickness, filaria perstans, &c., in East Equatorial Africa'. Reports of the Sleeping Sickness Commission of The Royal Society (London, 1903). The authoritative source, although not without its critics, is Ford, The Role of the Trypanosomiases. For an excellent examination of human sleeping sickness within a specific colonial context, see Maryinez Lyons, The Colonial Disease: A social history of sleeping sickness in northern Zaire, 1900-1940 (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1992). For contexts that focus on the vector, environment and links to bovine trypanosomiasis, see John J. McKelvey, Man Against Tsetse: Struggle for Africa (Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY, 1973); John M. MacKenzie, 'Experts and amateurs: tsetse, nagana and sleeping sickness in East and Central Africa', in John M. MacKenzie (ed.), Imperialism and the Natural World (Manchester University Press, Manchester, 1990), pp. 187-212. For the most recent scientific monograph from the field to incorporate historical evidence, see Stephen G. A. Leak, Tsetse Biology and Ecology. Their role in the epidemiology and control of trypanosomosis (CABI, in association with the International Livestock Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya, 1999).
27. The historiography of human trypanosomiasis is extensive and, for the most part, familiar territory. The most comprehensive historical review is in James Giblin, 'Trypanosomiasis control in African history: an evaded issue?', Journal of African History, 31, 1 (1990), pp. 59-80. Published primary source materials include the various Reports of the Royal Society's Sleeping Sickness Commission. For East Africa see Cuthbert Christy, 'The distribution of sleeping sickness, filaria perstans, &c., in East Equatorial Africa'. Reports of the Sleeping Sickness Commission of The Royal Society (London, 1903). The authoritative source, although not without its critics, is Ford, The Role of the Trypanosomiases. For an excellent examination of human sleeping sickness within a specific colonial context, see Maryinez Lyons, The Colonial Disease: A social history of sleeping sickness in northern Zaire, 1900-1940 (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1992). For contexts that focus on the vector, environment and links to bovine trypanosomiasis, see John J. McKelvey, Man Against Tsetse: Struggle for Africa (Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY, 1973); John M. MacKenzie, 'Experts and amateurs: tsetse, nagana and sleeping sickness in East and Central Africa', in John M. MacKenzie (ed.), Imperialism and the Natural World (Manchester University Press, Manchester, 1990), pp. 187-212. For the most recent scientific monograph from the field to incorporate historical evidence, see Stephen G. A. Leak, Tsetse Biology and Ecology. Their role in the epidemiology and control of trypanosomosis (CABI, in association with the International Livestock Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya, 1999).
28. World Health Organization, 'African Trypanosomiasis (Sleeping Sickness) Control_ HYPERLINK http://www/who.int/emc/diseases/tryp/trypano.html_http://www/who.int/emc/ diseases/tryp/trypano.html_, 30 July 1999.
29. M. Warboys, 'The emergence of tropical medicine: a study in the establishment of a scientific speciality', in G. Lamarie et al. (eds), Perspectives on the Emergence of Scientific Disciplines (Mouton, The Hague, 1976); A. Cunningham and P. Williams (eds), The Laboratory Revolution in Medicine (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1992).
30. M. Warboys, 'The emergence of tropical medicine: a study in the establishment of a scientific speciality', in G. Lamarie et al. (eds), Perspectives on the Emergence of Scientific Disciplines (Mouton, The Hague, 1976); A. Cunningham and P. Williams (eds), The Laboratory Revolution in Medicine (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1992).
31. J. Andrew Mendelsohn, 'How epidemics became complex after World War I', in Christopher Lawrence and George Weisz (eds), Greater than the Parts: Holism in bio-medicine 1920-1950 (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1998), p. 304.
32. Mendelsohn, 'How epidemics became complex', p. 306.
33. C. R. Christophers and J. W. W. Stephens, 'On the destruction of anopheles in Lagos', Reports to the Malaria Committee of The Royal Society, Third Series (Harrison and Sons, London, 1900), p. 20.
34. A strong foundation for this investigation will be provided by Juergen Mueller, 'The Spanish influenza pandemic, 1918-1920: a bibliography of modern and old regional studies and sources', in H. Phillips and D. Killingray (eds), The 'Spanish' Flu Pandemic of 1918: new perspectives (Routledge, London, forthcoming).
35. Randall M. Packard, 'The invention of the "tropical worker": medical research and the quest for central African labor in the South African gold mines, 1903-36', Journal of African History, 34, 2 (1993), pp. 271-92.
36. Maryinez Lyons, 'Public health in colonial Africa: the Belgian Congo', in Dorothy Porter (ed.), The History of Public Health and the Modern State (Rodopi, Amsterdam, 1994), pp. 356-84.
37. Anne Marie Moulin, 'Patriarchal science: the network of the Overseas Pasteur Institutes', in P. Petitjean, Catherine Jami and Anne Marie Moulin (eds), Science and Empires (Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht, 1992); Heather Bell, Frontiers of Medicine in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan (Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1999); Helen J. Power, Tropical Medicine in the Twentieth Century. A history of the Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, 1898-1990 (Kegan Paul International, London, 1999).
38. Anne Marie Moulin, 'Patriarchal science: the network of the Overseas Pasteur Institutes', in P. Petitjean, Catherine Jami and Anne Marie Moulin (eds), Science and Empires (Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht, 1992); Heather Bell, Frontiers of Medicine in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan (Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1999); Helen J. Power, Tropical Medicine in the Twentieth Century. A history of the Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, 1898-1990 (Kegan Paul International, London, 1999).
39. Anne Marie Moulin, 'Patriarchal science: the network of the Overseas Pasteur Institutes', in P. Petitjean, Catherine Jami and Anne Marie Moulin (eds), Science and Empires (Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht, 1992); Heather Bell, Frontiers of Medicine in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan (Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1999); Helen J. Power, Tropical Medicine in the Twentieth Century. A history of the Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, 1898-1990 (Kegan Paul International, London, 1999).
40. Helen Tilley is completing an Oxford D.Phil. thesis which addresses these issues: 'Africa as a Living Laboratory - the African Research Survey and the British Colonial Empire: Consolidating environmental, medical, and anthropological debates, 1920-1940'.
41. Packard, 'The invention of the "tropical worker"', p. 281.
42. Anne Marie Moulin, 'The Pasteur Institutes between the two World Wars', in P. Weindling (ed.), International Health Organisations and Movements 1918-1939 (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1995), p. 249.
43. P. Weindling (ed.), 'Introduction', in International Health Organisations and Movements.
44. World Health Organization/Mal/58. Afr/Mal./Conf/14, 26 October 1950, F. J. C. Cambournac, 'Report on Malaria in Equatorial Africa'.
45. Regional journals provided opportunities for publication and dissemination of local research throughout sub-Saharan Africa. See Mary J. Dobson, Maureen Malowany, Kenneth Ombongi and Robert W. Snow, 'The voice of East Africa: the East African Medical Journal at its 75th anniversary,' Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 92 (1998), pp. 685-86
46. and 'The East African Medical Journal: its history and contribution to regional malaria research during the last 75 years', East African Medical Journal, Supplement Issue, 75, 6 (1998), pp. S10-S19.
47. S. R. Christophers and J. W. W. Stephens, 'The Native as the Prime Agent in the Malarial Infection of Europeans'. A Report to the Malaria Committee of The Royal Society. Further reports to the Malaria Committee of The Royal Society (Harrison and Sons, London, 1900), pp. 3-19 and 'Reports, &c., from Drs Stephens and Christophers, West Coast of Africa', Reports to the Malaria Committee, Third Series (Harrison and Sons, London, 1900), pp. 2-24.
48. S. R. Christophers and J. W. W. Stephens, 'The Native as the Prime Agent in the Malarial Infection of Europeans'. A Report to the Malaria Committee of The Royal Society. Further reports to the Malaria Committee of The Royal Society (Harrison and Sons, London, 1900), pp. 3-19 and 'Reports, &c., from Drs Stephens and Christophers, West Coast of Africa', Reports to the Malaria Committee, Third Series (Harrison and Sons, London, 1900), pp. 2-24.
49. E. Hill and L. G. Haydon, 'The epidemic of malarial fever in Natal, 1905', Journal of Hygiene, 5, 4 (1905), pp. 467-84.
50. David le Sueur, Brian L. Sharp and Chris C. Appleton, 'Historical perspective of the malaria problem in Natal with emphasis on the period 1928-1932', South African Journal of Science, 89 (1993), pp. 232-9.
51. The untangling of the scientific chronology and the interactions of the various networks of local and international malariologists involved in malaria control for East Africa has been part of the focus of a collaborative project on 'The history of malaria and its control in twentieth-century East Africa', with Drs Mary Dobson, Maureen Malowany and R. W. Snow; the project is funded by the Wellcome Trust and directed from the Wellcome Unit for the History of Medicine, Oxford and Wellcome Trust Laboratory/KEMRI, Nairobi, Kenya. For a fuller discussion of the roles played by local malariologists in the Kampala conference of 1950 which led to the WHO Global Malaria Eradication Campaign of 1955, see M. J. Dobson, M. Malowany and R. W. Snow, 'Malaria control in East Africa: the Kampala Conference and the Pare-Taveta Scheme: a meeting of common and high ground', Parassitologia (June-July 2000, in press).
52. L. W. Hackett, Malaria in Europe (Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1937).
53. D. Bagster Wilson, P. C. C. Garnham and N. H. Swellengrebel, 'A review of hyperendemic malaria', Tropical Diseases Bulletin, 47 (1950), pp. 677-98.
54. WHO. Technical Report Series No. 39, 1951, p. 46.
55. WHO Official Records, No. 151, 1966, Annex 15.
56. William H. Foege, J. D. Millar and D. A. Henderson, 'Smallpox eradication in West and Central Africa', Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 52, 2 (1975), pp. 209-22; W. H. Foege, 'Commentary: Smallpox eradication in West and Central Africa revisited', Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 76, 3 (1998), pp. 233-5.
57. William H. Foege, J. D. Millar and D. A. Henderson, 'Smallpox eradication in West and Central Africa', Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 52, 2 (1975), pp. 209-22; W. H. Foege, 'Commentary: Smallpox eradication in West and Central Africa revisited', Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 76, 3 (1998), pp. 233-5.
58. Donna Maier-Weaver, 'Nineteenth century Asante medical practices', Comparative Studies in Society and History, 21, 1 (1979), pp. 63-81; Raymond Mauny, 'The antiquity of vaccination in Africa', Presence Africaine, 36, 8 (1961), pp. 27-30; and Frederick Quinn, 'How traditional Dahomian society interpreted smallpox', Abbia, XX (1968), pp. 151-66.
59. Donna Maier-Weaver, 'Nineteenth century Asante medical practices', Comparative Studies in Society and History, 21, 1 (1979), pp. 63-81; Raymond Mauny, 'The antiquity of vaccination in Africa', Presence Africaine, 36, 8 (1961), pp. 27-30; and Frederick Quinn, 'How traditional Dahomian society interpreted smallpox', Abbia, XX (1968), pp. 151-66.
60. Donna Maier-Weaver, 'Nineteenth century Asante medical practices', Comparative Studies in Society and History, 21, 1 (1979), pp. 63-81; Raymond Mauny, 'The antiquity of vaccination in Africa', Presence Africaine, 36, 8 (1961), pp. 27-30; and Frederick Quinn, 'How traditional Dahomian society interpreted smallpox', Abbia, XX (1968), pp. 151-66.
61. F. Fenner, D. A. Henderson, I. Arita, Z. Jezek and I. D. Ladnyi, Smallpox and its Eradication (World Health Organization, Geneva, 1988).
62. Foege, 'Commentary', p. 234.
63. Fenner, Smallpox and its Eradication, chapter 19, 'Eastern Africa', pp. 950-1.
64. Fenner, Smallpox and its Eradication, chapter 17, 'Western and Central Africa', p. 865.
65. WHO. Afr/Mal/Conf/25, p. 65.
66. R. W. Snow, K. Marsh and D. le Sueur, 'The need for maps of transmission intensity to guide malaria control in Africa', Parasitology Today, 12, 12 (1996), pp. 455-7; and J. Omumbo, J. Ouma, B. Rapuoda, M. Craig, D. le Sueur and R. W. Snow, 'Mapping malaria transmission intensity using geographical information systems (GIS): an example from Kenya', Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology, 92, 1 (1998), pp. 7-21.
67. R. W. Snow, K. Marsh and D. le Sueur, 'The need for maps of transmission intensity to guide malaria control in Africa', Parasitology Today, 12, 12 (1996), pp. 455-7; and J. Omumbo, J. Ouma, B. Rapuoda, M. Craig, D. le Sueur and R. W. Snow, 'Mapping malaria transmission intensity using geographical information systems (GIS): an example from Kenya', Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology, 92, 1 (1998), pp. 7-21.
68. S. W. Lindsay and C. J. Thomas, 'Mapping and estimating the population at risk from lymphatic filariasis in Africa', Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 94, 1 (2000), pp. 37-45.
69. R. B. Aylward, J. M. Olive, H. F. Hull, C. A. de Quadros and B. Melgaard, 'Disease eradication initiatives and general health services: ensuring common principles lead to mutual benefits', in W. R. Dowdle and D. R. Hopkins (eds), The Eradication of Infectious Diseases (John Wiley, Chichester, 1998), pp. 61-74.
70. Brian Greenwood, 'Meningococcal meningitis in Africa'.
71. Gwyn Prins, 'But what was the disease? The present state of health and healing in African studies', Past and Present, 124 (1989), pp. 159-79.