Urban waterfront regeneration and local governance in Tallinn

Europe - Asia Studies

Volumn 52, Issue 5, 2000, Pages 829-850

  Feldman, Merje ^a  

^a SYRACUSE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

LOCAL GOVERNMENT; PLANNING PROCESS; URBAN PLANNING; URBAN RENEWAL;

ESTONIA;

EID: 0033944562     PISSN: 09668136     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/713663094     Document Type: Article

References (73)

1. The terms 'regeneration', 'redevelopment' and 'revitalisation' are used synonymously in this article. Waterfront regeneration is treated as an example of urban regeneration.
2. Mickey Lauria (ed.), Reconstructing Urban Regime Theory: Regulating Urban Politics in a Global Economy (Thousand Oaks, CA, 1998); Elizabeth Strom, 'In Search of the Growth Coalition: American Urban Theories and the Redevelopment of Berlin', Urban Affairs Review, 31, 4, 1996, pp. 455-481.
3. Mickey Lauria (ed.), Reconstructing Urban Regime Theory: Regulating Urban Politics in a Global Economy (Thousand Oaks, CA, 1998); Elizabeth Strom, 'In Search of the Growth Coalition: American Urban Theories and the Redevelopment of Berlin', Urban Affairs Review, 31, 4, 1996, pp. 455-481.
4. Andrew Coulson (ed.), Local Government in Eastern Europe (Aldershot, 1995); James Berry & Stanley McGreal (eds), European Cities, Planning Systems and Property Markets (London, 1995); Wisla Surazska, 'Transition to Democracy and the Fragmentation of the City: Four Cases of Central European Capitals', Political Geography, 15, 5, 1996, pp. 365-338; Ludek Sýkora, 'City in Transition: The Role of Rent Gaps in Prague's Revitalization', TESG - Tijdschrift voor Economische en Sociale Geografie, 84, 4, 1993, pp. 281-293.
5. Andrew Coulson (ed.), Local Government in Eastern Europe (Aldershot, 1995); James Berry & Stanley McGreal (eds), European Cities, Planning Systems and Property Markets (London, 1995); Wisla Surazska, 'Transition to Democracy and the Fragmentation of the City: Four Cases of Central European Capitals', Political Geography, 15, 5, 1996, pp. 365-338; Ludek Sýkora, 'City in Transition: The Role of Rent Gaps in Prague's Revitalization', TESG - Tijdschrift voor Economische en Sociale Geografie, 84, 4, 1993, pp. 281-293.
6. Andrew Coulson (ed.), Local Government in Eastern Europe (Aldershot, 1995); James Berry & Stanley McGreal (eds), European Cities, Planning Systems and Property Markets (London, 1995); Wisla Surazska, 'Transition to Democracy and the Fragmentation of the City: Four Cases of Central European Capitals', Political Geography, 15, 5, 1996, pp. 365-338; Ludek Sýkora, 'City in Transition: The Role of Rent Gaps in Prague's Revitalization', TESG - Tijdschrift voor Economische en Sociale Geografie, 84, 4, 1993, pp. 281-293.
7. Andrew Coulson (ed.), Local Government in Eastern Europe (Aldershot, 1995); James Berry & Stanley McGreal (eds), European Cities, Planning Systems and Property Markets (London, 1995); Wisla Surazska, 'Transition to Democracy and the Fragmentation of the City: Four Cases of Central European Capitals', Political Geography, 15, 5, 1996, pp. 365-338; Ludek Sýkora, 'City in Transition: The Role of Rent Gaps in Prague's Revitalization', TESG - Tijdschrift voor Economische en Sociale Geografie, 84, 4, 1993, pp. 281-293.
8. Christian Lefevre, 'Metropolitan Government and Governance in Western Countries: A Critical Review', International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 22, 1, 1998, pp. 9-25.
9. The terms 'Eastern Europe' and 'post-socialist' are used interchangeably in this article to distinguish post-socialist cities from their 'Western' counterparts in the advanced industralised countries. I do not wish to imply the Cold War dualism of 'East' and 'West'.
10. Cf. Susan Fainstein, The City Builders (Cambridge, MA, 1994); Lauria (ed.), Reconstructing
11. Cf. Susan Fainstein, The City Builders (Cambridge, MA, 1994); Lauria (ed.), Reconstructing
12. Interviewees included seven individuals from the city government and city council, one national government official, 15 individuals representing the Port of Tallinn, real estate, architectural and law firms, two journalists covering Tallinn for Estonia's major newspapers and four other individuals (such as former city government officials) who command insights into the regeneration process. There was considerable overlap among the above categories as a number of individuals had worked in both the public and the private sectors during the time period investigated in this study. Interviewees were identified in the process of research on the basis of documents, press reports and comments by other interviewees. In addition to the in-depth interviews, the research also relies on unpublished factual information and expert estimates obtained from 14 individuals, mostly working for the Tallinn city government. These estimates were utilised to overcome the lack of published data on various aspects of the development of Tallinn, including land ownership, land reforms and infrastructure provision, as well as the relationships between the local government and the central state. Throughout the article, quotations from interviews are used to illustrate and summarise the assessments of several interviewees. In reconstructing the course of the regeneration projects, assessments of several interviewees were compared and checked against other sources of information to provide as neutral an account as possible. Unless otherwise specified, quotations in the text are derived from interviews conducted between July and December 1997. As the research touched on politically and legally sensitive issues, interviewees were provided with written guarantees that their name and title would not be revealed.
13. Governance refers to the coalition of elected government and a variety of non-elected public and private institutions such as public interest groups, chambers of commerce and neighbourhood associations. Governance spans the conventional public-private divide; it includes alliances and networks between private firms and various tiers of government. Governance, a broader notion than government per se, relies on the interaction and cooperation between several interest groups, among which the formal municipal government is one. Governance is today also increasingly used as an umbrella term for a variety of forms of coordinating social relations. A review of the voluminous comparative literature on urban regeneration and governance is beyond the scope of this article. I only outline the elements widely identified as key characteristics of regeneration projects.
14. Dennis Judd & Michael Parkinson (eds), Leadership and Urban Regeneration: Cities in North-America and Europe (Beverly Hills, CA, 1990), p. 21.
15. Kevin R. Cox, 'Globalization and the Politics of Distribution: A Critical Assessment', in Kevin Cox (ed.), Spaces of Globalization: Reasserting the Power of the Local (New York, 1997); Anette Hastings, 'Unraveling the Process of "Partnership" in Urban Regeneration Policy', Urban Studies, 33, 2, 1996, pp. 253-268.
16. Kevin R. Cox, 'Globalization and the Politics of Distribution: A Critical Assessment', in Kevin Cox (ed.), Spaces of Globalization: Reasserting the Power of the Local (New York, 1997); Anette Hastings, 'Unraveling the Process of "Partnership" in Urban Regeneration Policy', Urban Studies, 33, 2, 1996, pp. 253-268.
17. For case studies on post-socialist urban planning and central-local relations in particular, see James Alm & Robert M. Buckley, 'Decentralization, Privatization, and the Solvency of Local Governments in Reforming Economies: The Case of Budapest', Environment and Planning C: Government and Policy, 12, 1994, pp. 333-346; Robert Bennett, Local Government and Market Decentralization: Experiences in Industrialized, Developing and Former Eastern Bloc Countries (Tokyo, 1994); Robert M. Bird & Christopher Wallich, 'Local Finance and Economic Reform in Eastern Europe', Environment and Planning C: Government and Policy, 12, 1994, pp. 263-276; Marc Bonneville, 'Real Estate in Russia from Socialism to the Market Economy: The Case of St Petersburg', European Planning Studies, 4, 5, 1995, pp. 513-527; Wisla Surazska, 'Transition to Democracy and the Fragmentation of the City: Four Cases of Central European Capitals', Political Geography, 15, 5, 1996, pp. 365-381.
18. For case studies on post-socialist urban planning and central-local relations in particular, see James Alm & Robert M. Buckley, 'Decentralization, Privatization, and the Solvency of Local Governments in Reforming Economies: The Case of Budapest', Environment and Planning C: Government and Policy, 12, 1994, pp. 333-346; Robert Bennett, Local Government and Market Decentralization: Experiences in Industrialized, Developing and Former Eastern Bloc Countries (Tokyo, 1994); Robert M. Bird & Christopher Wallich, 'Local Finance and Economic Reform in Eastern Europe', Environment and Planning C: Government and Policy, 12, 1994, pp. 263-276; Marc Bonneville, 'Real Estate in Russia from Socialism to the Market Economy: The Case of St Petersburg', European Planning Studies, 4, 5, 1995, pp. 513-527; Wisla Surazska, 'Transition to Democracy and the Fragmentation of the City: Four Cases of Central European Capitals', Political Geography, 15, 5, 1996, pp. 365-381.
19. For case studies on post-socialist urban planning and central-local relations in particular, see James Alm & Robert M. Buckley, 'Decentralization, Privatization, and the Solvency of Local Governments in Reforming Economies: The Case of Budapest', Environment and Planning C: Government and Policy, 12, 1994, pp. 333-346; Robert Bennett, Local Government and Market Decentralization: Experiences in Industrialized, Developing and Former Eastern Bloc Countries (Tokyo, 1994); Robert M. Bird & Christopher Wallich, 'Local Finance and Economic Reform in Eastern Europe', Environment and Planning C: Government and Policy, 12, 1994, pp. 263-276; Marc Bonneville, 'Real Estate in Russia from Socialism to the Market Economy: The Case of St Petersburg', European Planning Studies, 4, 5, 1995, pp. 513-527; Wisla Surazska, 'Transition to Democracy and the Fragmentation of the City: Four Cases of Central European Capitals', Political Geography, 15, 5, 1996, pp. 365-381.
20. For case studies on post-socialist urban planning and central-local relations in particular, see James Alm & Robert M. Buckley, 'Decentralization, Privatization, and the Solvency of Local Governments in Reforming Economies: The Case of Budapest', Environment and Planning C: Government and Policy, 12, 1994, pp. 333-346; Robert Bennett, Local Government and Market Decentralization: Experiences in Industrialized, Developing and Former Eastern Bloc Countries (Tokyo, 1994); Robert M. Bird & Christopher Wallich, 'Local Finance and Economic Reform in Eastern Europe', Environment and Planning C: Government and Policy, 12, 1994, pp. 263-276; Marc Bonneville, 'Real Estate in Russia from Socialism to the Market Economy: The Case of St Petersburg', European Planning Studies, 4, 5, 1995, pp. 513-527; Wisla Surazska, 'Transition to Democracy and the Fragmentation of the City: Four Cases of Central European Capitals', Political Geography, 15, 5, 1996, pp. 365-381.
21. For case studies on post-socialist urban planning and central-local relations in particular, see James Alm & Robert M. Buckley, 'Decentralization, Privatization, and the Solvency of Local Governments in Reforming Economies: The Case of Budapest', Environment and Planning C: Government and Policy, 12, 1994, pp. 333-346; Robert Bennett, Local Government and Market Decentralization: Experiences in Industrialized, Developing and Former Eastern Bloc Countries (Tokyo, 1994); Robert M. Bird & Christopher Wallich, 'Local Finance and Economic Reform in Eastern Europe', Environment and Planning C: Government and Policy, 12, 1994, pp. 263-276; Marc Bonneville, 'Real Estate in Russia from Socialism to the Market Economy: The Case of St Petersburg', European Planning Studies, 4, 5, 1995, pp. 513-527; Wisla Surazska, 'Transition to Democracy and the Fragmentation of the City: Four Cases of Central European Capitals', Political Geography, 15, 5, 1996, pp. 365-381.
22. Michael Harloe, 'Cities in Transition', in Gregory Andrusz, Michael Harloe & Ivan Szelenyi (eds), Cities After Socialism: Urban and Regional Change and Conflict in Post-Socialist Societies (Oxford, 1996), p. 2.
23. For examples of this literature see Andrusz, Harloe & Szelenyi (eds), Cities; Gernot Grabher & David Stark (eds), Restructuring Networks in Post-Socialism: Legacies, Linkages and Localities (Oxford, 1996); Janos Matyas Kovacs (ed.), Transition to Capitalism?: The Communist Legacy of Eastern Europe (New Brunswick, NJ, 1994); John Pickles & Adrian Smith (eds), Theorizing Transition (London, 1998); David Stark & Lazlo Bruszt, Post-Socialist Pathways: Transforming Politics and Property in Eastern Europe (Cambridge, 1997); Alison C. Stenning, 'Economic Restructuring and Local Change in the Russian Federation', in Michael Bradshaw (ed.), Geography and Transition in the Post-Soviet Republics (London, 1997), pp. 122-147.
24. For examples of this literature see Andrusz, Harloe & Szelenyi (eds), Cities; Gernot Grabher & David Stark (eds), Restructuring Networks in Post-Socialism: Legacies, Linkages and Localities (Oxford, 1996); Janos Matyas Kovacs (ed.), Transition to Capitalism?: The Communist Legacy of Eastern Europe (New Brunswick, NJ, 1994); John Pickles & Adrian Smith (eds), Theorizing Transition (London, 1998); David Stark & Lazlo Bruszt, Post-Socialist Pathways: Transforming Politics and Property in Eastern Europe (Cambridge, 1997); Alison C. Stenning, 'Economic Restructuring and Local Change in the Russian Federation', in Michael Bradshaw (ed.), Geography and Transition in the Post-Soviet Republics (London, 1997), pp. 122-147.
25. For examples of this literature see Andrusz, Harloe & Szelenyi (eds), Cities; Gernot Grabher & David Stark (eds), Restructuring Networks in Post-Socialism: Legacies, Linkages and Localities (Oxford, 1996); Janos Matyas Kovacs (ed.), Transition to Capitalism?: The Communist Legacy of Eastern Europe (New Brunswick, NJ, 1994); John Pickles & Adrian Smith (eds), Theorizing Transition (London, 1998); David Stark & Lazlo Bruszt, Post-Socialist Pathways: Transforming Politics and Property in Eastern Europe (Cambridge, 1997); Alison C. Stenning, 'Economic Restructuring and Local Change in the Russian Federation', in Michael Bradshaw (ed.), Geography and Transition in the Post-Soviet Republics (London, 1997), pp. 122-147.
26. For examples of this literature see Andrusz, Harloe & Szelenyi (eds), Cities; Gernot Grabher & David Stark (eds), Restructuring Networks in Post-Socialism: Legacies, Linkages and Localities (Oxford, 1996); Janos Matyas Kovacs (ed.), Transition to Capitalism?: The Communist Legacy of Eastern Europe (New Brunswick, NJ, 1994); John Pickles & Adrian Smith (eds), Theorizing Transition (London, 1998); David Stark & Lazlo Bruszt, Post-Socialist Pathways: Transforming Politics and Property in Eastern Europe (Cambridge, 1997); Alison C. Stenning, 'Economic Restructuring and Local Change in the Russian Federation', in Michael Bradshaw (ed.), Geography and Transition in the Post-Soviet Republics (London, 1997), pp. 122-147.
27. For examples of this literature see Andrusz, Harloe & Szelenyi (eds), Cities; Gernot Grabher & David Stark (eds), Restructuring Networks in Post-Socialism: Legacies, Linkages and Localities (Oxford, 1996); Janos Matyas Kovacs (ed.), Transition to Capitalism?: The Communist Legacy of Eastern Europe (New Brunswick, NJ, 1994); John Pickles & Adrian Smith (eds), Theorizing Transition (London, 1998); David Stark & Lazlo Bruszt, Post-Socialist Pathways: Transforming Politics and Property in Eastern Europe (Cambridge, 1997); Alison C. Stenning, 'Economic Restructuring and Local Change in the Russian Federation', in Michael Bradshaw (ed.), Geography and Transition in the Post-Soviet Republics (London, 1997), pp. 122-147.
28. For examples of this literature see Andrusz, Harloe & Szelenyi (eds), Cities; Gernot Grabher & David Stark (eds), Restructuring Networks in Post-Socialism: Legacies, Linkages and Localities (Oxford, 1996); Janos Matyas Kovacs (ed.), Transition to Capitalism?: The Communist Legacy of Eastern Europe (New Brunswick, NJ, 1994); John Pickles & Adrian Smith (eds), Theorizing Transition (London, 1998); David Stark & Lazlo Bruszt, Post-Socialist Pathways: Transforming Politics and Property in Eastern Europe (Cambridge, 1997); Alison C. Stenning, 'Economic Restructuring and Local Change in the Russian Federation', in Michael Bradshaw (ed.), Geography and Transition in the Post-Soviet Republics (London, 1997), pp. 122-147.
29. Unless specified otherwise, the description of the situation focuses on 1996-97 as the key period of the waterfront regeneration project in Tallinn.
30. Estonian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Estonia Today, http://www.vm.ee/eng/estoday/1998/ 11brief.htm.
31. Marju Lauristin & Peeter Vihalemm, 'Recent Historical Developments in Estonia: Three Stages of Transition', in Marju Lauristin, Peeter Vihalemm, Karl-Erik Rosengren & Lars Weibull (eds), Return to the Western World: Cultural and Political Perspectives on The Estonian Post-Communist Transition (Tartu, 1997), p. 104.
32. Kinnisvaraekspert, Eesti kinnisvaraturu ülevaade (Tallinn, 1997).
33. Rein Ruutsoo, 'The Constitutionalization of States in the Baltic Corner', in Raimo Blom (ed.), Regulation and Institutionalisation in the Baltic States (Baltic-Nordic Project Research Reports, Series A: 27, Tampere, 1996), pp. 20-34.
34. Heimar Lenk, 'Maju tagastati valesti', Sõnumileht, 5 July 1998.
35. Eesti Vabariigi Keskkonnaministeerium. Eesti Tulevikuuuringute Instituut, Maailm ja Eesti. Tulevikutrendid (Tallinn and Tartu, 1996), p. 245.
36. The new masterplan was adopted in August 1999.
37. Financial Times, 'Estonia' (country survey), 24 February 1998.
38. The Canadian Urban Institute in particular has been leading a project (since 1994), funded by the Canadian government, aiming at increasing public participation in planning in Tallinn.
39. Estimates based on 1996 data on income per family member. Krista Loogma, 'Social-economic Stratification in Tallinn and Spatial Relocation of Residents of the City', in Martin Aberg & Michael Peterson (eds), The Baltic City: Perspectives on Urban and Regional Change in the Baltic Sea Area (Lund, 1997).
40. Fainstein, The City Builders, p. 284.
41. Clarence Stone, Regime Politics: Governing Atlanta 1946-1980 (Lawrence, KA, 1989), p. 234.
42. Restitution of property and land to those from whom it was alienated during the Soviet occupation is a major part of privatisation in Estonia. See also Erik Andre Andersen, 'The Legal Status of Russians in Estonian Privatisation Legislation 1989-1995', Europe-Asia Studies, 49, 2, 1997, pp. 303-316; Merje Feldman, 'Justice in Space? The Restitution of Property Rights in Tallinn, Estonia', Ecumene, 6, 2, 1999, pp. 165-182.
43. Restitution of property and land to those from whom it was alienated during the Soviet occupation is a major part of privatisation in Estonia. See also Erik Andre Andersen, 'The Legal Status of Russians in Estonian Privatisation Legislation 1989-1995', Europe-Asia Studies, 49, 2, 1997, pp. 303-316; Merje Feldman, 'Justice in Space? The Restitution of Property Rights in Tallinn, Estonia', Ecumene, 6, 2, 1999, pp. 165-182.
44. Tallinn City Government, Economic Profile (Tallinn, 1997), p. 53.
45. Tallinn City Government, Economic Profile; Tallinna Linnavalitsus, Tallinna arengukava 1994-1997 (Tallinn, 1994).
46. Tallinn City Government Economic Profile.
47. Ibid.
48. Olav Rand, 'Põhjaväil hoiab kesklinna autouputusest', Eesti Päevaleht, 22 November 1997.
49. Port of Tallinn, Annual Report (Tallinn, various years).
50. As a result of negotiations between the city government and the port, the development area was enlarged to 21 hectares later that year.
51. Marika Milve, Tallinna sadama-ala detailplaan on valmis', Eesti Päevaleht, 16 January 1997.
52. TSM Investeeringute AS, Kesklinna Sadama ümbruse maa-alal asetsevate endiste tootmishoonete renoveerimine, vabade alade hoonestamine ja heakorrastamine (Tallinn, 1997).
53. Marika Milve, 'Linnavalitsus kinnitas City detailplaneeringu', Eesti Päevaleht, 17 June 1997.
54. The Harju regional government has oversight over land municipalisation in Tallinn because the city of Tallinn municipality is administratively a part of the Harju region.
55. Rand, Põhjaväil
56. Brian S. Hoyle, David A. Pinder & Michael S. Hussain (eds), Revitalising the Waterfront: International Dimensions of Dockland Redevelopment (London, 1988); Patrick Malone (ed.), City, Capital and Water (London, 1996).
57. Brian S. Hoyle, David A. Pinder & Michael S. Hussain (eds), Revitalising the Waterfront: International Dimensions of Dockland Redevelopment (London, 1988); Patrick Malone (ed.), City, Capital and Water (London, 1996).
58. In 1998 and 1999 economic growth has slowed considerably (4% in 1998, 2-3% projected for 1999, Estonian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Estonia Today, 22 June 1999) and slowed the real estate market. Throughout the initial stage of the regeneration project, however, economic growth was very high.
59. Ash Amin & Nigel Thrift, 'Globalization, Institutional "Thickness" and the Local Economy', in Patsy Healey, Stuart Cameron, Simin Davoudi, Stephen Graham & Ali Madani-Pour (eds), Managing Cities: The New Urban Context (London, 1995), pp. 23-47.
60. Margit Mayer, 'Urban Governance in the Post-Fordist City', in Healey et al. (eds), Managing, p. 232.
61. The city hopes to receive financial assistance from the state for constructing the traffic artery (owing to its national importance as a major through route) but the state has not so far given any assurances.
62. Stone, Regime; Cynthia Horan & Andrew E. G. Jonas, 'Governing Massachusetts: Uneven Development and Politics in Metropolitan Boston', Economic Geography, 3, 1998, pp. 83-95.
63. Stone, Regime; Cynthia Horan & Andrew E. G. Jonas, 'Governing Massachusetts: Uneven Development and Politics in Metropolitan Boston', Economic Geography, 3, 1998, pp. 83-95.
64. Cf. Grabher & Stark (eds), Restructuring; Stark & Bruszt, Post-Socialist; Janine Wedel, Collision and Collusion: the Strange Case of Western Aid to Eastern Europe (New York, 1998).
65. Cf. Grabher & Stark (eds), Restructuring; Stark & Bruszt, Post-Socialist; Janine Wedel, Collision and Collusion: the Strange Case of Western Aid to Eastern Europe (New York, 1998).
66. Cf. Grabher & Stark (eds), Restructuring; Stark & Bruszt, Post-Socialist; Janine Wedel, Collision and Collusion: the Strange Case of Western Aid to Eastern Europe (New York, 1998).
67. Susan Fainstein, Norman Fainstein, R. C. Hill, Dennis Judd & Michael P. Smith, Restructuring the City: The Political Economy of Urban Redevelopment (New York, 1983); John R. Logan & Todd Swanstrom, Beyond the City Limits: Urban Policy and Economic Restructuring in a Comparative Perspective (Philadelphia, 1990); Stone, Regime
68. Susan Fainstein, Norman Fainstein, R. C. Hill, Dennis Judd & Michael P. Smith, Restructuring the City: The Political Economy of Urban Redevelopment (New York, 1983); John R. Logan & Todd Swanstrom, Beyond the City Limits: Urban Policy and Economic Restructuring in a Comparative Perspective (Philadelphia, 1990); Stone, Regime
69. Susan Fainstein, Norman Fainstein, R. C. Hill, Dennis Judd & Michael P. Smith, Restructuring the City: The Political Economy of Urban Redevelopment (New York, 1983); John R. Logan & Todd Swanstrom, Beyond the City Limits: Urban Policy and Economic Restructuring in a Comparative Perspective (Philadelphia, 1990); Stone, Regime
70. Larger-scale processes, such as European integration, also have an impact on urban regeneration and governance in Tallinn, but an investigation of the international environment of urban regeneration in Tallinn is beyond the scope of this article.
71. Helmut Wollmann, 'Institution Building and Decentralization in Formerly Socialist Countries: The Cases of Poland, Hungary and East Germany', Environment and Planning C: Government and Policy, 15, 4, 1997, pp. 463-480.
72. Chris Pickvance, 'Mediating Institutions in the Transition from State Socialism: The Case of Local Government', in Grabher & Stark (eds), Restructuring, pp. 305-323; Stark & Bruszt, Post Socialist
73. Chris Pickvance, 'Mediating Institutions in the Transition from State Socialism: The Case of Local Government', in Grabher & Stark (eds), Restructuring, pp. 305-323; Stark & Bruszt, Post Socialist