"Containment" on the home front: Race and federal housing policy from the new deal to the cold war

Journal of Urban History

Volumn 26, Issue 2, 2000, Pages 158-189

  Hirsch, Arnold R ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF NEW ORLEANS   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ETHNICITY; HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY; HOUSING POLICY; POLICY STRATEGY; TWENTIETH CENTURY;

UNITED STATES;

EID: 0033914925     PISSN: 00961442     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/009614420002600202     Document Type: Article

References (160)

1. Clipping from the Los Angeles Sentinel, December 29, 1938, Box 6, Folder: Restrictive Covenants, 1938-1948, Commissioner's Correspondence and Subject File, 1938-1958, Record Group (RG) 31, National Archives (NA) II.
2. U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, Report, 1959 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1959), 459.
3. Ibid., 459, 474-76.
4. Ibid., 462-65.
5. Ibid., 484, 486, 488.
6. Douglas S. Massey and Nancy A. Denton, American Apartheid: Segregation and the Making of the Underclass (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993), 17-114; Arnold R. Hirsch, "With or Without Jim Crow: Black Residential Segregation in the United States, "in Urban Policy in Twentieth-Century America, ed. Arnold R. Hirsch and Raymond A. Mohl (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1993), 65-99.
7. Douglas S. Massey and Nancy A. Denton, American Apartheid: Segregation and the Making of the Underclass (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993), 17-114; Arnold R. Hirsch, "With or Without Jim Crow: Black Residential Segregation in the United States, "in Urban Policy in Twentieth-Century America, ed. Arnold R. Hirsch and Raymond A. Mohl (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1993), 65-99.
8. For the concept of a second ghetto, see Arnold R. Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago, 1940-1960 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1983) and "Massive Resistance in the Urban North: Trumbull Park, Chicago, 1953-1966, "Journal of American History 82 (September 1995): 522-50; for its application, see Raymond A. Mohl, "Making the Second Ghetto in Metropolitan Miami, 1940-1960, "Journal of Urban History 21 (March 1995): 395-427 and "The Second Ghetto and the 'Infiltration Theory' in Urban Real Estate, 1940-1960, "in Urban Planning and the African American Community: In the Shadows, ed. June Manning Thomas and Marsha Ritzdorf (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1997), 58-74; Charles F. Casey-Leininger, "Making the Second Ghetto in Cincinnati: Avondale, 1925-1970, "in Race and the City: Work, Community, and Protest in Cincinnati, 1820-1970, ed. Henry Louis Taylor (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1993), 232-57; see also Thomas J. Sugrue, The Origins of the Urban Crisis: Race and Inequality in Postwar Detroit (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996) and John F. Bauman, Public Housing, Race, and Renewal: Urban Planning in Philadelphia, 1920-1970 (Philadelphia: Temple Universtiy Press, 1987).
9. For the concept of a second ghetto, see Arnold R. Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago, 1940-1960 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1983) and "Massive Resistance in the Urban North: Trumbull Park, Chicago, 1953-1966, "Journal of American History 82 (September 1995): 522-50; for its application, see Raymond A. Mohl, "Making the Second Ghetto in Metropolitan Miami, 1940-1960, "Journal of Urban History 21 (March 1995): 395-427 and "The Second Ghetto and the 'Infiltration Theory' in Urban Real Estate, 1940-1960, "in Urban Planning and the African American Community: In the Shadows, ed. June Manning Thomas and Marsha Ritzdorf (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1997), 58-74; Charles F. Casey-Leininger, "Making the Second Ghetto in Cincinnati: Avondale, 1925-1970, "in Race and the City: Work, Community, and Protest in Cincinnati, 1820-1970, ed. Henry Louis Taylor (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1993), 232-57; see also Thomas J. Sugrue, The Origins of the Urban Crisis: Race and Inequality in Postwar Detroit (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996) and John F. Bauman, Public Housing, Race, and Renewal: Urban Planning in Philadelphia, 1920-1970 (Philadelphia: Temple Universtiy Press, 1987).
10. For the concept of a second ghetto, see Arnold R. Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago, 1940-1960 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1983) and "Massive Resistance in the Urban North: Trumbull Park, Chicago, 1953-1966, "Journal of American History 82 (September 1995): 522-50; for its application, see Raymond A. Mohl, "Making the Second Ghetto in Metropolitan Miami, 1940-1960, "Journal of Urban History 21 (March 1995): 395-427 and "The Second Ghetto and the 'Infiltration Theory' in Urban Real Estate, 1940-1960, "in Urban Planning and the African American Community: In the Shadows, ed. June Manning Thomas and Marsha Ritzdorf (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1997), 58-74; Charles F. Casey-Leininger, "Making the Second Ghetto in Cincinnati: Avondale, 1925-1970, "in Race and the City: Work, Community, and Protest in Cincinnati, 1820-1970, ed. Henry Louis Taylor (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1993), 232-57; see also Thomas J. Sugrue, The Origins of the Urban Crisis: Race and Inequality in Postwar Detroit (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996) and John F. Bauman, Public Housing, Race, and Renewal: Urban Planning in Philadelphia, 1920-1970 (Philadelphia: Temple Universtiy Press, 1987).
11. For the concept of a second ghetto, see Arnold R. Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago, 1940-1960 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1983) and "Massive Resistance in the Urban North: Trumbull Park, Chicago, 1953-1966, "Journal of American History 82 (September 1995): 522-50; for its application, see Raymond A. Mohl, "Making the Second Ghetto in Metropolitan Miami, 1940-1960, "Journal of Urban History 21 (March 1995): 395-427 and "The Second Ghetto and the 'Infiltration Theory' in Urban Real Estate, 1940-1960, "in Urban Planning and the African American Community: In the Shadows, ed. June Manning Thomas and Marsha Ritzdorf (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1997), 58-74; Charles F. Casey-Leininger, "Making the Second Ghetto in Cincinnati: Avondale, 1925-1970, "in Race and the City: Work, Community, and Protest in Cincinnati, 1820-1970, ed. Henry Louis Taylor (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1993), 232-57; see also Thomas J. Sugrue, The Origins of the Urban Crisis: Race and Inequality in Postwar Detroit (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996) and John F. Bauman, Public Housing, Race, and Renewal: Urban Planning in Philadelphia, 1920-1970 (Philadelphia: Temple Universtiy Press, 1987).
12. For the concept of a second ghetto, see Arnold R. Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago, 1940-1960 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1983) and "Massive Resistance in the Urban North: Trumbull Park, Chicago, 1953-1966, "Journal of American History 82 (September 1995): 522-50; for its application, see Raymond A. Mohl, "Making the Second Ghetto in Metropolitan Miami, 1940-1960, "Journal of Urban History 21 (March 1995): 395-427 and "The Second Ghetto and the 'Infiltration Theory' in Urban Real Estate, 1940-1960, "in Urban Planning and the African American Community: In the Shadows, ed. June Manning Thomas and Marsha Ritzdorf (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1997), 58-74; Charles F. Casey-Leininger, "Making the Second Ghetto in Cincinnati: Avondale, 1925-1970, "in Race and the City: Work, Community, and Protest in Cincinnati, 1820-1970, ed. Henry Louis Taylor (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1993), 232-57; see also Thomas J. Sugrue, The Origins of the Urban Crisis: Race and Inequality in Postwar Detroit (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996) and John F. Bauman, Public Housing, Race, and Renewal: Urban Planning in Philadelphia, 1920-1970 (Philadelphia: Temple Universtiy Press, 1987).
13. For the concept of a second ghetto, see Arnold R. Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago, 1940-1960 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1983) and "Massive Resistance in the Urban North: Trumbull Park, Chicago, 1953-1966, "Journal of American History 82 (September 1995): 522-50; for its application, see Raymond A. Mohl, "Making the Second Ghetto in Metropolitan Miami, 1940-1960, "Journal of Urban History 21 (March 1995): 395-427 and "The Second Ghetto and the 'Infiltration Theory' in Urban Real Estate, 1940-1960, "in Urban Planning and the African American Community: In the Shadows, ed. June Manning Thomas and Marsha Ritzdorf (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1997), 58-74; Charles F. Casey-Leininger, "Making the Second Ghetto in Cincinnati: Avondale, 1925-1970, "in Race and the City: Work, Community, and Protest in Cincinnati, 1820-1970, ed. Henry Louis Taylor (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1993), 232-57; see also Thomas J. Sugrue, The Origins of the Urban Crisis: Race and Inequality in Postwar Detroit (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996) and John F. Bauman, Public Housing, Race, and Renewal: Urban Planning in Philadelphia, 1920-1970 (Philadelphia: Temple Universtiy Press, 1987).
14. For the concept of a second ghetto, see Arnold R. Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago, 1940-1960 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1983) and "Massive Resistance in the Urban North: Trumbull Park, Chicago, 1953-1966, "Journal of American History 82 (September 1995): 522-50; for its application, see Raymond A. Mohl, "Making the Second Ghetto in Metropolitan Miami, 1940-1960, "Journal of Urban History 21 (March 1995): 395-427 and "The Second Ghetto and the 'Infiltration Theory' in Urban Real Estate, 1940-1960, "in Urban Planning and the African American Community: In the Shadows, ed. June Manning Thomas and Marsha Ritzdorf (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1997), 58-74; Charles F. Casey-Leininger, "Making the Second Ghetto in Cincinnati: Avondale, 1925-1970, "in Race and the City: Work, Community, and Protest in Cincinnati, 1820-1970, ed. Henry Louis Taylor (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1993), 232-57; see also Thomas J. Sugrue, The Origins of the Urban Crisis: Race and Inequality in Postwar Detroit (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996) and John F. Bauman, Public Housing, Race, and Renewal: Urban Planning in Philadelphia, 1920-1970 (Philadelphia: Temple Universtiy Press, 1987).
15. See, especially, Clement E. Vose, Caucasians Only: The Supreme Court, the NAACP, and the Restrictive Covenant Cases (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1959).
16. Kenneth T. Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United States (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985); Gail Radford, Modern Housing for America: Policy Struggles in the New Deal Era (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996). For the second Great Migration, see Nicholas Lemann, The Promised Land: The Great Black Migration and How It Changed America (New York: Knopf, 1991).
17. Kenneth T. Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United States (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985); Gail Radford, Modern Housing for America: Policy Struggles in the New Deal Era (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996). For the second Great Migration, see Nicholas Lemann, The Promised Land: The Great Black Migration and How It Changed America (New York: Knopf, 1991).
18. Kenneth T. Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United States (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985); Gail Radford, Modern Housing for America: Policy Struggles in the New Deal Era (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996). For the second Great Migration, see Nicholas Lemann, The Promised Land: The Great Black Migration and How It Changed America (New York: Knopf, 1991).
19. For the revolution in homeownership, see Ronald Tobey, Charles Wetherell, and Jay Brigham, "Moving out and Settling in: Residential Mobility, Home Owning, and the Public Enframing of Citizenship, 1921-1950, "American Historical Review 95 (December 1990): 1395-1422; for the appearance of "homeowner's rights, "see Thomas J. Sugrue, "Crabgrass-Roots Politics: Race, Rights, and the Reaction against Liberalism in the Urban North, 1940-1964, "Journal of American History 82 (September 1995): 551-78, and Origins of the Urban Crisis, 218-19. See also Lizabeth Cohen, Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919-1939 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 274.
20. For the revolution in homeownership, see Ronald Tobey, Charles Wetherell, and Jay Brigham, "Moving out and Settling in: Residential Mobility, Home Owning, and the Public Enframing of Citizenship, 1921-1950, "American Historical Review 95 (December 1990): 1395-1422; for the appearance of "homeowner's rights, "see Thomas J. Sugrue, "Crabgrass-Roots Politics: Race, Rights, and the Reaction against Liberalism in the Urban North, 1940-1964, "Journal of American History 82 (September 1995): 551-78, and Origins of the Urban Crisis, 218-19. See also Lizabeth Cohen, Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919-1939 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 274.
21. For the revolution in homeownership, see Ronald Tobey, Charles Wetherell, and Jay Brigham, "Moving out and Settling in: Residential Mobility, Home Owning, and the Public Enframing of Citizenship, 1921-1950, "American Historical Review 95 (December 1990): 1395-1422; for the appearance of "homeowner's rights, "see Thomas J. Sugrue, "Crabgrass-Roots Politics: Race, Rights, and the Reaction against Liberalism in the Urban North, 1940-1964, "Journal of American History 82 (September 1995): 551-78, and Origins of the Urban Crisis, 218-19. See also Lizabeth Cohen, Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919-1939 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 274.
22. For the revolution in homeownership, see Ronald Tobey, Charles Wetherell, and Jay Brigham, "Moving out and Settling in: Residential Mobility, Home Owning, and the Public Enframing of Citizenship, 1921-1950, "American Historical Review 95 (December 1990): 1395-1422; for the appearance of "homeowner's rights, "see Thomas J. Sugrue, "Crabgrass-Roots Politics: Race, Rights, and the Reaction against Liberalism in the Urban North, 1940-1964, "Journal of American History 82 (September 1995): 551-78, and Origins of the Urban Crisis, 218-19. See also Lizabeth Cohen, Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919-1939 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 274.
23. "The Development of Coordination in National Housing Policy and Programs" (typescript, n.a., n.d.), Box 20, Folder 1, Subject Correspondence File, Albert M. Cole, Administrator, 1953-1958, RG 207, NA II.
24. Ibid., 18.
25. Public Housing Administration (PHA), "The Negro in Public Housing, 1933-1953: Problems and Accomplishments" (typescript, May 1954), Box 1, Folder 4, RG 196, NA II; "Minority Group Considerations in Administration of Governmental Housing Programs, "attached to Frank S. Horne to Operating Staff of HHFA [Housing and Home Finance Agency] and Constituents, [July 1947], Box 9, Folder 3, RG 196; Robert C. Weaver, The Negro Ghetto (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1948), 75-76; Desmond King, Separate and Unequal: Black Americans and the U.S. Federal Government (Oxford, UK: Clarendon, 1995), 190.
26. Public Housing Administration (PHA), "The Negro in Public Housing, 1933-1953: Problems and Accomplishments" (typescript, May 1954), Box 1, Folder 4, RG 196, NA II; "Minority Group Considerations in Administration of Governmental Housing Programs, "attached to Frank S. Horne to Operating Staff of HHFA [Housing and Home Finance Agency] and Constituents, [July 1947], Box 9, Folder 3, RG 196; Robert C. Weaver, The Negro Ghetto (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1948), 75-76; Desmond King, Separate and Unequal: Black Americans and the U.S. Federal Government (Oxford, UK: Clarendon, 1995), 190.
27. Public Housing Administration (PHA), "The Negro in Public Housing, 1933-1953: Problems and Accomplishments" (typescript, May 1954), Box 1, Folder 4, RG 196, NA II; "Minority Group Considerations in Administration of Governmental Housing Programs, "attached to Frank S. Horne to Operating Staff of HHFA [Housing and Home Finance Agency] and Constituents, [July 1947], Box 9, Folder 3, RG 196; Robert C. Weaver, The Negro Ghetto (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1948), 75-76; Desmond King, Separate and Unequal: Black Americans and the U.S. Federal Government (Oxford, UK: Clarendon, 1995), 190.
28. Public Housing Administration (PHA), "The Negro in Public Housing, 1933-1953: Problems and Accomplishments" (typescript, May 1954), Box 1, Folder 4, RG 196, NA II; "Minority Group Considerations in Administration of Governmental Housing Programs, "attached to Frank S. Horne to Operating Staff of HHFA [Housing and Home Finance Agency] and Constituents, [July 1947], Box 9, Folder 3, RG 196; Robert C. Weaver, The Negro Ghetto (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1948), 75-76; Desmond King, Separate and Unequal: Black Americans and the U.S. Federal Government (Oxford, UK: Clarendon, 1995), 190.
29. Weaver, The Negro Ghetto, 177.
30. PHA, "The Negro in Public Housing, "56. See also Dominic J. Capeci Jr., Race Relations in War-time Detroit: The Sojourner Truth Housing Controversy of 1942 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1984).
31. PHA, "The Negro in Public Housing, "56. See also Dominic J. Capeci Jr., Race Relations in War-time Detroit: The Sojourner Truth Housing Controversy of 1942 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1984).
32. "Minority Group Considerations, "26.
33. Richard O. Davies, Housing Reform during the Truman Administration (Columbia: Missouri University Press, 1966), 123-24.
34. George W. Snowden to Norman P. Mason, June 25, 1954, Box 3, Folder: Minority Group Housing, General, 1954, Program Correspondence of the Assistant Commissioner for Operations, 1936-1956, RG 31, NA II.
35. Weaver, The Negro Ghetto, 70, 143-47, 220.
36. Walter White to Mr. President, October 28, 1944, and the attached NAACP Memorandum, "Concerning the Present Discriminatory Policies of the Federal Housing Administration, "n.d., both in Box 6, Folder: Restrictive Covenants, 1938-1948, Commissioner's Correspondence and Subject File, 1938-1958, RG 31; Gunnar Myrdal, An American Dilemma, vol. 1 (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1944), 349, 625; Richard Sterner et al., The Negro's Share: A Study of Income, Consumption, Housing, and Public Assistance (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1943), 315-16; Weaver, The Negro Ghetto, 70-73.
37. Walter White to Mr. President, October 28, 1944, and the attached NAACP Memorandum, "Concerning the Present Discriminatory Policies of the Federal Housing Administration, "n.d., both in Box 6, Folder: Restrictive Covenants, 1938-1948, Commissioner's Correspondence and Subject File, 1938-1958, RG 31; Gunnar Myrdal, An American Dilemma, vol. 1 (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1944), 349, 625; Richard Sterner et al., The Negro's Share: A Study of Income, Consumption, Housing, and Public Assistance (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1943), 315-16; Weaver, The Negro Ghetto, 70-73.
38. Walter White to Mr. President, October 28, 1944, and the attached NAACP Memorandum, "Concerning the Present Discriminatory Policies of the Federal Housing Administration, "n.d., both in Box 6, Folder: Restrictive Covenants, 1938-1948, Commissioner's Correspondence and Subject File, 1938-1958, RG 31; Gunnar Myrdal, An American Dilemma, vol. 1 (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1944), 349, 625; Richard Sterner et al., The Negro's Share: A Study of Income, Consumption, Housing, and Public Assistance (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1943), 315-16; Weaver, The Negro Ghetto, 70-73.
39. Walter White to Mr. President, October 28, 1944, and the attached NAACP Memorandum, "Concerning the Present Discriminatory Policies of the Federal Housing Administration, "n.d., both in Box 6, Folder: Restrictive Covenants, 1938-1948, Commissioner's Correspondence and Subject File, 1938-1958, RG 31; Gunnar Myrdal, An American Dilemma, vol. 1 (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1944), 349, 625; Richard Sterner et al., The Negro's Share: A Study of Income, Consumption, Housing, and Public Assistance (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1943), 315-16; Weaver, The Negro Ghetto, 70-73.
40. Curt C. Mack to Mr. E. S. Draper, November 23, 1944, Box 6, Folder: Restrictive Covenants, 1938-1948, Commissioner's Correspondence and Subject File, 1938-1958, RG 31; [?] to Walter White, December 29, 1944, and the attached "Memorandum Prepared by the Federal Housing Administration, "(n.d.), Box 4, Folder: Minority Group Housing, 1938-1947, Commissioner's Correspondence and Subject File, 1938-1958, RG 31.
41. Curt C. Mack to Mr. E. S. Draper, November 23, 1944, Box 6, Folder: Restrictive Covenants, 1938-1948, Commissioner's Correspondence and Subject File, 1938-1958, RG 31; [?] to Walter White, December 29, 1944, and the attached "Memorandum Prepared by the Federal Housing Administration, "(n.d.), Box 4, Folder: Minority Group Housing, 1938-1947, Commissioner's Correspondence and Subject File, 1938-1958, RG 31.
42. B. C. Bovard to Walter Greene, November 29, 1944, and Raymond M. Foley to John A. Sheridan, November 24 1944, both in Box 6, Folder: Restrictive Covenants, 1938-1948, Commissioner's Correspondence and Subject File, 1938-1958, RG 31.
43. Davies, Housing Reform, 60-63.
44. Raymond M. Foley to William K. Divers, May 18, 1948, and Franklin D. Richards to Raymond M. Foley, May 21, 1948, both in Reel 5, NAACP Papers, Part 5: The Campaign against Residential Segregation (University Publications of America).
45. Franklin D. Richards to Raymond M. Foley, February 14, 1949, Box 6, Folder: Restrictive Covenants, 1949, Commissioner's Correspondence and Subject File, 1938-1958, RG 31.
46. Frank S. Horne to Raymond M. Foley, n.d., Reel 5, NAACP Papers, Part 5: The Campaign against Residential Segregation.
47. Frank [Horne] to Walter [White], July 20, 1948, Reel 5, NAACP Papers, Part 5: The Campaign against Residential Segregation.
48. Walter White to Mr. President, February 1, 1949, and the attached "Memorandum to the President of the United States Concerning Racial Discrimination by the Federal Housing Administration"; Philip B. Perlman to David K. Niles, July 7, 1949, all in Box 6, Folder: Restrictive Covenants, 1949, Commissioner's Correspondence and Subject File, 1938-1958, RG 31.
49. Walter White to Mr. President, February 1, 1949, and the attached "Memorandum to the President of the United States Concerning Racial Discrimination by the Federal Housing Administration"; Philip B. Perlman to David K. Niles, July 7, 1949, all in Box 6, Folder: Restrictive Covenants, 1949, Commissioner's Correspondence and Subject File, 1938-1958, RG 31.
50. "Statement by Solicitor General Philip B. Perlman at Luncheon Session of State-Wide Conference of New York State Committee on Discrimination in Housing, Hotel Martinique, 32nd Street, Broadway, Friday, December 2, 1949 at 1 P.M., "Box 6, Folder: Restrictive Covenants, 1949, Commissioner's Correspondence and Subject File, 1938-1958, RG 31; Federal Housing Administration (FHA), Press Release, December 16, 1949, Box 4, Folder 5, RG 196.
51. "Statement by Solicitor General Philip B. Perlman at Luncheon Session of State-Wide Conference of New York State Committee on Discrimination in Housing, Hotel Martinique, 32nd Street, Broadway, Friday, December 2, 1949 at 1 P.M., "Box 6, Folder: Restrictive Covenants, 1949, Commissioner's Correspondence and Subject File, 1938-1958, RG 31; Federal Housing Administration (FHA), Press Release, December 16, 1949, Box 4, Folder 5, RG 196.
52. FHA, Press Release, December 3, 1949, Box 4, Folder 5, RG 31; Walter L. Greene to Charles F. Crisp, December 22, 1949, and FHA, "Minutes - 231st Meeting Executive Board - December 5, 1949, both in Box 6, Folder: Restrictive Covenants, 1949, Commissioner's Correspondence and Subject File, 1938-1958, RG 31; Abraham J. Multer Jr. to Walter L. Greene, September 4, 1951, and Walter L. Greene to Honorable Abraham J. Multer, September 11, 1951, both in Box 6, Folder: Racial Restrictive Covenants, 1950-1953, Commissioner's Correspondence and Subject File, 1938-1958, RG 31.
53. FHA, Press Release, December 3, 1949, Box 4, Folder 5, RG 31; Walter L. Greene to Charles F. Crisp, December 22, 1949, and FHA, "Minutes - 231st Meeting Executive Board - December 5, 1949, both in Box 6, Folder: Restrictive Covenants, 1949, Commissioner's Correspondence and Subject File, 1938-1958, RG 31; Abraham J. Multer Jr. to Walter L. Greene, September 4, 1951, and Walter L. Greene to Honorable Abraham J. Multer, September 11, 1951, both in Box 6, Folder: Racial Restrictive Covenants, 1950-1953, Commissioner's Correspondence and Subject File, 1938-1958, RG 31.
54. FHA, Press Release, December 3, 1949, Box 4, Folder 5, RG 31; Walter L. Greene to Charles F. Crisp, December 22, 1949, and FHA, "Minutes - 231st Meeting Executive Board - December 5, 1949, both in Box 6, Folder: Restrictive Covenants, 1949, Commissioner's Correspondence and Subject File, 1938-1958, RG 31; Abraham J. Multer Jr. to Walter L. Greene, September 4, 1951, and Walter L. Greene to Honorable Abraham J. Multer, September 11, 1951, both in Box 6, Folder: Racial Restrictive Covenants, 1950-1953, Commissioner's Correspondence and Subject File, 1938-1958, RG 31.
55. Thurgood Marshall to Franklin D. Richards, December 7 and 22, 1949, both in Box 6, Folder: Restrictive Covenants, 1949, Commissioner's Correspondence and Subject File, 1938-1958, RG 31.
56. New York Times, April 15, 1949, p. 15 and April 22, 1949, p. 1; Richard O. Davies, Defender of the Old Guard: John Bricker and American Politics (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1993), 137-38; Davies, Housing Reform, 107-8.
57. New York Times, April 15, 1949, p. 15 and April 22, 1949, p. 1; Richard O. Davies, Defender of the Old Guard: John Bricker and American Politics (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1993), 137-38; Davies, Housing Reform, 107-8.
58. New York Times, April 15, 1949, p. 15 and April 22, 1949, p. 1; Richard O. Davies, Defender of the Old Guard: John Bricker and American Politics (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1993), 137-38; Davies, Housing Reform, 107-8.
59. Weaver, The Negro Ghetto, 6, 324, 361n.
60. Frank S. Horne to Raymond M. Foley, June 3, 1949, Box 748, Folder 7, Program Files - Racial Relations Files, RG 207.
61. "Speech of Clarence Mitchell, "Box 269, Folder 11, General Subject Files, 1949-1960, RG 207, 3-4; Horne to Foley, December 18, 1951; George B. Nesbitt to N. S. Keith, August 30, 1951, Box 269, Folder 11, General Subject Files, 1949-1960, RG 207.
62. "Speech of Clarence Mitchell, "Box 269, Folder 11, General Subject Files, 1949-1960, RG 207, 3-4; Horne to Foley, December 18, 1951; George B. Nesbitt to N. S. Keith, August 30, 1951, Box 269, Folder 11, General Subject Files, 1949-1960, RG 207.
63. "Speech of Clarence Mitchell, "Box 269, Folder 11, General Subject Files, 1949-1960, RG 207, 3-4; Horne to Foley, December 18, 1951; George B. Nesbitt to N. S. Keith, August 30, 1951, Box 269, Folder 11, General Subject Files, 1949-1960, RG 207.
64. Nesbitt to Keith, August 30, 1951.
65. Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto.
66. Robert C. Weaver to Raymond Foley, February 6, 1951, Box 53, Folder, Racial Relations, HHFA General Subject Files, 1947-1960, RG 207; George B. Nesbitt to C. L. Farris, August 3, 1950, Box 749, Folder 3, Program Files-Racial Relations Files, 1946-1958, RG 207.
67. Robert C. Weaver to Raymond Foley, February 6, 1951, Box 53, Folder, Racial Relations, HHFA General Subject Files, 1947-1960, RG 207; George B. Nesbitt to C. L. Farris, August 3, 1950, Box 749, Folder 3, Program Files-Racial Relations Files, 1946-1958, RG 207.
68. Weaver to Foley, February 6, 1951.
69. Ibid. and Robert C. Weaver to Raymond Foley, September 7, 1951, Box 4, Folder 7, Commissioner's Correspondence and Subject Files, 1938-1958, RG 31.
70. Walter White to Mr. Foley, January 30, 1951; John Taylor Egan to Raymond M. Foley, February 8, 1951; Frank Horne to Neal J. Hardy, February 2 1951, all in Box 53, Folder, Racial Relations, HHFA General Subject Files, 1947-1960, RG 207.
71. Frank S. Horne to the Administrator, July 27, 1951, Box 53, Folder, Racial Relations, HHFA General Subject Files, 1947-1960, RG 207. See also Nesbitt to Farris, August 3, 1950.
72. Raymond M. Foley to Honorable Martin H. Kennelly, October 18, 1951, and Frank S. Horne to Raymond M. Foley, October 20, 1951, both in Box 53, Folder, Racial Relations, HHFA General Subject Files, 1947-1960, RG 207; George B. Nesbitt to N. S. Keith, November 8, 1951, Box 269, Folder 11, General Subject Files, 1949-1960, RG 207; Martin Meyerson and Edward C. Banfield, Politics, Planning, and the Public Interest (New York: Free Press, 1955). See Meyerson and Banfield, Politics, Planning, 208n.
73. Raymond M. Foley to Honorable Martin H. Kennelly, October 18, 1951, and Frank S. Horne to Raymond M. Foley, October 20, 1951, both in Box 53, Folder, Racial Relations, HHFA General Subject Files, 1947-1960, RG 207; George B. Nesbitt to N. S. Keith, November 8, 1951, Box 269, Folder 11, General Subject Files, 1949-1960, RG 207; Martin Meyerson and Edward C. Banfield, Politics, Planning, and the Public Interest (New York: Free Press, 1955). See Meyerson and Banfield, Politics, Planning, 208n.
74. Raymond M. Foley to Honorable Martin H. Kennelly, October 18, 1951, and Frank S. Horne to Raymond M. Foley, October 20, 1951, both in Box 53, Folder, Racial Relations, HHFA General Subject Files, 1947-1960, RG 207; George B. Nesbitt to N. S. Keith, November 8, 1951, Box 269, Folder 11, General Subject Files, 1949-1960, RG 207; Martin Meyerson and Edward C. Banfield, Politics, Planning, and the Public Interest (New York: Free Press, 1955). See Meyerson and Banfield, Politics, Planning, 208n.
75. Raymond M. Foley to Honorable Martin H. Kennelly, October 18, 1951, and Frank S. Horne to Raymond M. Foley, October 20, 1951, both in Box 53, Folder, Racial Relations, HHFA General Subject Files, 1947-1960, RG 207; George B. Nesbitt to N. S. Keith, November 8, 1951, Box 269, Folder 11, General Subject Files, 1949-1960, RG 207; Martin Meyerson and Edward C. Banfield, Politics, Planning, and the Public Interest (New York: Free Press, 1955). See Meyerson and Banfield, Politics, Planning, 208n.
76. Robert C. Weaver to Raymond M. Foley, December 4, 1952, Box 75, Folder 3, HHFA Subject Files, 1947-1960, RG 207; Foley to Weaver, December 11, 1952, Box 75, Folder 3, HHFA Subject Files, 1947-1960, RG 207.
77. Robert C. Weaver to Raymond M. Foley, December 4, 1952, Box 75, Folder 3, HHFA Subject Files, 1947-1960, RG 207; Foley to Weaver, December 11, 1952, Box 75, Folder 3, HHFA Subject Files, 1947-1960, RG 207.
78. Raymond M. Foley to Honorable Homer E. Capehart, January 15, 1953, Box 75, Folder 3, HHFA Subject Files, 1947-1960, RG 207.
79. Frank S. Horne to B. T. Fitzpatrick, January 13, 1953, Box 75, Folder 3, HHFA Subject Files, 1947-1960, RG 207.
80. Ibid.; Clarence R. Johnson to Corienne R. Morrow, June 17, 1953, Box 4, Folder 1, RG 196; Corienne R. Morrow to All Field Office Racial Relations Officers, February 10, 1953, Box 3, Folder 4, RG 196. Locally, public housing staff occasionally followed the impulse to desegregate, with explosive results, as at the Trumbull Park Homes in Chicago in 1953. See Hirsch, "Massive Resistance in the Urban North."
81. Ibid.; Clarence R. Johnson to Corienne R. Morrow, June 17, 1953, Box 4, Folder 1, RG 196; Corienne R. Morrow to All Field Office Racial Relations Officers, February 10, 1953, Box 3, Folder 4, RG 196. Locally, public housing staff occasionally followed the impulse to desegregate, with explosive results, as at the Trumbull Park Homes in Chicago in 1953. See Hirsch, "Massive Resistance in the Urban North."
82. Hortense W. Gabel to Raymond M. Foley, February 26, 1953, Box 75, Folder 3, HHFA Subject Files, RG 207.
83. Raymond M. Foley to Hortense W. Gabel, March 6, 1953, Box 75, Folder 3, HHFA Subject Files, RG 207.
84. "Statement of Clarence Mitchell, "March 2, 1953, and R[obert] W[eaver?] to W[alter] W[hite], February 18, 1953, both in Reel 6, NAACP Papers, Part 5: The Campaign Against Residential Segregation
85. "The New Housing Administrator, "(typescript, March 2, 1953), 1-2, and NAACP, Press Release, March 5, 1953, both on Reel 6, NAACP Papers, Part 5: The Campaign against Residential Segregation. In questioning Cole, Senator Maybank noted, "As a practical matter, in the city of Charleston, there was very little segregation in housing until the Federal Government came in there with its programs, FHA, PHA, and all the others, and followed what its representatives thought was the custom and law in that community."
86. Clarence Mitchell to Albert M. Cole, May 28, 1953, and Frank S. Horne to Albert M. Cole, June 18, 1953, both in Box 75, Folder 3, HHFA Subject Files, 1947-1960, RG 207; Clarence Mitchell to Albert M. Cole, February 12, 1954, in Box 96, Folder 2, HHFA Subject Files, 1947-1960, RG 207.
87. Clarence Mitchell to Albert M. Cole, May 28, 1953, and Frank S. Horne to Albert M. Cole, June 18, 1953, both in Box 75, Folder 3, HHFA Subject Files, 1947-1960, RG 207; Clarence Mitchell to Albert M. Cole, February 12, 1954, in Box 96, Folder 2, HHFA Subject Files, 1947-1960, RG 207.
88. J. W. Follin to Albert M. Cole, September 14, 1953, Box 20, Folder: Urban Renewal Administration, Subject Correspondence Files, Albert Cole, Administrator, 1953-1958, RG 207. Christopher Macgregor Scribner, "Federal Funding, Urban Renewal, and Race Relations: Birmingham in Transition, 1945-1955, "Alabama Review 48 (October 1995): 269-95.
89. J. W. Follin to Albert M. Cole, September 14, 1953, Box 20, Folder: Urban Renewal Administration, Subject Correspondence Files, Albert Cole, Administrator, 1953-1958, RG 207. Christopher Macgregor Scribner, "Federal Funding, Urban Renewal, and Race Relations: Birmingham in Transition, 1945-1955, "Alabama Review 48 (October 1995): 269-95.
90. B. T. Fitzpatrick to Mr. Cole, June 10, 1954, Box 20, Folder 5, Subject Correspondence Files, Albert Cole, Administrator, 1953-1958, RG 207; Joseph Guandolo to J. W. Follin, August 24, 1954, and J. W. Follin to Albert M. Cole, May 28, 1954, both in Box 284, Folder: Racial Relations, General Subject Files, 1949-1960, RG 207.
91. B. T. Fitzpatrick to Mr. Cole, June 10, 1954, Box 20, Folder 5, Subject Correspondence Files, Albert Cole, Administrator, 1953-1958, RG 207; Joseph Guandolo to J. W. Follin, August 24, 1954, and J. W. Follin to Albert M. Cole, May 28, 1954, both in Box 284, Folder: Racial Relations, General Subject Files, 1949-1960, RG 207.
92. Joseph R. Ray to Albert M. Cole, July 14, 1954, Box 96, Folder: Racial Relations, General Subject Files, 1947-1960, RG 207.
93. Frank S. Horne to Albert M. Cole, June 29, 1954, Box 748, Folder 1, Program Files, Racial Relations Files, 1946-1958, RG 207. See also the attached "Observations Regarding Implications of Decisions of the U.S. Supreme Court for HHFA Programs and Policies."
94. Frank S. Horne to Albert M. Cole, June 29, 1954, Box 748, Folder 1, Program Files, Racial Relations Files, 1946-1958, RG 207. See also the attached "Observations Regarding Implications of Decisions of the U.S. Supreme Court for HHFA Programs and Policies."
95. Frank S. Horne to Albert M. Cole, August 12, 1954, Box 96, Folder: Racial Relations, General Subject Files, 1947-1960, RG 207.
96. "Address by Albert M. Cole at the Luncheon Meeting of the National Urban League, Pittsburgh, PA, September 8, 1954, "4-5, in Reel 6, NAACP Papers, Part 5: The Campaign against Residential Segregation.
97. Ibid.; Norman P. Mason to Directors of All Field Offices, March 30, 1955, Box 4, Folder 5, RG 196.
98. Ibid.; Norman P. Mason to Directors of All Field Offices, March 30, 1955, Box 4, Folder 5, RG 196.
99. Maxwell Rabb to Robert W. Dowling, October 28, 1954, Box 96, Folder: Racial Relations, General Subject Files, 1947-1960, RG 207.
100. Walter White to Herbert R. Brownell, December 22, 1954, Reel 6, NAACP Papers, Part 5: The Campaign against Residential Segregation.
101. Charles Abrams to the New York Times, August 16, 1955, in New York Times, August 23, 1955, p. 22; Robert Fredrick Burk, The Eisenhower Administration and Black Civil Rights (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1984), 114-15; PHA, "The Negro in Public Housing, "115; see also, John B. Kirby, Black Americans in the Roosevelt Era: Liberalism and Race (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1980).
102. Charles Abrams to the New York Times, August 16, 1955, in New York Times, August 23, 1955, p. 22; Robert Fredrick Burk, The Eisenhower Administration and Black Civil Rights (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1984), 114-15; PHA, "The Negro in Public Housing, "115; see also, John B. Kirby, Black Americans in the Roosevelt Era: Liberalism and Race (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1980).
103. Charles Abrams to the New York Times, August 16, 1955, in New York Times, August 23, 1955, p. 22; Robert Fredrick Burk, The Eisenhower Administration and Black Civil Rights (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1984), 114-15; PHA, "The Negro in Public Housing, "115; see also, John B. Kirby, Black Americans in the Roosevelt Era: Liberalism and Race (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1980).
104. Charles Abrams to the New York Times, August 16, 1955, in New York Times, August 23, 1955, p. 22; Robert Fredrick Burk, The Eisenhower Administration and Black Civil Rights (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1984), 114-15; PHA, "The Negro in Public Housing, "115; see also, John B. Kirby, Black Americans in the Roosevelt Era: Liberalism and Race (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1980).
105. Abrams to New York Times, August 16, 1955; Burk, The Eisenhower Administration, 114-15. The dismissal of Horne and Morrow represented a purging not just of personnel but of the New Deal legacy of social reform as well. More, it apparently had its counterpart on the local level. The firing of Chicago Housing Authority Executive Secretary Elizabeth Wood in 1954 (she had been the agency's founding administrator in 1937) similarly heralded policy shifts to the right in that massive program. See Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto, 234-38, and "Massive Resistance in the Urban North, "539.
106. Abrams to New York Times, August 16, 1955; Burk, The Eisenhower Administration, 114-15. The dismissal of Horne and Morrow represented a purging not just of personnel but of the New Deal legacy of social reform as well. More, it apparently had its counterpart on the local level. The firing of Chicago Housing Authority Executive Secretary Elizabeth Wood in 1954 (she had been the agency's founding administrator in 1937) similarly heralded policy shifts to the right in that massive program. See Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto, 234-38, and "Massive Resistance in the Urban North, "539.
107. Abrams to New York Times, August 16, 1955; Burk, The Eisenhower Administration, 114-15. The dismissal of Horne and Morrow represented a purging not just of personnel but of the New Deal legacy of social reform as well. More, it apparently had its counterpart on the local level. The firing of Chicago Housing Authority Executive Secretary Elizabeth Wood in 1954 (she had been the agency's founding administrator in 1937) similarly heralded policy shifts to the right in that massive program. See Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto, 234-38, and "Massive Resistance in the Urban North, "539.
108. Abrams to New York Times, August 16, 1955; Burk, The Eisenhower Administration, 114-15. The dismissal of Horne and Morrow represented a purging not just of personnel but of the New Deal legacy of social reform as well. More, it apparently had its counterpart on the local level. The firing of Chicago Housing Authority Executive Secretary Elizabeth Wood in 1954 (she had been the agency's founding administrator in 1937) similarly heralded policy shifts to the right in that massive program. See Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto, 234-38, and "Massive Resistance in the Urban North, "539.
109. Joseph R. Ray to Albert M. Cole, December 12, 1955, Box 116, Folder 5, HHFA Subject Files, 1947-60, RG 207; Joseph R. Ray to Frank J. Meistrell, January 5, 1956, Box 134, Folder 7, HHFA Subject Files, 1947-60, RG 207; Philip G. Sadler to Commissioner, PHA, May 22, 1957, Box 10, RG 196; Joseph R. Ray to Albert M. Cole, April 16, 1956, Box 11, Folder 1, Subject Correspondence Files, Albert M. Cole, Administrator, 1953-1958, RG 207.
110. Joseph R. Ray to Albert M. Cole, December 12, 1955, Box 116, Folder 5, HHFA Subject Files, 1947-60, RG 207; Joseph R. Ray to Frank J. Meistrell, January 5, 1956, Box 134, Folder 7, HHFA Subject Files, 1947-60, RG 207; Philip G. Sadler to Commissioner, PHA, May 22, 1957, Box 10, RG 196; Joseph R. Ray to Albert M. Cole, April 16, 1956, Box 11, Folder 1, Subject Correspondence Files, Albert M. Cole, Administrator, 1953-1958, RG 207.
111. Joseph R. Ray to Albert M. Cole, December 12, 1955, Box 116, Folder 5, HHFA Subject Files, 1947-60, RG 207; Joseph R. Ray to Frank J. Meistrell, January 5, 1956, Box 134, Folder 7, HHFA Subject Files, 1947-60, RG 207; Philip G. Sadler to Commissioner, PHA, May 22, 1957, Box 10, RG 196; Joseph R. Ray to Albert M. Cole, April 16, 1956, Box 11, Folder 1, Subject Correspondence Files, Albert M. Cole, Administrator, 1953-1958, RG 207.
112. Joseph R. Ray to Albert M. Cole, December 12, 1955, Box 116, Folder 5, HHFA Subject Files, 1947-60, RG 207; Joseph R. Ray to Frank J. Meistrell, January 5, 1956, Box 134, Folder 7, HHFA Subject Files, 1947-60, RG 207; Philip G. Sadler to Commissioner, PHA, May 22, 1957, Box 10, RG 196; Joseph R. Ray to Albert M. Cole, April 16, 1956, Box 11, Folder 1, Subject Correspondence Files, Albert M. Cole, Administrator, 1953-1958, RG 207.
113. Frances Levenson to Executive Board Members and Friends of the National Committee, March 19, 1956, in Reel 8, NAACP Papers, Supplement to Part 5: The Campaign against Residential Segregation, General Office Files, 1956-1965 (University Publications of America).
114. National Committee against Discrimination, Press release, July 9, 1956, in Reel 8, NAACP Papers, Supplement to Part 5, General Office Files, 1956-1965.
115. Roy Wilkins to Albert M. Cole, November 10, 1955, Box 134, Folder 7, Subject Files, 1947-1960, RG 207.
116. Albert M. Cole to Roy Wilkins, January 16, 1956, Box 134, Folder 7, Subject Files, 1947-1960, RG 207.
117. New York Times, June 11, 1954, p. 21. Charles Abrams also concluded that "after the school decisions the power of those who favored a less progressive policy gained headway." New York Times, August 23, 1955, p. 22.
118. New York Times, June 11, 1954, p. 21. Charles Abrams also concluded that "after the school decisions the power of those who favored a less progressive policy gained headway." New York Times, August 23, 1955, p. 22.
119. For the origins of the Housing Act of 1954, see Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto, 271-73.
120. "Address by Albert M. Cole to the Annual Convention of the National Association of Housing Officials, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, October 15, 1953, "in Reel 6, NAACP Papers, Part 5: The Campaign against Residential Segregation.
121. Albert M. Cole, "The Slum, the City, and the Citizen" (typescript speech delivered to the St. Louis Chamber of Commerce, February 24, 1954); "Address by Albert M. Cole to the Annual Meeting of the Ohio Association of Real Estate Boards, September 15, 1954, "both in Reel 6, NAACP Papers, Part 5: The Campaign against Residential Segregation.
122. Albert M. Cole, "The Slum, the City, and the Citizen" (typescript speech delivered to the St. Louis Chamber of Commerce, February 24, 1954); "Address by Albert M. Cole to the Annual Meeting of the Ohio Association of Real Estate Boards, September 15, 1954, "both in Reel 6, NAACP Papers, Part 5: The Campaign against Residential Segregation.
123. "Address by Albert M. Cole to the Meeting of the Ohio Association of Real Estate Boards, "8.
124. Albert M. Cole, "Address to the Mid-Atlantic Conference, National Association of Housing and Redevelopment Officials, New York, April 1, 1954, "11 in Reel 6, NAACP Papers, Part 5: The Campaign against Residential Segregation. See also Division of Slum Clearance and Urban Redevelopment (DSCUR), "Racial Relations Workshop: Report" (typescript, June 4, 1954), Box 745, Folder 12, Program Files-Racial Relations Files, 1946-1958, RG 207.
125. Albert M. Cole, "Address to the Mid-Atlantic Conference, National Association of Housing and Redevelopment Officials, New York, April 1, 1954, "11 in Reel 6, NAACP Papers, Part 5: The Campaign against Residential Segregation. See also Division of Slum Clearance and Urban Redevelopment (DSCUR), "Racial Relations Workshop: Report" (typescript, June 4, 1954), Box 745, Folder 12, Program Files-Racial Relations Files, 1946-1958, RG 207.
126. DSCUR, "Racial Relations Workshop: Report, "4, 13.
127. Frank S. Horne to Albert M. Cole, September 27, 1954, Box 96, Folder: Racial Relations, General Subject Files, 1947-1960, RG 207.
128. Joseph R. Ray to Albert M. Cole, October 26, 1955, Box 116, Folder 5, HHFA Subject Files, 1947-1960, RG 207.
129. George B. Nesbitt to David M. Walker, September 30, 1959, Box 330, Folder: Racial Relations, HHFA General Subject Files, 1949-1960, RG 207. For Letter 16, see also Davis McEntire, Residence and Race (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1960), 338.
130. George B. Nesbitt to David M. Walker, September 30, 1959, Box 330, Folder: Racial Relations, HHFA General Subject Files, 1949-1960, RG 207. For Letter 16, see also Davis McEntire, Residence and Race (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1960), 338.
131. Nesbitt to Walker, September 30, 1959; Frances Levenson to David M. Walker, October 9, 1959, and George B. Nesbitt to Sid Jagger, February 16, 1959, all in Box 330, Folder: Racial Relations, HHFA General Subject Files, 1949-1960, RG 207.
132. Albert M. Cole to Honorable Herbert H. Lehman, February 2, 1956 and Albert M. Cole to Honorable Charles G. Diggs, Jr., March 14, 1956, both in Box 134, Folder 7, Subject Files, 1947-1960, RG 207.
133. Cole to Diggs, March 14, 1956; Albert M. Cole to Honorable Prescott Bush, May 3, 1956, Box 134, Folder 7, General Subject Files, 1947-1960, RG 207.
134. Cole to Bush, May 3, 1956.
135. Ibid. The one rationale left unarticulated in the battery of arguments brought to the table by Cole was, of course, the political. Robert Burk observed that Cole "discouraged" attempts at desegregation in the South and "directed the Agency's Southern race relations officials to minimize their efforts." Burk, The Eisenhower Administration, 121. See also Michael J. Klarman, "How the Brown Decision Changed Race Relations: The Backlash Thesis, "Journal of American History 81 (June 1994): 81-118.
136. Ibid. The one rationale left unarticulated in the battery of arguments brought to the table by Cole was, of course, the political. Robert Burk observed that Cole "discouraged" attempts at desegregation in the South and "directed the Agency's Southern race relations officials to minimize their efforts." Burk, The Eisenhower Administration, 121. See also Michael J. Klarman, "How the Brown Decision Changed Race Relations: The Backlash Thesis, "Journal of American History 81 (June 1994): 81-118.
137. Frances Levenson to Honorable Prescott Bush, July 23, 1956, Box 134, Folder 7, Subject Files, 1947-1960, RG 207.
138. Frank S. Horne, "A Call to the Open Market" (typescript, March 9, 1959), Box 10, Folder 8, RG 196.
139. Commission on Race and Housing, Where Shall We Live? Report of the Commission on Race and Housing (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1958), 29-34.
140. Ibid., 63-64.
141. U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, Report, 1959, 537.
142. Carl M. Brauer, John F. Kennedy and the Second Reconstruction (New York: Columbia University Press, 1977), 43, 128.
143. New York Times, February 8, 1961, p. 1; Hearings before the Committee on Banking and Currency, United States Senate, Eighty-Seventh Congress, First Session, on the Nomination of Robert C. Weaver to be Housing and Home Finance Agency Administrator, February 7 and February 8, 1961, 3, 10-17.
144. New York Times, February 8, 1961, p. 1; Hearings before the Committee on Banking and Currency, United States Senate, Eighty-Seventh Congress, First Session, on the Nomination of Robert C. Weaver to be Housing and Home Finance Agency Administrator, February 7 and February 8, 1961, 3, 10-17.
145. Hearings before the Committee on Banking and Currency, 84-100.
146. Robert C. Weaver to Eddie Scott, April 5, 1961, Box 64, Folder 2, Subject Correspondence Files, Robert Weaver, Administrator, 1961-1968, RG 207.
147. George W. Snowden to J. Stanley Baughman, et al., September 27, 1960, Box 337, Folder: Intergroup Relations, Urban Renewal Administration (URA) General Subject Files, 1960, RG 207.
148. "Material prepared for Harold Tyler, Justice Dept. re effect of an executive order on housing activities - pertaining to equal opportunity" (typescript, October 4, 1960), Box 40, Folder 4, Subject Correspondence Files, Norman P. Mason, Administrator, RG 207.
149. Ibid.
150. Ibid.; David M. Walker to Norman P. Mason, November 4, 1960, Box 337, Folder: Intergroup Relations, URA General Subject Files, RG 207. Mason succeeded Cole as HHFA Administrator in early 1959 and served until Robert C. Weaver took over in 1961.
151. Ibid.; David M. Walker to Norman P. Mason, November 4, 1960, Box 337, Folder: Intergroup Relations, URA General Subject Files, RG 207. Mason succeeded Cole as HHFA Administrator in early 1959 and served until Robert C. Weaver took over in 1961.
152. "Material prepared for Harold Tyler, "1-4.
153. Ibid.
154. For Pontchartrain Park, see Arnold R. Hirsch, "Race and Renewal in the Cold War South: New Orleans, 1947-1968" in The American Planning Tradidtion: Culture and Policy, Robert Fishman, ed., (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, forthcoming). See also Ronald H. Bayor, Race and the Shaping of Twentieth-Century Atlanta (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996); Christopher Silver, Twentieth-Century Richmond: Planning, Politics and Race (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1984); Christopher Silver and John V. Moeser, The Separate City: Black Communities in the Urban South, 1940-1968 (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1995).
155. For Pontchartrain Park, see Arnold R. Hirsch, "Race and Renewal in the Cold War South: New Orleans, 1947-1968" in The American Planning Tradidtion: Culture and Policy, Robert Fishman, ed., (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, forthcoming). See also Ronald H. Bayor, Race and the Shaping of Twentieth-Century Atlanta (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996); Christopher Silver, Twentieth-Century Richmond: Planning, Politics and Race (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1984); Christopher Silver and John V. Moeser, The Separate City: Black Communities in the Urban South, 1940-1968 (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1995).
156. For Pontchartrain Park, see Arnold R. Hirsch, "Race and Renewal in the Cold War South: New Orleans, 1947-1968" in The American Planning Tradidtion: Culture and Policy, Robert Fishman, ed., (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, forthcoming). See also Ronald H. Bayor, Race and the Shaping of Twentieth-Century Atlanta (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996); Christopher Silver, Twentieth-Century Richmond: Planning, Politics and Race (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1984); Christopher Silver and John V. Moeser, The Separate City: Black Communities in the Urban South, 1940-1968 (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1995).
157. For Pontchartrain Park, see Arnold R. Hirsch, "Race and Renewal in the Cold War South: New Orleans, 1947-1968" in The American Planning Tradidtion: Culture and Policy, Robert Fishman, ed., (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, forthcoming). See also Ronald H. Bayor, Race and the Shaping of Twentieth-Century Atlanta (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996); Christopher Silver, Twentieth-Century Richmond: Planning, Politics and Race (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1984); Christopher Silver and John V. Moeser, The Separate City: Black Communities in the Urban South, 1940-1968 (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1995).
158. Brauer, John F. Kennedy, 205-11.
159. Ibid.
160. National Committee against Discrimination in Housing, "Program Suggestions for Ending Discrimination in Federally-Aided Housing" (typescript, June 25, 1963), Box 116, Folder 1, Subject Correspondence Files, Robert C. Weaver, Administrator, 1961-1968, RG 207.