Sixty and out: Techwood Homes transformed by enemies and friends

Journal of Urban History

Volumn 26, Issue 3, 2000, Pages 275-311

  Keating, Larry ^a   Flores, Carol A ^b  

^a GEORGIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY   (United States)

^b BALL STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY; HOUSING POLICY; NATIONAL PLANNING; SOCIAL HOUSING; TWENTIETH CENTURY;

UNITED STATES;

EID: 0033914240     PISSN: 00961442     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/009614420002600301     Document Type: Review

References (145)

1. Many public housing developments claim to be the first in the United States. Recognition of Techwood as the first is based on two significant points. First, documentation exists that proves that Techwood was the first of the fifty-one subsidized housing projects built by the Public Works Administration to begin construction (in February 1935). Historical information on Techwood is documented in the National Register of Historic Places Inventory Nomination Form, H. Lee Dunagen, Consultant to the Advisory Committee on Historic Structures, Atlanta Urban Design Commission, Atlanta, October 26, 1975, and certified by the Georgia State Historic Preservation Officer on January 6, 1976, and in the Historic American Buildings Survey (HABS) documentation (No. GA-2257-S) prepared for the Atlanta Housing Authority by EDAW, Inc., and KitWrites, Inc., and submitted to the National Parks Service in September and October 1995. The second point refers to the fact that while some philanthropic and regional initiatives sponsored housing for low-income workers prior to 1935, the approval, building, and dedication of Techwood Homes marks the federal government's first commitment to provide decent, affordable housing to low-income workers. Confirmation of this point occurs in Jeanne Nienaber Clarke's Roosevelt's Warrior: Harold L. Ickes and the New Deal (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), 99.
2. Study of the physical property and landscape of Techwood and Clark Howell Homes conducted by EDAW as part of the PATH Revitalization Plan. Summary of the plan presented to the faculty of the College of Architecture, Georgia Institute of Technology, Spring 1994, by Barbara Faga, Vice President, EDAW.
3. Roy Lubove, The Progressives and the Slums: Tenement Reform in New York City, 1890-1917 (New York: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1962), 4.
4. Ibid., 104.
5. Ibid., 34-8, 102-4, 117-32.
6. The one exception occurred during World War I when the government built 5, 998 units for the United States Housing Corporation and 9, 185 units for the Emergency Fleet Corporation to house shipbuilders in Connecticut and munitions workers in Camden, New Jersey. Congress acted so quickly to sell these properties to private buyers at the end of the war that the units were sold at a loss of $74.5 million. Richard Plunz, "Institutionalization of Housing Form in New York City, 1920-1950, "in Housing Form and Public Policy in the United States (New York: Praeger, 1980), 158. Also see William B. Ebenstein, The Law of Public Housing (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1940), 14-21.
7. The one exception occurred during World War I when the government built 5, 998 units for the United States Housing Corporation and 9, 185 units for the Emergency Fleet Corporation to house shipbuilders in Connecticut and munitions workers in Camden, New Jersey. Congress acted so quickly to sell these properties to private buyers at the end of the war that the units were sold at a loss of $74.5 million. Richard Plunz, "Institutionalization of Housing Form in New York City, 1920-1950, "in Housing Form and Public Policy in the United States (New York: Praeger, 1980), 158. Also see William B. Ebenstein, The Law of Public Housing (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1940), 14-21.
8. From the beginning, local businessmen controlled political decisions and voted to keep taxes low to entice new companies to the area. They approved the use of city funds to finance ventures aimed at increasing trade and tourism rather than improving the welfare of citizens. Typical of this "Atlanta spirit" the city financed the 1881 International Cotton Exposition, the 1887 Piedmont Exposition, and the 1895 Cotton States and International Exposition: all exhibitions "focused national attention on Atlanta's advantages as a manufacturing, transportation, and distribution center." Lynn Watson-Powers, "The Atlanta Spirit: What Is It?" atlantahistory 37, no. 3 (1993): 85.
9. Peter E. Arnold, "Public Housing in Atlanta, "Atlanta Historical Society Journal 13 (September 1968): 11.
10. Ibid, and Eugene H. Klaber, "Limited Dividend Corporation under National Housing Act, "Architectural Record, Feb. 1935, v. 77, pp. 78-80, 32.
11. Ibid, and Eugene H. Klaber, "Limited Dividend Corporation under National Housing Act, "Architectural Record, Feb. 1935, v. 77, pp. 78-80, 32.
12. Charles Palmer, Adventures of a Slum Fighter (Atlanta: Tupper and Love, 1955), 14, and Fred Shaefer, "Atlanta - The South's Greatest Office Building City, "City Builder, March 1926. For a full discussion of Palmer's involvement and expertise in commercial property management and his work as an advocate for federally subsidized low-income housing, see Stephen W. Grable, "From Private Realtor to Public Slum Fighter: The Transformation of the Career Identity of Charles F. Palmer" (Ph.D. diss., Emory University, 1983). Information in Grable's work that relates specifically to the material referenced in this note include pages 25 and 51-2. Charles Palmer's personal and business papers are archived in the Charles Palmer Collection, Emory University Special Collections, Atlanta, Georgia.
13. Charles Palmer, Adventures of a Slum Fighter (Atlanta: Tupper and Love, 1955), 14, and Fred Shaefer, "Atlanta - The South's Greatest Office Building City, "City Builder, March 1926. For a full discussion of Palmer's involvement and expertise in commercial property management and his work as an advocate for federally subsidized low-income housing, see Stephen W. Grable, "From Private Realtor to Public Slum Fighter: The Transformation of the Career Identity of Charles F. Palmer" (Ph.D. diss., Emory University, 1983). Information in Grable's work that relates specifically to the material referenced in this note include pages 25 and 51-2. Charles Palmer's personal and business papers are archived in the Charles Palmer Collection, Emory University Special Collections, Atlanta, Georgia.
14. Charles Palmer, Adventures of a Slum Fighter (Atlanta: Tupper and Love, 1955), 14, and Fred Shaefer, "Atlanta - The South's Greatest Office Building City, "City Builder, March 1926. For a full discussion of Palmer's involvement and expertise in commercial property management and his work as an advocate for federally subsidized low-income housing, see Stephen W. Grable, "From Private Realtor to Public Slum Fighter: The Transformation of the Career Identity of Charles F. Palmer" (Ph.D. diss., Emory University, 1983). Information in Grable's work that relates specifically to the material referenced in this note include pages 25 and 51-2. Charles Palmer's personal and business papers are archived in the Charles Palmer Collection, Emory University Special Collections, Atlanta, Georgia.
15. U.S. Public Works Administration, America Builds (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1935), 208.
16. Palmer received $12, 433.50 in commissions on the sales of the slum clearance property. Inman Park Advertiser, July 21, 1940.
17. Palmer, Adventures, 7.
18. Ibid.
19. U.S. Public Works Administration, America Builds, 201.
20. Palmer, Adventures, 13-5, and Grable, "From Private Realtor, "51-3.
21. Palmer, Adventures, 13-5, and Grable, "From Private Realtor, "51-3.
22. M. L. Brittain, The Story of Georgia Tech (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1948), 219.
23. Original draft of WSB speech by Charles F. Palmer, 1993, Palmer Collection, Emory University.
24. The other members of the initial corporation included Judge John S. Candler; Flippen D. Burge, architect; and Thornton T. Flagler, engineer. Sid Tiller, a labor representative, joined the committee later. Initial Application, Palmer Collection, Emory University, and Palmer, Adventures, 14-5.
25. Pollard, "The Effect of Techwood Homes, "20.
26. Techwood, Application dated October 5, 1933, Palmer Collection, Emory University.
27. Ibid.
28. Ibid.
29. Gwendolyn Wright, Building the Dream: A Social History of Housing in America (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1983), 220. See also Nathaniel S. Keith, Politics and the Housing Crisis Since 1930 (New York: Universe Books, 1973), 22. Keith notes that there were no official statistics, and that explains the large discrepancy of 5 million workers in the estimates. He also notes that many of the employed were only working part-time at reduced wages. Another important notation in his work is the fact that national income and total production had been cut in half since 1929.
30. Gwendolyn Wright, Building the Dream: A Social History of Housing in America (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1983), 220. See also Nathaniel S. Keith, Politics and the Housing Crisis Since 1930 (New York: Universe Books, 1973), 22. Keith notes that there were no official statistics, and that explains the large discrepancy of 5 million workers in the estimates. He also notes that many of the employed were only working part-time at reduced wages. Another important notation in his work is the fact that national income and total production had been cut in half since 1929.
31. "By March, 1933, less than 600, 000 of the industry's 2, 300, 000 workers still had jobs - three-fourths were out of work." "The Housing Problem, "New York Times, August 24, 1936.
32. Harold L. Ickes, Back to Work: The Story of PWA (New York: MacMillan, 1935), 197.
33. Mortgage foreclosures in the United States went from 68, 000 in 1928 to 250, 000 in 1932. By the time the government tried to address the foreclosure problem, more than 1.5 million mortgages had been foreclosed. Martin Pawley, Architecture versus Housing (New York: Praeger, 1971), 41-2.
34. "The Background of Housing, "U.S. Public Works Administration Paper No. 57157, 2.
35. Frank C. Gilreath Jr., "PWA Chief Handles Detonator Starting Work on $5, 000, 000 Projects, "undated newspaper clipping in the Palmer Collection, Emory University.
36. Ibid.
37. Out of the $3, 760, 000 of recovery funds, $2, 560, 000 went for 19, 004 Public Works Administration construction projects. The remainder, approximately $1, 200, 000 was used for the Civilian Works Administration, Civilian Conservation Corps, Tennessee Valley Authority, Farm Credit Administration, and other recovery purposes. Since many of the projects were self-liquidating, more than $1 billion of the $2.7 billion allotted for construction was planned to be repaid to the government. Three-fourths of the reimbursable amount was protected by collateral. Ickes, Back to Work, 256, 258.
38. U.S. Public Works Administration, America Builds, 209.
39. Palmer, Adventures, 18.
40. Only seven limited dividend housing projects were completed: Altavista Housing (Altavista, Virginia); Euclid Housing Corporation (Euclid, Ohio); Hillside Housing Corporation (Bronx, New York); Boulevard Gardens (Queens, New York); Carl Mackley Houses, also called Juniata Park Housing (Philadelphia, Pennsylvania); Boylen Realty Company (Raleigh, North Carolina); and Neighborhood Gardens (St. Louis, Missouri), totaling 3, 434 housing units. "First Federal Housing is Fireproof Construction, "Engineering News Record, July 4, 1935, 9.
41. Pollard, "The Effect of Techwood Homes, "25.
42. Florence Fleming Corley, "Atlanta's Techwood and University Homes Projects: The Nation's Laboratory for Public Housing, "Atlanta History 31 (1987-1988): 17.
43. Douglas Lee Fleming, "Atlanta, the Depression and the New Deal" (Ph.D. diss., Emory University, Atlanta, 1984), 2, 47, 71.
44. Palmer, Adventures, 25-7.
45. The U.S. Public Works Administration Housing Division included 2, 200 architects, engineers, draftsmen, and landscape architects. Wolfgang Rudorf, "The Housing Division of the Public Works Administration" (master's thesis, MIT, 1984), 137.
46. Ickes, Back to Work, 186. For a detailed account of the history, plans, and amenities of Techwood Homes, see Carol A. Flores, "U.S. Public Housing in the 1930s: The First Projects in Atlanta, Georgia, "Planning Perspectives 9 (1994): 405-30.
47. Ickes, Back to Work, 186. For a detailed account of the history, plans, and amenities of Techwood Homes, see Carol A. Flores, "U.S. Public Housing in the 1930s: The First Projects in Atlanta, Georgia, "Planning Perspectives 9 (1994): 405-30.
48. "Part I: Federal Housing Construction, "Architectural Record, March 1935, 186.
49. Wright, Building the Dream, 226.
50. "City Here in a City, "Atlanta Journal, July 28, 1935.
51. Landscape architects spent a liberal budget of $59, 000 for flower and rose beds, mimosas, dogwoods, crepe myrtles, plus Chinese and American elms.
52. Medora Field Parkerson, "We Are Weary of 'Raised Eyebrows, ' Say Techwood Ladies, "Atlanta Journal Magazine, October 31, 1937, 14.
53. "First Techwood Lease Makes Family Gay, "Atlanta Journal, June 3, 1936.
54. Rents varied according to the size and location of the apartment within the complex. The average rent for a one-bedroom unit was $23.47 a month, including $5.95 for utilities. The average for a three-bedroom unit was $38.10, with $8.35 included for utilities. Release No. 1943, Federal Emergency Administration, Department of Public Works. (In Techwood, 397 units had one bedroom, which constituted a three-room arrangement; 128 units had two bedrooms; 53 units had three bedrooms; and 26 units had four bedrooms.)
55. Pollard, "The Effect of Techwood Homes, "61.
56. 1940 U.S. Census; the workers who cleaned and maintained the development earned $385 per year, or less than two-fifths (38.1%) of the average resident family's income. Atlanta Housing Authority (AHA, 1954 Report, Atlanta, City Printing Office, 1955, 6.
57. The average per-room rental rate in Techwood Flats was $3.08; Techwood Homes cost $7.39 per room, including utilities. Letter from J. R. McCarl, Comptroller General of the United States, to Harold Ickes, Federal Emergency Administrator of Public Works, Press Release No. 1943, Federal Emergency Administration Department of Public Works and Department of Commerce Survey dated June 26, 1935.
58. "Federal Funds Give Dormitory Comforts to Students of Georgia Tech, "Atlanta Constitution, September 22, 1935.
59. Letter from McCarl to Ickes, 5.
60. "Federal Housing Construction, "186.
61. Parkerson, "We Are Weary, "3.
62. C. F. Palmer to Guy Coleman, November 18, 1933, Palmer Collection, Emory University; Atlanta Journal Magazine, October 21, 1934, 11.
63. HABS Clark Howell Homes No. GA-2309. Prepared by EDAW in association with Kit Writes (October 1995), 5.
64. HABS Techwood Homes No. GA-2257-G (October 1995), 25-6, and J. Michael Gurnee, "An Historic Preservation/Conservation Proposal for Techwood Homes" (unpublished paper, Graduate Program in City Planning, Georgia Institute of Technology, December 1975), 35. By June 1990, three months before the Olympic announcement, the population was 95.5 percent black (U.S. Census, 1990).
65. Memo from Paul Austin to Robert Woodruff, June 11, 1971, Robert Woodruff Papers, Emory Special Collections, Emory University, Atlanta. Robert W. Woodruff was president of Coca-Cola from 1923-1938 and in 1945. He was chairman in 1939 and 1952-1954. Although these dates document Woodruff's official and visible roles within the Coca-Cola hierarchy, it is well recognized that he was a figure of central power both in running the Coca-Cola Company and in Atlanta politics throughout his lifetime. For further discussion of Woodruff's influence and authority, see Floyd Hunter, Community Power Structure: A Study of Decision Makers, (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press), 1953, 8-25.
66. Ibid.
67. Frederick Allen, Atlanta Rising (Atlanta: Longstreet, 1996), 186.
68. Clarence N. Stone, Economic Growth and Neighborhood Discontent: System Bias in the Urban Renewal Program of Atlanta (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1976), 98-106.
69. Interviews with David Franklin and Sam Williams, cited in Allen, Atlanta Rising, 186, 277.
70. Ivan Allen Jr., with Paul Hemphill, Mayor: Notes on the Sixties (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1971), 29.
71. HABS No. GA-2257-G (October 1995), 3.
72. Deborah Lamm Weisel, Tackling Drug Problems in Public Housing: A Guide for Police (Washington, DC: Police Executive Research Forum, 1990), 2-5.
73. Larry Keating, "HOPE VI Baseline Case Study, "in Linda B. Fosberg, Susan J. Popkin, and Gretchen P. Locke, eds., An Historical and Baseline Assessment of HOPE VI, Volume III (Washington, DC: Office of Policy Development and Research, U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development), 11.
74. Housing Authority of the City of Atlanta, "AHA Protective Services Evaluation/Analysis and Recommendations, "April 1990, 2-3.
75. Ibid., 5.
76. R. Robin McDonald, "Crime in Public Housing: Promises to Keep" Atlanta Journal/Constitution, April 7, 1996, H6.
77. "Millions Won in Grants, but Programs Inch Along, "Atlanta Journal/Constitution, April 7, 1996, H6, and McDonald, "Crime in Public Housing, "H6.
78. "Millions Won in Grants, but Programs Inch Along, "Atlanta Journal/Constitution, April 7, 1996, H6, and McDonald, "Crime in Public Housing, "H6.
79. Keating, "HOPE VI, "31.
80. Ibid., 8-9.
81. Ibid., 15-6.
82. Larry Keating interview with Jane Fortson, Chair, Board of Commissioners, Housing Authority of the City of Atlanta, March 12, 1991, Atlanta, Georgia.
83. Ibid.
84. Russell Chandler, "Techwood/Clark Howell Residents Proposal, "photocopy, n.d. (prior to March 15, 1991), Atlanta, Georgia.
85. Bert Roughton Jr., "Techwood Eyes on Olympics Prize, "Atlanta Journal/Constitution, March 17, 1991.
86. The unusual presence of a senior official of the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development organizing tenants over the opposition of the Housing Authority of the City of Atlanta suggested the scenario that the secretary of the Department of Housing and Urban Development, Jack Kemp, might be envisioning a 1996 presidential election year Olympic photo opportunity.
87. Sensing the potential damage to involvement in the Techwood controversy, Jackson stayed out of the conflict for seven months. Lingering memories of his fight against John Portman and Paul Austin over Techwood fifteen years earlier may have also been a consideration. Jackson's earlier success in that battle created a residual debit to the business community not fully erased when Jackson assumed a more conciliatory posture toward business during his 1990-1994 term. But, as Georgia Tech President Patrick Crecine put it, "There are a lot of people with gasoline cans looking for smoldering embers" (Bert Roughton Jr., "Techwood Eyes on Olympic Prize, "Atlanta Journal/Constitution, March 17, 1991). The Techwood situation was becoming too volatile for the mayor to remain inactive.
88. Editors, "The Chance to Change Techwood, "Atlanta Constitution, April 11, 1991.
89. Mark Sherman, "Council President: Tear Down Techwood for Olympic Village, "Atlanta Constitution, April 4, 1991.
90. Mark Sherman, "Techwood Tenants Agree to 6-Month Planning with City, "Atlanta Constitution, April 9, 1991.
91. The Housing Authority agreed to loan one-half of the $495, 000 required by the developers to begin the planning. Larry Keating telephone interview with Jane Fortson, former chair. Housing Authority of the City of Atlanta Board of Commissioners, Washington, DC, June 27, 1995.
92. Bert Roughton Jr., "Latest Olympic Village Plan: Mixed Use Housing in Techwood, "Atlanta Journal/Constitution, August 17, 1991.
93. Even this is a generous assumption: twenty-two households earned more than $15, 000 annually, the income the homeownership program required. Even at the $375 per month for utilities, principal, interest, and insurance they could afford, they would have had to have been deeply subsidized to become homeowners.
94. The figures reported refer only to responses from Techwood and Clark Howell residents. Nearly one-half (47.5 percent) of residents valued the affordability of their units as one of the top three aspects they liked best about their homes. Similarly, 46.9 percent ranked apartment size and 42.6 percent ranked location in the community as aspects they liked best. Other attributes mentioned were location in building (26.0 percent), privacy (21.0 percent), and appliances (12.4 percent). Community Design Center/PATH surveys.
95. Community Design Center/PATH surveys.
96. Sallye Salter and Cynthia Durcanin, "Techwood's Emerging Look, "Atlanta Constitution, September 18, 1991.
97. PATH, "Revitalization Proposal for Techwood/Clark Howell Homes, "Atlanta, Georgia, September 21, 1991, 7.
98. When pressed, the consultants and representatives of the Housing Authority of the City of Atlanta vacillated between 265 and 443 public housing units out of 800 or 1, 000 total units. Larry Keating interview with Dennis Goldstein, Legal Services Attorney, Atlanta, Georgia, Fall 1991.
99. PATH, "Revitalization Proposal, "7.
100. The actual question asked was, "Do you expect to live here after the Olympic Games?" This question was designed by the Community Design Center and the residents to measure how much control the tenants believed they had over their situation, not what they wished to do. The word "expect" was chosen to admit the possibility that forces seeking their removal might prevail. PATH adopted and administered the Community Design Center questionnaire. The answers indicate that 39.2 percent answered yes, 31.1 percent answered no, and 29.7 percent did not know. The survey contained no measure of the number of tenants who would want to stay in a revitalized community, because the question had not been asked.
101. Cynthia Durcanin, "Trust at Issue in Techwood Tenants' Vote, "Atlanta Journal/Constitution, September 29, 1991.
102. Ibid.
103. Cynthia Durcanin, "Tenants Give Approval, "Atlanta Constitution, October 2, 1991.
104. Sallye Salter, "Long Awaited Techwood Plan Varies Little from Original, "Atlanta Journal/Constitution, October 12, 1991.
105. PATH, "Revitalization Plan, "under Community Resources in Financing Section.
106. Editorial Board, Atlanta Constitution, "Olympic Development Now, "December 2, 1991.
107. Gary Pomerantz, "Feds Rebuke AHA Plan to Revamp Techwood, "Atlanta Journal/Constitution, December 25, 1991.
108. Memorandum for Raymond A. Harris, Regional Administrator, from Joseph G. Shiff, Assistant Secretary for Public and Indian Housing, U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, Washington, DC, February 14, 1992, 1-4.
109. Data for 1991-1993 from Atlanta Housing Authority, Vacancy Unit Prep Status Report. Data for 1994 and 1995 from Atlanta Housing Authority, Weekly Vacancy Control Report.
110. Larry Keating telephone interview with Jane Fortson, June 27, 1995.
111. Housing Authority of the City of Atlanta, "Urban Revitalization Demonstration Implementation Grant Application for Techwood/Clark Howell Homes, "May 26, 1993, Atlanta, Georgia, 66.
112. Larry Keating interview with Richard Bradfield, Atlanta, Georgia, July 14, 1995.
113. Housing Authority of the City of Atlanta, "Urban Revitalization Demonstration Implementation Grant Application for Techwood/Clark Howell Homes, "May 26, 1993, Atlanta, Georgia, 3.
114. Ibid., 3.
115. Bradfield interview, July 14, 1995.
116. S. A. Reid, "AHA to Go Ahead with Sale of Four Techwood Acres, "Atlanta Journal/Constitution, April 6, 1993.
117. Housing Authority of the City of Atlanta, "Urban Revitalization, "2.
118. Jackson did not run.
119. Renee Glover, "New Trends in Downtown Housing: Location and Product, "presentation at the Central Atlanta Progress/Georgia State University, Atlanta Downtown Partnership Conference on Housing in Downtown Atlanta, May 9, 1997, Rialto Center for the Performing Arts, Atlanta.
120. Larry Keating interview with Renee Glover, Executive Director, Housing Authority of the City of Atlanta, Atlanta, Georgia, January 13, 1995.
121. Larry Keating interview with John Sweet, Chair, Housing Authority of the City of Atlanta Board of Commissioners, Atlanta, Georgia, May 8, 1995.
122. Lyle Harris, "Techwood's New Beginning, "Atlanta Journal/Constitution, February 28, 1995.
123. AHA, Weekly Vacancy Control Report.
124. Housing Authority of the City of Atlanta, Revised Revitalization Plan for the Techwood Area, Atlanta, March 17, 1995, 25.
125. Ibid., 21.
126. Housing Authority of the City of Atlanta, Revised Revitalization Plan for the Techwood Redevelopment Area, Atlanta, July 25, 1995, 25.
127. Ibid., transmittal letter, 2-3.
128. Interview with Carol Naughton, Deputy Executive Director for Real Estate Development, Housing Authority of the City of Atlanta, July 11, 1997.
129. Adequate accounting for replacement housing is complicated by the fact that the Housing Authority of the City of Atlanta is demolishing more than 4, 400 public housing units within the city. Current Housing Authority records indicate that the 165 physical units of replacement housing in various stages of redevelopment planning are cited by the Housing Authority as replacement housing for several recently demolished public housing communities.
130. Memorandum, Trish O'Connell, HUD Renaissance Fellow, Housing Authority of the City of Atlanta, to Larry Rearing, July 11, 1997.
131. Ibid.
132. Further Assurances Agreement between the Housing Authority of the City of Atlanta and the Techwood/Clark Howell Resident Association, May 10, 1995.
133. Memorandum, Douglas S. Faust, Deputy Director for Housing Operations, Housing Authority of the City of Atlanta, to Larry Keating, August 19, 1998.
134. Ibid.
135. "Techwood Redevelopment, "presentation by Egbert Perry at Central Atlanta Progress/Georgia State University Conference on Housing in Downtown Atlanta, May 9, 1997, Atlanta, Georgia.
136. "Experiences Learned from Recent Projects, "Presentation by W. Daniel Folk Jr., President, Post Apartment Development, Inc., and Robert L. Silverman, Chairman, The Winter Companies, at Central Atlanta Progress/Georgia State University Conference on Housing in Downtown Atlanta, Atlanta, May 9, 1997.
137. Claire Selltiz, Marie Jahoda, Morton Deutsch, and Stuart W. Cook, Research Methods in Social Relations (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1959), 10-23, 39-40, 129-32, 137-9.
138. Memorandum, Maureen Mercer, Housing Authority of the City of Atlanta, to Larry Keating, July 24, 1998.
139. H. Lee Dunagen, Consultant to Advisory Committee on Historic Structures, Atlanta Urban Design Commission, National Register of Historic Places Inventory - Nomination Form, Atlanta, October 26, 1975, 2-5.
140. Ibid. A review of the Georgia State Historic Preservation Office correspondence regarding the proposed demolition and redevelopment of the Techwood Homes community reveals repeated objections by the Georgia State Historic Preservation Officer and the Advisory Council on Historic Preservation for the Demolition of Techwood and Clark Howell Homes. The approval of these representatives was won only after the proposed redevelopment was presented as a new, model experiment in public housing. Correspondence files, Georgia State Historic Preservation Office, Atlanta, Georgia; review conducted by Carol Flores, June 1998.
141. Abt Associates, Cross Site Report, vol. 1 of An Historical and Baseline Assessment of HOPE VI. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, Office of Policy Development and Research, August, 1995, 1-10, 1-11.
142. Housing Authority of the City of Atlanta, Revised Revitalization Plan, March 17, 1995, 4.
143. Authors' calculations.
144. The inflated density figure was achieved by incorporating the high-rises for the elderly into the calculation. The historical sequence now reads that AHA built the seventeen-story high-rises for the elderly on parks within Techwood in 1966 (Palmer House) and 1973 (Roosevelt House) and then argued in 1995 that preservation of the high-rises dictated the destruction of the original community.
145. Hollis R. Towns, "Housing's New Dawn with Limited Vacancies, "Atlanta Journal/Constitution, February 15, 1998, G-5.