The Third World and the right to development: Agenda for the next millennium

Human Rights Quarterly

Volumn 22, Issue 3, 2000, Pages 753-787

  Udombana, N J ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF LAGOS   (Nigeria)

^b Nigerian Law School   (Nigeria)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

DEVELOPING WORLD; DEVELOPMENT ECONOMICS; HUMAN RIGHTS; INTERNATIONAL LAW;

EID: 0033898891     PISSN: 02750392     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/hrq.2000.0038     Document Type: Article

References (206)

1. See Mohammed Bedjaoui, The Right to Development, in INTERNATIONAL LAW: ACHIEVEMENT AND PROSPECTS 1177, 1182 (Mohammed Bedjaou ed., 1991), excerpted in HENRY J. STEINER & PHILIP ALSTON, INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS IN CONTEXT 1117 (1996).
2. See Mohammed Bedjaoui, The Right to Development, in INTERNATIONAL LAW: ACHIEVEMENT AND PROSPECTS 1177, 1182 (Mohammed Bedjaou ed., 1991), excerpted in HENRY J. STEINER & PHILIP ALSTON, INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS IN CONTEXT 1117 (1996).
3. Joshua 13:1 (King James).
4. See MOHAMMED BEDJAOUI, TOWARDS A NEW INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC ORDER 25 (UNESCO, 1979).
5. See id.
6. See id. at 25-26.
7. See Yemi Osinbajo & Olukonyinsola Ajayi, Human Rights and Economic Development in Developing Countries, 28 INT'L LAWYER 727, 730 (1994).
8. See id.
9. See WALTER RODNEY, HOW EUROPE UNDERDEVELOPED AFRICA 9 (1982).
10. See Denis Goulet, Development: Creator and Destroyer of Values in HUMAN RIGHTS IN THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY: A GLOBAL CHALLENGE 689-90 (K.E. Mahoney & Paul Mahoney eds., 1993).
11. See RODNEY, supra note 8, at 10.
12. See id. at 11.
13. See GUY ARNOLD, AID AND THE THIRD WORLD 23 (1985).
14. Id.
15. See Development and Human Rights: Report of a meeting held on July 7, 1980, 6 HUM. RTS. REV. 194, 195 (1981).
16. See id. at 195.
17. Id.
18. Yves Lacoste, Geographie du Sous-development (1976), quoted in BEDJAOUI, supra note 1, n.3 at 24.
19. See RODNEY, supra note 8, at 21.
20. See id.
21. See Abdellatif Ghissassi, in Eric Laurent ed., Un Monde a Refaire, Debats de France-culture, Trois Jours pour la Planete 81 (Paris: Menges, 1977).
22. See, e.g., Report of the World Summit For Social Development: Copenhagen Declaration on Social Development and Programme of Action of the World Summit for Social Development, adopted 12 Mar. 1995, U.N. GAOR, Annex I, at 7, U.N. Doc. A/ CONF.166/9 (1995) [hereinafter Copenhagen Declaration].
23. See Lazar Mojsov in Laurent, supra note 20, at 144-45.
24. See BEDJAOUI, supra note 1, at 27.
25. See id. at 30 n. 2.
26. See id. at 31.
27. See the "intelligent, enlightening, provocative book," as J.K. Galbraith describes it, SUSAN GEORGE, HOW THE OTHER HALF DIES: THE REAL REASONS FOR WORLD HUNGER 26 (1977).
28. JOHN K. GALBRAITH, THE AFFLUENT SOCIETY 32 (1979).
29. Id. at 29.
30. Also known as Copenhagen Declaration on Social Development and Programme of Action of the World Summit for Social Development, adopted 12 Mar. 1995, at Annex I, ¶ 23, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.166/9 (1995), available on gopher://gopher.undp.org:70/00/ unconfs/wssd/summit/off/a-9.en〉.
31. Id. at ¶ 7.
32. See generally ANTHONY CARTY ED., LAW AND DEVELOPMENT (1992).
33. See Brian Z. Tamanaha, The Lesson of Law and Development Studies, 89 AJIL 470, 471 (1995). For an informative discussion of modernization theory, see DAVID APTER, RETHINKING DEVELOPMENT: MODERNIZATION, DEPENDENCY, AND POST-MODERN POLITICS (1987).
34. See Brian Z. Tamanaha, The Lesson of Law and Development Studies, 89 AJIL 470, 471 (1995). For an informative discussion of modernization theory, see DAVID APTER, RETHINKING DEVELOPMENT: MODERNIZATION, DEPENDENCY, AND POST-MODERN POLITICS (1987).
35. See generally Francis G. Snyder, Law and Development in the Light of Dependency Theory, 14 LAW & SOC'Y REV. 723 (1980).
36. See generally RODNEY, supra note 8, at 22; FRANTZ FANON, THE WRETCHED OF THE EARTH (1968); Julius O. Ihonvere, Underdevelopment and Human Rights Violations in Africa, in EMERGING HUMAN RIGHTS 57 (George W. Shepherd, Jr. & Mark O.C. Anikpo eds., 1990). For an interesting theoretical application of underdevelopment theory in Africa in general, see CLAUDE AKE, REVOLUTIONARY PRESSURES IN AFRICA (1978).
37. See generally RODNEY, supra note 8, at 22; FRANTZ FANON, THE WRETCHED OF THE EARTH (1968); Julius O. Ihonvere, Underdevelopment and Human Rights Violations in Africa, in EMERGING HUMAN RIGHTS 57 (George W. Shepherd, Jr. & Mark O.C. Anikpo eds., 1990). For an interesting theoretical application of underdevelopment theory in Africa in general, see CLAUDE AKE, REVOLUTIONARY PRESSURES IN AFRICA (1978).
38. See generally RODNEY, supra note 8, at 22; FRANTZ FANON, THE WRETCHED OF THE EARTH (1968); Julius O. Ihonvere, Underdevelopment and Human Rights Violations in Africa, in EMERGING HUMAN RIGHTS 57 (George W. Shepherd, Jr. & Mark O.C. Anikpo eds., 1990). For an interesting theoretical application of underdevelopment theory in Africa in general, see CLAUDE AKE, REVOLUTIONARY PRESSURES IN AFRICA (1978).
39. See BEDJAOUI, supra note 1, at 20.
40. See Manfred Wöhlcke, The Causes of Continuing Underdevelopment, 47 LAW AND STATE 51, 55 (1993).
41. For an excellent description of these activities, see David Greenberg, Law and Development in Light of Dependency Theory, in LAW AND DEVELOPMENT 89 (1992).
42. See Wöhlcke, supra note 36, at 55.
43. See id.
44. See Osinbajo & Ajayi, supra note 6, at 737.
45. See id.
46. See N.J. Udombana, The Rule of Law and the Rule of Man in a Military Dictatorship in CURRENT THEMES IN NIGERIAN LAW 73 (I.O. Agbede & E.O. Akanki eds., 1997); see generally Richard Falk, Militarization and Human Rights in the Third World, 8 BULLETIN OF PEACE PROPOSALS 220 (1977).
47. See N.J. Udombana, The Rule of Law and the Rule of Man in a Military Dictatorship in CURRENT THEMES IN NIGERIAN LAW 73 (I.O. Agbede & E.O. Akanki eds., 1997); see generally Richard Falk, Militarization and Human Rights in the Third World, 8 BULLETIN OF PEACE PROPOSALS 220 (1977).
48. See, e.g., Karl Vasak, A 30-year Struggle, 11 UNESCO COURIER 29 (1977).
49. See C. Welch Jr., Human Rights as a Problem in Contemporary Africa, in HUMAN RIGHTS AND DEVELOPMENT IN AFRICA 24 (Welch and Meltzer eds., 1984).
50. Karel Vasak, For the Third Generation of Human Rights: The Right of Solidarity, Inaugural Lecture, Tenth Study Session, Int'l Inst. of Hum. Rts., July 1979.
51. See Cees Flinterman, Three Generations of Human Rights, in HUMAN RIGHTS IN A PLURALIST WORLD 76 (Jan Berting et al. eds., 1990).
52. See id.
53. See id.
54. See Karel Vasak, For the Third Generation of Human Rights: The Right of Solidarity, Inaugural Lecture, Tenth Study Session, International Institute of Human Rights, July 1979, at 3.
55. See id.
56. See Flinterrnan, supra note 46, at 77.
57. Id. at 78.
58. See Mohammed Bedjaoui, The Right to Development in INTERNATIONAL LAW: ACHIEVEMENT AND PROSPECTS 1177, 1182 (Mohammed Bedjaoui, ed., 1991); see also HENRY J. STEINER & PHILIP ALSTON, INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS IN CONTEXT 1116 (1996).
59. See Mohammed Bedjaoui, The Right to Development in INTERNATIONAL LAW: ACHIEVEMENT AND PROSPECTS 1177, 1182 (Mohammed Bedjaoui, ed., 1991); see also HENRY J. STEINER & PHILIP ALSTON, INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS IN CONTEXT 1116 (1996).
60. See Rhoda E. Howard, Human Rights, Development and Foreign Policy, in HUMAN RIGHTS AND DEVELOPMENT: INTERNATIONAL VIEWS 215 (1989).
61. INTERNATIONAL COMMISSION OF JURISTS, DEVELOPMENT, HUMAN RIGHTS AND THE RULE OF LAW 223 (1981).
62. See FRANK NEWMAN & DAVID WEISSBRODT, INTERNATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS 409 (1990).
63. Cf. International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, adopted 16 Dec. 1966, G.A. Res. 2200 (XXI), U.N. GAOR, 21st Sess., Supp. No. 16, U.N. Doc. A/6316 (1966), 993 U.N.T.S. 3 (entered into force 3 Jan. 1976), reprinted in 6 I.L.M. 360 (1967); see also African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights, adopted 26 June 1981, O.A.U. Doc. CAB/LEG/67/3 Rev. 5 (entered into force 21 Oct. 1986), reprinted in 21 I.L.M. 58 (1982). In articles 20-24 of the Charter, the right to existence, the right to economic, social, and cultural development and the right to national and international peace and security have been formulated. See generally Philip Alston, Making Space for New Human Rights: The Case of the Right to Development, 1 HARV. HUM. RTS. Y.B. 3 (1988).
64. There is a large body of literature on human rights and development. This literature spans discussions of the concept of the right to development, strategies for local empowerment, dependency theory and the relationship between human rights and global economic processes. There is also an extensive development literature which may not use the language of rights. Sources of information on development and human rights include newspapers, the publications and documents of international organizations, books and articles. A few of these will be referred to in the course of the discussion. But see generally, Bibliography. Symposium: Development as an Emerging Human Rights, 15 CAL. WESTERN INT'L L.J. 639-46 (1985).
65. Philip Alston, Revitalising United Nations Work on Human Rights and Development, 18 MELB. U.L. REV. 216, 218 (1992).
66. See id.
67. See id. at 219.
68. See BEDJAOUI, supra note 3, at 21.
69. See, e.g., Declaration on the Establishment of a New International Economic Order (NIEO), UN G.A. Res. 3201 (S-VI) of May 1,1974. The NIEO comprises three ingredients. The first is the elimination of the economic dependence of developing countries on developed country enterprise. The second is to promote the accelerated development of the economies of the developing countries on the principle of self-reliance. The third is the introduction of appropriate institutional changes for the global management of world resources in the interests of mankind as a whole. See Hope, Basic Needs and Technology Transfer Issues in the New International Economic Order, 42 AM. J. ECON. & SOC. 394 (1983).
70. See G.A. Res. 1161 (XII) (1957), 1957 U.N.Y.B. 1161, Sales No. 58.I.1.
71. See G.A. Res. 1710 (XVI) (1961), 1961 U.N.Y.B. 1710, Sales No. 62.I.1.
72. See Measures to Accelerate the Promotion of Respect for Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, G.A. Res. 2027 (XX) (1965), U.N. GAOR, 1381st plen. mtg.
73. See id.
74. U.N. Doc. E/3347/Rev. 1 (1960).
75. Id. at ¶ 90.
76. First UN World Conference on Human Rights, 22 April-13 May 1968. See G.A. Res. 2081 (XX) of 20 December 1965.
77. See G.A. Res. 1161 (XII) (1957).
78. Proclamation of Teheran, Final Act of the International Conference on Human Rights, 22 April-13 May 1968, ¶ 12. For the text of the Proclamation, see THE UNITED NATIONS AND HUMAN RIGHTS, 1945-95, at 247 (1995).
79. See Declaration on Social Progress and Development G.A. Res. 2542 (XXIV) (1969), 1969 U.N.Y.B. 2542, Sales No. E.71.I.1.
80. See id.
81. Charter of Economic Rights and Duties of States, G.A. Res. 3281 (XXIX) of 12 Dec. 1974.
82. Cf. Res. 3202 (S-VI), (1974).
83. See id.
84. G.A. Res., GAOR 32nd Sess., U.N. Doc. A/Res/32 (1977).
85. CHR/Res/4 (XXIII), U.N. ESCOR, 62d sess., Supp. No. 6, ¶ 4, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1257 (1977). This resolution was the first recognition of the right to development as a human right and the starting signal for a series of UN activities. See Karl de Vey Mestdagh, The Right to Development, 28 N.I.L.R. 31, 34 (1982).
86. See id.
87. See Akin Oyebode, UN and the Protection of Human Rights in Africa, in AFRICA AND THE UN SYSTEM: THE FIRST FIFTY YEARS 90, 92 (G.A. Obiozor & A. Ajala eds., 1998).
88. See STEINER & ALSTON, supra note 53, at 1110.
89. Declaration on the Right to Development, G.A. Res. 41/128, annex, 41 U.N. GAOR Supp. (No. 53) at 186, U.N. Doc. A/41/153 (1986) [hereinafter DRD].
90. The Federal Republic of Germany maintained that the DRD would lead to the erosion of individual rights. Japan maintained that the right to development might be invoked to legitimize violations of the rights of citizens. Australia maintained that the DRD failed to draw a distinction between people's rights and individual rights. The United States maintained that the DRD tended to dilute and confuse the human rights agenda. The United Kingdom maintained that the Declaration provided an over-simplified view of the complex relationship between disarmament, security and development. It further maintained that the Declaration provided a mistaken link between the promotion of human right and the establishment of a new international economic order.
91. The United States was the sole country to vote against it. This "signals the continued need for rich capitalist nations to recognise the legitimate rights claims of poor nation." Howard, supra note 54, at 215.
92. See DRD, supra note 83, pmbl. ¶ 2.
93. Id. art. 1(1).
94. See id. art. 1(2). Cf. the General Assembly Resolution on Permanent Sovereignty over Natural Resources, UN Res. 1803 (XVII) of 14 December 1962. As Mohammed Bedjaoui points out, there is a necessary relationship between authentic sovereignty and the right to development, between true sovereignty over the wealth of a country and that country's right to development. See BEDJAOUI, supra note 53.
95. See DRD, supra note 83, art. 2(2).
96. This is a linguistic and juristic confusion. Right and duty are jural correlatives. Every right, or claim, implies the existence of a correlative duty. Right has no content apart from the duty. See R.W.M. DIAS, JURISPRUDENCE 25-26 (1985).
97. See DRD, supra note 83, art. 2(3).
98. See id. art. 8(1).
99. See id.
100. See F.V. GARCIA AMADOR,THE EMERGING INTERNATIONAL LAW OF DEVELOPMENT 49 (1990).
101. See General Conference of the International Labour Organization (26th Sess.), adopted 12 May 1944, available on International Labour Organization 〈http://ilolex.ilo.ch:1567/ public/english/docs/convdisp.htm〉.
102. See e.g., Universal Declaration of Human Rights, adopted 10 Dec. 1948, G.A. Res. 217 A(III), U.N. GAOR, 3d Sess., (Resolutions, pt. 1), at 71, arts. 22-27, U.N. Doc A/810 (1948), reprinted in 43 AM. J. INT'L L. SUPP. 127 (1949); arts. XI-XIV of the American Declaration of Rights and Duties of States (1948).
103. See U.N. ESCOR, 35th sess., Agenda Item 8, ¶ 27, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1334 (1979).
104. Id.
105. See CHR/Res./5 (XXXV).
106. See G.A. Res./34/46 (1979).
107. See CHR/Res./6 (XXXVI) (1980).
108. See GEORGES ABI-SAAB, The Legal Formulation of a Right to Development in Academy of International Law, in THE RIGHT TO DEVELOPMENT AT THE INTERNATIONAL LEVEL 164 (René Jean ed., 1980).
109. Id.
110. The right to self-determination is a cornerstone of the international legal system, and has been a premier concern of the international community since the creation of the Untied Nations in 1945. The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, adopted 16 Dec. 1966, G.A. Res. 2200 (XXI), U.N. GAOR, 21st Sess., Supp. No. 16, art. 1, U.N. Doc. A/6316 (1966), 999 U.N.T.s. 171 (entered into force 23 Mar. 1976) provides, for example, in article 1 that "[a]ll people have the right to self-determination. By virtue of that right they freely determine their political status and freely pursue their economic, social, and cultural development." See also The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, adopted 16 Dec. 1966, G.A. Res. 2200 (XXI), U.N. GAOR, 21st Sess., Supp. No. 16, art. 1(1), U.N. Doc. A/6316 (1966), 993 U.N.T.S. 3 (entered into force 3 Jan. 1976). The self-determination provisions are important because the realization of this right is a fundamental prerequisite for the effective guarantee and observance of individual human rights. It is also pivotal in securing and strengthening human rights protection measures. See CENTER FOR HUMAN RIGHTS, FACT SHEET NO. 16 (Rev. 1), at 7.
111. See BEDJAOUI, supra note 1.
112. See id.; Jack Donnely, In Search of the Unicorn: The Jurisprudence and Politics of the Right to Development, 15 CAL. W. INT'L L.J. 473, 482 (1985).
113. BEDJAOUI, supra note 53; see also Weeramantry, The Right to Development, 25 IND. J. INT'L. L. 482 (1985).
114. See DRD, supra note 83, art. 6(3).
115. See THE UNITED NATIONS AND HUMAN RIGHTS, supra note 72, at 75.
116. See DRD, supra note 83, pmbl. ¶ 13.
117. See id. art. 2(1).
118. See Theo van Boven, Human Rights and Development: The UN Experience in FORSYTHE 124.
119. The Consultation took place in Geneva, Switzerland from 8 to 12 January 1990.
120. See also the Declaration on the Progressive Development of Principles of Public International Law relating to New International Economic Order. The Declaration was adopted at the 62nd Conference of the International Law Association held in Seoul, Korea in August 1986. The Declaration deals, inter alia, with issues, such as: the principles of equity and solidarity and the entitlement to development, the right to development, the principle of common heritage of mankind, and the participatory equality of developing countries in international economic relations.
121. See Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action, U.N. GAOR, World Conf. On Hum. Rts., 48th Sess., 22d plen. mtg., part I, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.157/24 (1993), reprinted in 32 I.L.M. 1661 (1993).
122. See id. at art. 31.
123. African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights, adopted 26 June 1981, O.A.U. Doc. CAB/LEG/67/3 Rev. 5 (entered into force 21 Oct. 1986), reprinted in 21 I.L.M. 58 (1982). For its official Web site, see 〈http://wwwl.umn.edu/humanrts/instree/ z1afchar.htm〉.
124. Id. at art. 22.
125. See Jose Zalaquette, The Relationship Between Development and Human Rights, in FOOD AS A HUMAN RIGHT 146 (Asbjorn Eide et al. eds., 1984).
126. Report of the Working Group on the Right to Development, 3d Sess., U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/ 1995/27.
127. See THE UNITED NATIONS AND HUMAN RIGHTS, supra note 72, at 75.
128. See Weeramantry, supra note 107.
129. FANON, supra note 34, at 315.
130. See, e.g., Statement to the World Conference on Human Rights on behalf of the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, U.N. Doc. E/1993/22, Annex III.
131. See Augustin Oyowe, The Way ahead for Africa, 156 THE ACP-EU COURIER 1996, at 72.
132. THE POEMS OF WILLIAM WORDSWORTH 115 (NOWELL CHARLES SMITH ed., 1908).
133. See Ved Nanda, Development and Human Rights: The Role of International Law and Organizations, HUMAN RIGHTS AND THIRD WORLD DEVELOPMENT 301 (G.W. Shepherd, Jr. & Y.P. Nanda eds., 1985).
134. See THE UNITED NATIONS AND HUMAN RIGHTS, supra note 72, at 76.
135. The notion of happiness lacks philosophical exactitude. There is no agreement on its substance or source. We, however, know that it is "a profound instinctive union with the stream of life." BERTRAND RUSSELL, THE CONQUEST OF HAPPINESS 249 (1930). Cf. BILLY GRAHAM, THE SECRET OF HAPPINESS Preface (1956). There happiness is associated with "serenity, confidence, contentment, peace, joy and soul satisfaction."
136. The notion of happiness lacks philosophical exactitude. There is no agreement on its substance or source. We, however, know that it is "a profound instinctive union with the stream of life." BERTRAND RUSSELL, THE CONQUEST OF HAPPINESS 249 (1930). Cf. BILLY GRAHAM, THE SECRET OF HAPPINESS Preface (1956). There happiness is associated with "serenity, confidence, contentment, peace, joy and soul satisfaction."
137. C.S. LEWIS, MERE CHRISTIANITY 167 (1944).
138. The basic needs approach goes back to the World Employment Conference of 1976. During the Conference, the Dutch Minister for Development Cooperation suggested that a basic needs strategy should constitute a central theme or basis for the work of the whole UN system. Such a strategy should concentrate on those most in need and on essential human needs. For a history of the emergence of the basic needs strategy, see UNESCO Doc. 105 EX17 ¶" 16-54 (22 Sept. 1978).
139. See N.J. Udombana, Socio-Economic Rights and the Nigerian Worker, 3 MOD. PRACTICE J. FIN. & INVEST. L. 397, 411 (1999).
140. JEAN DRÈZE & AMARTYA SEN, HUNGER AND PUBLIC ACTION 20 (1989).
141. See GALBRAITH, supra note 27, at 274.
142. See Altaf Gauhar, What is Wrong with Basic Needs?, 4 THIRD WORLD Q. xxi (July 1982).
143. See U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/A/SR 1489.
144. The "Vision 2010" Committee was empanelled to draw up, inter alia, an economic blueprint for Nigeria for the next millenium. The Committee, headed by Chief Ernest Shonekan, was obviously a talk shop. It provided relief for the dictator who was being pressurized to convene a Sovereign National Conference to address fundamental national issues. See Report of the Vision 2010 Committee, available on 〈http:// www.nigeriangalleria.com/business/2010.html〉.
145. Jose Diokno, Text of the Amnesty International 1978 Sean MacBride Human Rights Lecture, AI Index: ICM01/11/78.
146. U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1488, 31 Dec. 1981, cited in THE UNITED NATIONS AND HUMAN RIGHTS, supra note 72, at 76.
147. According to the 1996 ANNUAL CORRUPTION PERCEPTION INDEX, published by Transparency International, an NGO, the most corrupt country was judged to be Nigeria, followed by Pakistan, Kenya, Bangladesh, and China, quoted in UNITED NATIONS DEVELOPMENT REPORT of 1998 for Nigeria, at 31.
148. According to the 1996 ANNUAL CORRUPTION PERCEPTION INDEX, published by Transparency International, an NGO, the most corrupt country was judged to be Nigeria, followed by Pakistan, Kenya, Bangladesh, and China, quoted in UNITED NATIONS DEVELOPMENT REPORT of 1998 for Nigeria, at 31.
149. See THE GUARDIAN (Nigeria), 9 Mar. 2000, at 8.
150. See THE GUARDIAN (Nigeria), 8 Feb. 2000, at 1. In 1992, it was reported in The Financial Times that 300 Nigerians own over U.S. $30 billion in European and North American banks. Similar cases of mind-boggling foreign accounts belonging to other African citizens abound. See Afe Babalola, Legal and Judicial Systems and Corruption, in CORRUPTION, DEMOCRACY AND HUMAN RIGHTS IN WEST AFRICA, 93, 94 (A. Aderinwale ed., 1994).
151. See THE GUARDIAN (Nigeria), 8 Feb. 2000, at 1. In 1992, it was reported in The Financial Times that 300 Nigerians own over U.S. $30 billion in European and North American banks. Similar cases of mind-boggling foreign accounts belonging to other African citizens abound. See Afe Babalola, Legal and Judicial Systems and Corruption, in CORRUPTION, DEMOCRACY AND HUMAN RIGHTS IN WEST AFRICA, 93, 94 (A. Aderinwale ed., 1994).
152. General Elsenhower, quoted in Weeramantry, supra note 107, at 482.
153. See The Limburg Principles on the Implementation of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, adopted 8 Jan. 1987, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 43rd Sess., Agenda Item 8, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1987/17/Annex(1987), reprinted in The Limburg Principles on the Implementation of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 9 HUM. RTS. Q. 122 (1987). The Limburg Principles are statements on the current state of international law on economic, social, and cultural rights by 29 international law experts who met to consider the implementaion of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (Maastricht, the Netherlands, 2-6 June 1986).
154. Id. at 126, art. 28.
155. ADAM SMITH, THE WEALTH OF NATIONS (R.H. Campbell & A.S. Skinner eds., 1976).
156. NICCOLO MACHIAVELLI, THE PRINCE, 94 (trans. Luigi Ricci 1952).
157. Manfred Nowak, Future Strategies for the International Protection and Realization of Human Rights, in THE FUTURE OF HUMAN RIGHTS PROTECTION IN A CHANGING WORLD 60 (1991).
158. The Berlin Conference of 1884-85 saw the partition of Africa into various spheres of influence by the European powers. The event "had a profound impact on the continents of Africa and Europe and their peoples, and, indeed, the global system at large," AFRICA AND EUROPE: FROM PARTITION TO INDEPENDENCE OR DEPENDENCE? Preface (Amadu Sesay ed., 1986). See generally RODNEY, supra note 8; BASIL DAVIDSON, THE BLACK MAN'S BURDEN: AFRICA AND THE CURSE OF THE NATION STATE (1992).
159. The Berlin Conference of 1884-85 saw the partition of Africa into various spheres of influence by the European powers. The event "had a profound impact on the continents of Africa and Europe and their peoples, and, indeed, the global system at large," AFRICA AND EUROPE: FROM PARTITION TO INDEPENDENCE OR DEPENDENCE? Preface (Amadu Sesay ed., 1986). See generally RODNEY, supra note 8; BASIL DAVIDSON, THE BLACK MAN'S BURDEN: AFRICA AND THE CURSE OF THE NATION STATE (1992).
160. See J.J. Olloqui, The International Debt Crisis in INTERNATIONAL FINANCE AND EXTERNAL DEBT MANAGEMENT 5 (Lagos: UNCTC/UNDP/FMJ, 1991); Yemi Osinbajo & Olukonyinsola Ajayi, External Debt Management: Case Study of Nigeria INTERNATIONAL FINANCE 69.
161. See J.J. Olloqui, The International Debt Crisis in INTERNATIONAL FINANCE AND EXTERNAL DEBT MANAGEMENT 5 (Lagos: UNCTC/UNDP/FMJ, 1991); Yemi Osinbajo & Olukonyinsola Ajayi, External Debt Management: Case Study of Nigeria INTERNATIONAL FINANCE 69.
162. See generally M.A. Ajomo et al., REGULATION OF TRADE AND INVESTMENT IN AN ERA OF STRUCTURAL ADJUSTMENT; THE AFRICAN EXPERIENCE (1995).
163. See Osinbajo & Ajayi, supra note 6, at 731.
164. See World Debt and the Human Condition: Structural Adjustment and the Right to Development (Ved P. Nanda et al. eds., 1993).
165. L. Michael Hager, 89 AM. J. INT'L L. 464 (1995).
166. Oyowo, supra note 125. See generally Tsui Selatile, African Alternative Framework to Structural Adjustment Programme for Socio-Economic Recovery and Transformation, in REGULATION OF TRADE AND INVESTMENT IN AN ERA OF STRUCTURAL ADJUSTMENT: THE AFRICAN EXPERIENCE 1 (1995).
167. Their policies have become so deeply insinuated in national policies without the concomitant accountability that usually accompanies political power. See J. Oloka-Onyango, Beyond the Rhetoric: Reinvigorating the Struggle for Economic and Social Rights in Africa, 26 CAL. WEST. INT'L L.J. 1, 10 (1995).
168. See CHARLES C. OKOLIE, INTERNATIONAL LAW PERSPECTIVES OF THE DEVELOPING COUNTRIES 4 (1978).
169. See WOLFGANG FRIEDMANN, THE CHANGING STRUCTURE OF INTERNATIONAL LAW 60 (1964).
170. Report of the Working Group on the Right to Development on its Second Session, 5 Sept. 1994, UN Doc. E/CN.4/1995/11, excerpted in THE UNITED NATIONS AND HUMAN RIGHTS, supra note 72, at 481.
171. See FANON, supra note 34.
172. See Convention on the Law of the Sea, adopted 10 Dec. 1982 at art. 136, U.N. A/ CONF. 62/122, reprinted in 21 I.L.M. 1261 (1982).
173. See supra note 159.
174. See THE UNITED NATIONS AND HUMAN RIGHTS, supra note 72, at 77-78.
175. For its official Web site, see The United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, 〈http://www.unhchr.ch〈.
176. See General Assembly Resolution creating the post of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, U.N. GAOR, G.A. Res. 48/141 of 20 Dec. 1993, cited in THE UNITED NATIONS AND HUMAN RIGHTS, supra note 72, at 471.
177. Id. art. 4.
178. See M.G. Kaladharan Nayar, Human Rights and Economic Development: The Legal Foundation, 2 UNIVERSAL HUM. RTS. 55 (1980).
179. See e.g., U.N. CHARTER arts. 55, 56, signed 26 Jun. 1945, 59 Stat. 1031, T.S. No. 993, 3 Bevans 1153 (entered into force 24 Oct. 1945).
180. This was the consensus of international experts expressed in Montreal Statement of the Assembly for Human Rights, March 22-27, 1968 at VII.
181. See van Boven, supra note 112, at 133.
182. See DRD, supra note 83, art.3(3).
183. See THE UNITED NATIONS AND HUMAN RIGHTS, supra note 72, at 78.
184. See id.
185. See International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, supra note 105, art. 2(1).
186. Copenhagen Declaration on Social Development and Programme of Action of the World Summit for Social Development, adopted 12 Mar. 1995, at Annex I, ¶ 23, U.N. Doc. A/CONF. 166/9 (1995), available on 〈gopher://gopher.undp.org:70/00/unconfs/ wssd/summit/off/a-9.en〉.
187. See DRD, supra note 83, pmbl. ¶ 12.
188. See Arnold, supra note 12, at x.
189. See Okolie, supra note 157, at 3.
190. See THE GUARDIAN (Nigeria), 16 March 2000, at 40.
191. Kofi Annan, Africa: Maintaining the Momentum, Address at the 2000 Commonwealth Lecture, in THE GUARDIAN (Nigeria), 17 March 2000, at 21.
192. See MICHAEL BLAKENEY, LEGAL ASPECTS OF THE TRANSFER OF TECHNOLOGY TO DEVELOPING COUNTRIES 57 (1989).
193. See Solow, Technological Change and the Aggregate Production, 39 REV. ECON. & STATISTICS (1957), quoted in Ewing, UNCTAD and the Transfer of Technology, 10 JWTL 197 (1976).
194. See Solow, Technological Change and the Aggregate Production, 39 REV. ECON. & STATISTICS (1957), quoted in Ewing, UNCTAD and the Transfer of Technology, 10 JWTL 197 (1976).
195. See generally Surendra J. Patel, The Technological Dependence of Developing Countries, in 12 J. MOD. AFR. STUD. 9-13 (1974).
196. Previous attempts to put this in the agenda of the International Law Commission for deliberation did not receive the approval of the Commission. One hopes that in the immediate future, the Commission will revisit this crucial issue and place it in its agenda for development and possible codification.
197. See, e.g., Lome IV Convention of November 4, 1885, art. 5, in ACP-EU COURIER NO. 155, Jan.-Feb. 1996, at 11. "Cooperation shall be directed towards development centred on man, the main protagonist and beneficiary of development, which thus entails respect for and promotion of all human rights." Id. The Resolution of the Council of European Communities and of the Member States on Human Rights, Democracy and Development, 28 Nov. 1991, is also worthy of note: "The Community and its Member states will explicitly introduce the consideration of relations with developing countries: human rights clauses will be inserted in future cooperation agreements. Regular discussions on human rights and democracy will be held, within the framework of development cooperation, with the aim of seeking improvement." In 1992, the Council of Europe issued statements on Zaire, Togo, Burundi, Kenya, Algeria, and Equatorial Guinea on human rights situations with a view "to heighten public awareness issues and bring pressure to bear on the governments I question to change their attitudes." See Report on the Implementation of the Resolution of the Council and of the Member States Meeting in the Council on Human Rights, Democracy and Development, adopted on 28 Nov. 1991, Comm'n of the Eur. Communities, SEC (92) 1915, final communique, Brussels (1992).
198. See Edward Broadbent, Human Rights and Democratic Development, in HUMAN RIGHTS IN THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY: A GLOBAL CHALLENGE 717 (K.E. Mahoney & Paul Mahoney eds., 1993).
199. See Georges Abi-Saab, supra note 102, at 171.
200. It is gratifying to note that the Nigerian government of Olusegun Obasanjo is seriously discussing with Western nations on the possibility of debt relief for the country. There appears to be positive signs. It is reported that Canada has cancelled Nigeria's debts to her. See THE GUARDIAN (Nigeria), 21 Aug. 1999, at 3. Other Third World leaders should follow suit.
201. Claude Ake, The African Context of Human Rights, AFRICA TODAY 5 (1987). Cf. Rhoda Howard, The "Full-Belly" Thesis: Should Economic Rights Take Priority over Civil and Political Rights? Evidence from sub-Saharan Africa, 15 HUM. RTS. Q. 467 (1983).
202. Claude Ake, The African Context of Human Rights, AFRICA TODAY 5 (1987). Cf. Rhoda Howard, The "Full-Belly" Thesis: Should Economic Rights Take Priority over Civil and Political Rights? Evidence from sub-Saharan Africa, 15 HUM. RTS. Q. 467 (1983).
203. See Petronella Maramba, Development and Human Rights: Introduction, in HUMAN RIGHTS IN THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY: A GLOBAL CHALLENGE 679 (K.E. Mahoney & Paul Mahoney eds., 1993).
204. See U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/404/Rev.1).
205. See Copenhagen Declaration, supra note 21, at 3.
206. See e.g., G.A. Res. 32/130 Dec. 1977.