'A nation of porters': The Nyamwezi and the labour market in nineteenth-century Tanzania

Journal of African History

Volumn 41, Issue 2, 2000, Pages 173-195

  Rockel, Stephen J ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO   (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY; LABOR MARKET; NINETEENTH CENTURY; TRADE FLOW;

TANZANIA;

EID: 0033861132     PISSN: 00218537     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0021853799007628     Document Type: Article

References (217)

1. 1 Research for this article was aided by a Social Science and Humanities Research Council of Canada Doctoral Fellowship and a grant from the Associates of the University of Toronto. Thanks to the Tanzanian Commission for Science and Technology and members of the Department of History at the University of Dar es Salaam for assistance during my research trip in 1992-3. Thanks also to Bill Freund and Hamshaveni Chetty for commenting on versions of the paper, and also to the anonymous readers of this journal for their helpful suggestions.
2. There is a small but significant recent literature on pre-colonial porterage in Africa. Of general importance is Catherine Coquery-Vidrovitch and Paul E. Lovejoy (eds.), The Workers of African Trade (Beverly Hills, 1985). For caravans in Tanzania, see Edward A. Alpers, 'The coast and the development of the caravan trade', in I. N. Kimambo and A. J. Temu (eds.), A History of Tanzania (Nairobi, 1969), 35-56; Richard Gray and David Birmingham (eds.), Pre-Colonial African Trade (London, 1970); John Iliffe, A Modern History of Tanganyika (Cambridge, 1979); T. O. Beidelman, 'The organization and maintenance of caravans by the Church Missionary Society in Tanzania in the nineteenth century', International Journal of African Historical Studies, 15 (1982), 601-23; Abdul Sheriff, Slaves, Spices and Ivory in Zanzibar: Integration of an East African Commercial Empire into the World Economy, 1770-1873 (London, 1987); Juhani Koponen, People and Production in Late Pre-colonial Tanzania: History and Structures (Jyväskylä, 1988); Jonathan Glassman, Feasts and Riot: Revelry, Rebellion and Popular Consciousness on the Swahili Coast, 1856-1888 (Portsmouth NH, London, Nairobi, Dar es Salaam, 1995). The specialist literature on porters includes S. C. Lamden, 'Some aspects of porterage in East Africa', Tanganyika Notes and Records, 61 (1963), 155-64; Robert Cummings, 'A note on the history of caravan porters in East Africa', Kenya Historical Review, 2 (1973); Donald Herbert Simpson, Dark Companions: The African Contribution to the European Exploration of East Africa (London, 1975); Stephen J. Rockel, 'Wage labor and the culture of porterage in nineteenth-century Tanzania: the central caravan routes', Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East, 15 (1995), 14-24; Stephen J. Rockel, 'Caravan porters of the nyika: labour, culture and society in nineteenth-century Tanzania' (Ph.D. thesis, University of Toronto, 1997).
3. There is a small but significant recent literature on pre-colonial porterage in Africa. Of general importance is Catherine Coquery-Vidrovitch and Paul E. Lovejoy (eds.), The Workers of African Trade (Beverly Hills, 1985). For caravans in Tanzania, see Edward A. Alpers, 'The coast and the development of the caravan trade', in I. N. Kimambo and A. J. Temu (eds.), A History of Tanzania (Nairobi, 1969), 35-56; Richard Gray and David Birmingham (eds.), Pre-Colonial African Trade (London, 1970); John Iliffe, A Modern History of Tanganyika (Cambridge, 1979); T. O. Beidelman, 'The organization and maintenance of caravans by the Church Missionary Society in Tanzania in the nineteenth century', International Journal of African Historical Studies, 15 (1982), 601-23; Abdul Sheriff, Slaves, Spices and Ivory in Zanzibar: Integration of an East African Commercial Empire into the World Economy, 1770-1873 (London, 1987); Juhani Koponen, People and Production in Late Pre-colonial Tanzania: History and Structures (Jyväskylä, 1988); Jonathan Glassman, Feasts and Riot: Revelry, Rebellion and Popular Consciousness on the Swahili Coast, 1856-1888 (Portsmouth NH, London, Nairobi, Dar es Salaam, 1995). The specialist literature on porters includes S. C. Lamden, 'Some aspects of porterage in East Africa', Tanganyika Notes and Records, 61 (1963), 155-64; Robert Cummings, 'A note on the history of caravan porters in East Africa', Kenya Historical Review, 2 (1973); Donald Herbert Simpson, Dark Companions: The African Contribution to the European Exploration of East Africa (London, 1975); Stephen J. Rockel, 'Wage labor and the culture of porterage in nineteenth-century Tanzania: the central caravan routes', Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East, 15 (1995), 14-24; Stephen J. Rockel, 'Caravan porters of the nyika: labour, culture and society in nineteenth-century Tanzania' (Ph.D. thesis, University of Toronto, 1997).
4. There is a small but significant recent literature on pre-colonial porterage in Africa. Of general importance is Catherine Coquery-Vidrovitch and Paul E. Lovejoy (eds.), The Workers of African Trade (Beverly Hills, 1985). For caravans in Tanzania, see Edward A. Alpers, 'The coast and the development of the caravan trade', in I. N. Kimambo and A. J. Temu (eds.), A History of Tanzania (Nairobi, 1969), 35-56; Richard Gray and David Birmingham (eds.), Pre-Colonial African Trade (London, 1970); John Iliffe, A Modern History of Tanganyika (Cambridge, 1979); T. O. Beidelman, 'The organization and maintenance of caravans by the Church Missionary Society in Tanzania in the nineteenth century', International Journal of African Historical Studies, 15 (1982), 601-23; Abdul Sheriff, Slaves, Spices and Ivory in Zanzibar: Integration of an East African Commercial Empire into the World Economy, 1770-1873 (London, 1987); Juhani Koponen, People and Production in Late Pre-colonial Tanzania: History and Structures (Jyväskylä, 1988); Jonathan Glassman, Feasts and Riot: Revelry, Rebellion and Popular Consciousness on the Swahili Coast, 1856-1888 (Portsmouth NH, London, Nairobi, Dar es Salaam, 1995). The specialist literature on porters includes S. C. Lamden, 'Some aspects of porterage in East Africa', Tanganyika Notes and Records, 61 (1963), 155-64; Robert Cummings, 'A note on the history of caravan porters in East Africa', Kenya Historical Review, 2 (1973); Donald Herbert Simpson, Dark Companions: The African Contribution to the European Exploration of East Africa (London, 1975); Stephen J. Rockel, 'Wage labor and the culture of porterage in nineteenth-century Tanzania: the central caravan routes', Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East, 15 (1995), 14-24; Stephen J. Rockel, 'Caravan porters of the nyika: labour, culture and society in nineteenth-century Tanzania' (Ph.D. thesis, University of Toronto, 1997).
5. There is a small but significant recent literature on pre-colonial porterage in Africa. Of general importance is Catherine Coquery-Vidrovitch and Paul E. Lovejoy (eds.), The Workers of African Trade (Beverly Hills, 1985). For caravans in Tanzania, see Edward A. Alpers, 'The coast and the development of the caravan trade', in I. N. Kimambo and A. J. Temu (eds.), A History of Tanzania (Nairobi, 1969), 35-56; Richard Gray and David Birmingham (eds.), Pre-Colonial African Trade (London, 1970); John Iliffe, A Modern History of Tanganyika (Cambridge, 1979); T. O. Beidelman, 'The organization and maintenance of caravans by the Church Missionary Society in Tanzania in the nineteenth century', International Journal of African Historical Studies, 15 (1982), 601-23; Abdul Sheriff, Slaves, Spices and Ivory in Zanzibar: Integration of an East African Commercial Empire into the World Economy, 1770-1873 (London, 1987); Juhani Koponen, People and Production in Late Pre-colonial Tanzania: History and Structures (Jyväskylä, 1988); Jonathan Glassman, Feasts and Riot: Revelry, Rebellion and Popular Consciousness on the Swahili Coast, 1856-1888 (Portsmouth NH, London, Nairobi, Dar es Salaam, 1995). The specialist literature on porters includes S. C. Lamden, 'Some aspects of porterage in East Africa', Tanganyika Notes and Records, 61 (1963), 155-64; Robert Cummings, 'A note on the history of caravan porters in East Africa', Kenya Historical Review, 2 (1973); Donald Herbert Simpson, Dark Companions: The African Contribution to the European Exploration of East Africa (London, 1975); Stephen J. Rockel, 'Wage labor and the culture of porterage in nineteenth-century Tanzania: the central caravan routes', Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East, 15 (1995), 14-24; Stephen J. Rockel, 'Caravan porters of the nyika: labour, culture and society in nineteenth-century Tanzania' (Ph.D. thesis, University of Toronto, 1997).
6. There is a small but significant recent literature on pre-colonial porterage in Africa. Of general importance is Catherine Coquery-Vidrovitch and Paul E. Lovejoy (eds.), The Workers of African Trade (Beverly Hills, 1985). For caravans in Tanzania, see Edward A. Alpers, 'The coast and the development of the caravan trade', in I. N. Kimambo and A. J. Temu (eds.), A History of Tanzania (Nairobi, 1969), 35-56; Richard Gray and David Birmingham (eds.), Pre-Colonial African Trade (London, 1970); John Iliffe, A Modern History of Tanganyika (Cambridge, 1979); T. O. Beidelman, 'The organization and maintenance of caravans by the Church Missionary Society in Tanzania in the nineteenth century', International Journal of African Historical Studies, 15 (1982), 601-23; Abdul Sheriff, Slaves, Spices and Ivory in Zanzibar: Integration of an East African Commercial Empire into the World Economy, 1770-1873 (London, 1987); Juhani Koponen, People and Production in Late Pre-colonial Tanzania: History and Structures (Jyväskylä, 1988); Jonathan Glassman, Feasts and Riot: Revelry, Rebellion and Popular Consciousness on the Swahili Coast, 1856-1888 (Portsmouth NH, London, Nairobi, Dar es Salaam, 1995). The specialist literature on porters includes S. C. Lamden, 'Some aspects of porterage in East Africa', Tanganyika Notes and Records, 61 (1963), 155-64; Robert Cummings, 'A note on the history of caravan porters in East Africa', Kenya Historical Review, 2 (1973); Donald Herbert Simpson, Dark Companions: The African Contribution to the European Exploration of East Africa (London, 1975); Stephen J. Rockel, 'Wage labor and the culture of porterage in nineteenth-century Tanzania: the central caravan routes', Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East, 15 (1995), 14-24; Stephen J. Rockel, 'Caravan porters of the nyika: labour, culture and society in nineteenth-century Tanzania' (Ph.D. thesis, University of Toronto, 1997).
7. There is a small but significant recent literature on pre-colonial porterage in Africa. Of general importance is Catherine Coquery-Vidrovitch and Paul E. Lovejoy (eds.), The Workers of African Trade (Beverly Hills, 1985). For caravans in Tanzania, see Edward A. Alpers, 'The coast and the development of the caravan trade', in I. N. Kimambo and A. J. Temu (eds.), A History of Tanzania (Nairobi, 1969), 35-56; Richard Gray and David Birmingham (eds.), Pre-Colonial African Trade (London, 1970); John Iliffe, A Modern History of Tanganyika (Cambridge, 1979); T. O. Beidelman, 'The organization and maintenance of caravans by the Church Missionary Society in Tanzania in the nineteenth century', International Journal of African Historical Studies, 15 (1982), 601-23; Abdul Sheriff, Slaves, Spices and Ivory in Zanzibar: Integration of an East African Commercial Empire into the World Economy, 1770-1873 (London, 1987); Juhani Koponen, People and Production in Late Pre-colonial Tanzania: History and Structures (Jyväskylä, 1988); Jonathan Glassman, Feasts and Riot: Revelry, Rebellion and Popular Consciousness on the Swahili Coast, 1856-1888 (Portsmouth NH, London, Nairobi, Dar es Salaam, 1995). The specialist literature on porters includes S. C. Lamden, 'Some aspects of porterage in East Africa', Tanganyika Notes and Records, 61 (1963), 155-64; Robert Cummings, 'A note on the history of caravan porters in East Africa', Kenya Historical Review, 2 (1973); Donald Herbert Simpson, Dark Companions: The African Contribution to the European Exploration of East Africa (London, 1975); Stephen J. Rockel, 'Wage labor and the culture of porterage in nineteenth-century Tanzania: the central caravan routes', Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East, 15 (1995), 14-24; Stephen J. Rockel, 'Caravan porters of the nyika: labour, culture and society in nineteenth-century Tanzania' (Ph.D. thesis, University of Toronto, 1997).
8. There is a small but significant recent literature on pre-colonial porterage in Africa. Of general importance is Catherine Coquery-Vidrovitch and Paul E. Lovejoy (eds.), The Workers of African Trade (Beverly Hills, 1985). For caravans in Tanzania, see Edward A. Alpers, 'The coast and the development of the caravan trade', in I. N. Kimambo and A. J. Temu (eds.), A History of Tanzania (Nairobi, 1969), 35-56; Richard Gray and David Birmingham (eds.), Pre-Colonial African Trade (London, 1970); John Iliffe, A Modern History of Tanganyika (Cambridge, 1979); T. O. Beidelman, 'The organization and maintenance of caravans by the Church Missionary Society in Tanzania in the nineteenth century', International Journal of African Historical Studies, 15 (1982), 601-23; Abdul Sheriff, Slaves, Spices and Ivory in Zanzibar: Integration of an East African Commercial Empire into the World Economy, 1770-1873 (London, 1987); Juhani Koponen, People and Production in Late Pre-colonial Tanzania: History and Structures (Jyväskylä, 1988); Jonathan Glassman, Feasts and Riot: Revelry, Rebellion and Popular Consciousness on the Swahili Coast, 1856-1888 (Portsmouth NH, London, Nairobi, Dar es Salaam, 1995). The specialist literature on porters includes S. C. Lamden, 'Some aspects of porterage in East Africa', Tanganyika Notes and Records, 61 (1963), 155-64; Robert Cummings, 'A note on the history of caravan porters in East Africa', Kenya Historical Review, 2 (1973); Donald Herbert Simpson, Dark Companions: The African Contribution to the European Exploration of East Africa (London, 1975); Stephen J. Rockel, 'Wage labor and the culture of porterage in nineteenth-century Tanzania: the central caravan routes', Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East, 15 (1995), 14-24; Stephen J. Rockel, 'Caravan porters of the nyika: labour, culture and society in nineteenth-century Tanzania' (Ph.D. thesis, University of Toronto, 1997).
9. There is a small but significant recent literature on pre-colonial porterage in Africa. Of general importance is Catherine Coquery-Vidrovitch and Paul E. Lovejoy (eds.), The Workers of African Trade (Beverly Hills, 1985). For caravans in Tanzania, see Edward A. Alpers, 'The coast and the development of the caravan trade', in I. N. Kimambo and A. J. Temu (eds.), A History of Tanzania (Nairobi, 1969), 35-56; Richard Gray and David Birmingham (eds.), Pre-Colonial African Trade (London, 1970); John Iliffe, A Modern History of Tanganyika (Cambridge, 1979); T. O. Beidelman, 'The organization and maintenance of caravans by the Church Missionary Society in Tanzania in the nineteenth century', International Journal of African Historical Studies, 15 (1982), 601-23; Abdul Sheriff, Slaves, Spices and Ivory in Zanzibar: Integration of an East African Commercial Empire into the World Economy, 1770-1873 (London, 1987); Juhani Koponen, People and Production in Late Pre-colonial Tanzania: History and Structures (Jyväskylä, 1988); Jonathan Glassman, Feasts and Riot: Revelry, Rebellion and Popular Consciousness on the Swahili Coast, 1856-1888 (Portsmouth NH, London, Nairobi, Dar es Salaam, 1995). The specialist literature on porters includes S. C. Lamden, 'Some aspects of porterage in East Africa', Tanganyika Notes and Records, 61 (1963), 155-64; Robert Cummings, 'A note on the history of caravan porters in East Africa', Kenya Historical Review, 2 (1973); Donald Herbert Simpson, Dark Companions: The African Contribution to the European Exploration of East Africa (London, 1975); Stephen J. Rockel, 'Wage labor and the culture of porterage in nineteenth-century Tanzania: the central caravan routes', Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East, 15 (1995), 14-24; Stephen J. Rockel, 'Caravan porters of the nyika: labour, culture and society in nineteenth-century Tanzania' (Ph.D. thesis, University of Toronto, 1997).
10. There is a small but significant recent literature on pre-colonial porterage in Africa. Of general importance is Catherine Coquery-Vidrovitch and Paul E. Lovejoy (eds.), The Workers of African Trade (Beverly Hills, 1985). For caravans in Tanzania, see Edward A. Alpers, 'The coast and the development of the caravan trade', in I. N. Kimambo and A. J. Temu (eds.), A History of Tanzania (Nairobi, 1969), 35-56; Richard Gray and David Birmingham (eds.), Pre-Colonial African Trade (London, 1970); John Iliffe, A Modern History of Tanganyika (Cambridge, 1979); T. O. Beidelman, 'The organization and maintenance of caravans by the Church Missionary Society in Tanzania in the nineteenth century', International Journal of African Historical Studies, 15 (1982), 601-23; Abdul Sheriff, Slaves, Spices and Ivory in Zanzibar: Integration of an East African Commercial Empire into the World Economy, 1770-1873 (London, 1987); Juhani Koponen, People and Production in Late Pre-colonial Tanzania: History and Structures (Jyväskylä, 1988); Jonathan Glassman, Feasts and Riot: Revelry, Rebellion and Popular Consciousness on the Swahili Coast, 1856-1888 (Portsmouth NH, London, Nairobi, Dar es Salaam, 1995). The specialist literature on porters includes S. C. Lamden, 'Some aspects of porterage in East Africa', Tanganyika Notes and Records, 61 (1963), 155-64; Robert Cummings, 'A note on the history of caravan porters in East Africa', Kenya Historical Review, 2 (1973); Donald Herbert Simpson, Dark Companions: The African Contribution to the European Exploration of East Africa (London, 1975); Stephen J. Rockel, 'Wage labor and the culture of porterage in nineteenth-century Tanzania: the central caravan routes', Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East, 15 (1995), 14-24; Stephen J. Rockel, 'Caravan porters of the nyika: labour, culture and society in nineteenth-century Tanzania' (Ph.D. thesis, University of Toronto, 1997).
11. There is a small but significant recent literature on pre-colonial porterage in Africa. Of general importance is Catherine Coquery-Vidrovitch and Paul E. Lovejoy (eds.), The Workers of African Trade (Beverly Hills, 1985). For caravans in Tanzania, see Edward A. Alpers, 'The coast and the development of the caravan trade', in I. N. Kimambo and A. J. Temu (eds.), A History of Tanzania (Nairobi, 1969), 35-56; Richard Gray and David Birmingham (eds.), Pre-Colonial African Trade (London, 1970); John Iliffe, A Modern History of Tanganyika (Cambridge, 1979); T. O. Beidelman, 'The organization and maintenance of caravans by the Church Missionary Society in Tanzania in the nineteenth century', International Journal of African Historical Studies, 15 (1982), 601-23; Abdul Sheriff, Slaves, Spices and Ivory in Zanzibar: Integration of an East African Commercial Empire into the World Economy, 1770-1873 (London, 1987); Juhani Koponen, People and Production in Late Pre-colonial Tanzania: History and Structures (Jyväskylä, 1988); Jonathan Glassman, Feasts and Riot: Revelry, Rebellion and Popular Consciousness on the Swahili Coast, 1856-1888 (Portsmouth NH, London, Nairobi, Dar es Salaam, 1995). The specialist literature on porters includes S. C. Lamden, 'Some aspects of porterage in East Africa', Tanganyika Notes and Records, 61 (1963), 155-64; Robert Cummings, 'A note on the history of caravan porters in East Africa', Kenya Historical Review, 2 (1973); Donald Herbert Simpson, Dark Companions: The African Contribution to the European Exploration of East Africa (London, 1975); Stephen J. Rockel, 'Wage labor and the culture of porterage in nineteenth-century Tanzania: the central caravan routes', Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East, 15 (1995), 14-24; Stephen J. Rockel, 'Caravan porters of the nyika: labour, culture and society in nineteenth-century Tanzania' (Ph.D. thesis, University of Toronto, 1997).
12. There is a small but significant recent literature on pre-colonial porterage in Africa. Of general importance is Catherine Coquery-Vidrovitch and Paul E. Lovejoy (eds.), The Workers of African Trade (Beverly Hills, 1985). For caravans in Tanzania, see Edward A. Alpers, 'The coast and the development of the caravan trade', in I. N. Kimambo and A. J. Temu (eds.), A History of Tanzania (Nairobi, 1969), 35-56; Richard Gray and David Birmingham (eds.), Pre-Colonial African Trade (London, 1970); John Iliffe, A Modern History of Tanganyika (Cambridge, 1979); T. O. Beidelman, 'The organization and maintenance of caravans by the Church Missionary Society in Tanzania in the nineteenth century', International Journal of African Historical Studies, 15 (1982), 601-23; Abdul Sheriff, Slaves, Spices and Ivory in Zanzibar: Integration of an East African Commercial Empire into the World Economy, 1770-1873 (London, 1987); Juhani Koponen, People and Production in Late Pre-colonial Tanzania: History and Structures (Jyväskylä, 1988); Jonathan Glassman, Feasts and Riot: Revelry, Rebellion and Popular Consciousness on the Swahili Coast, 1856-1888 (Portsmouth NH, London, Nairobi, Dar es Salaam, 1995). The specialist literature on porters includes S. C. Lamden, 'Some aspects of porterage in East Africa', Tanganyika Notes and Records, 61 (1963), 155-64; Robert Cummings, 'A note on the history of caravan porters in East Africa', Kenya Historical Review, 2 (1973); Donald Herbert Simpson, Dark Companions: The African Contribution to the European Exploration of East Africa (London, 1975); Stephen J. Rockel, 'Wage labor and the culture of porterage in nineteenth-century Tanzania: the central caravan routes', Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East, 15 (1995), 14-24; Stephen J. Rockel, 'Caravan porters of the nyika: labour, culture and society in nineteenth-century Tanzania' (Ph.D. thesis, University of Toronto, 1997).
13. There is a small but significant recent literature on pre-colonial porterage in Africa. Of general importance is Catherine Coquery-Vidrovitch and Paul E. Lovejoy (eds.), The Workers of African Trade (Beverly Hills, 1985). For caravans in Tanzania, see Edward A. Alpers, 'The coast and the development of the caravan trade', in I. N. Kimambo and A. J. Temu (eds.), A History of Tanzania (Nairobi, 1969), 35-56; Richard Gray and David Birmingham (eds.), Pre-Colonial African Trade (London, 1970); John Iliffe, A Modern History of Tanganyika (Cambridge, 1979); T. O. Beidelman, 'The organization and maintenance of caravans by the Church Missionary Society in Tanzania in the nineteenth century', International Journal of African Historical Studies, 15 (1982), 601-23; Abdul Sheriff, Slaves, Spices and Ivory in Zanzibar: Integration of an East African Commercial Empire into the World Economy, 1770-1873 (London, 1987); Juhani Koponen, People and Production in Late Pre-colonial Tanzania: History and Structures (Jyväskylä, 1988); Jonathan Glassman, Feasts and Riot: Revelry, Rebellion and Popular Consciousness on the Swahili Coast, 1856-1888 (Portsmouth NH, London, Nairobi, Dar es Salaam, 1995). The specialist literature on porters includes S. C. Lamden, 'Some aspects of porterage in East Africa', Tanganyika Notes and Records, 61 (1963), 155-64; Robert Cummings, 'A note on the history of caravan porters in East Africa', Kenya Historical Review, 2 (1973); Donald Herbert Simpson, Dark Companions: The African Contribution to the European Exploration of East Africa (London, 1975); Stephen J. Rockel, 'Wage labor and the culture of porterage in nineteenth-century Tanzania: the central caravan routes', Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East, 15 (1995), 14-24; Stephen J. Rockel, 'Caravan porters of the nyika: labour, culture and society in nineteenth-century Tanzania' (Ph.D. thesis, University of Toronto, 1997).
14. There is a small but significant recent literature on pre-colonial porterage in Africa. Of general importance is Catherine Coquery-Vidrovitch and Paul E. Lovejoy (eds.), The Workers of African Trade (Beverly Hills, 1985). For caravans in Tanzania, see Edward A. Alpers, 'The coast and the development of the caravan trade', in I. N. Kimambo and A. J. Temu (eds.), A History of Tanzania (Nairobi, 1969), 35-56; Richard Gray and David Birmingham (eds.), Pre-Colonial African Trade (London, 1970); John Iliffe, A Modern History of Tanganyika (Cambridge, 1979); T. O. Beidelman, 'The organization and maintenance of caravans by the Church Missionary Society in Tanzania in the nineteenth century', International Journal of African Historical Studies, 15 (1982), 601-23; Abdul Sheriff, Slaves, Spices and Ivory in Zanzibar: Integration of an East African Commercial Empire into the World Economy, 1770-1873 (London, 1987); Juhani Koponen, People and Production in Late Pre-colonial Tanzania: History and Structures (Jyväskylä, 1988); Jonathan Glassman, Feasts and Riot: Revelry, Rebellion and Popular Consciousness on the Swahili Coast, 1856-1888 (Portsmouth NH, London, Nairobi, Dar es Salaam, 1995). The specialist literature on porters includes S. C. Lamden, 'Some aspects of porterage in East Africa', Tanganyika Notes and Records, 61 (1963), 155-64; Robert Cummings, 'A note on the history of caravan porters in East Africa', Kenya Historical Review, 2 (1973); Donald Herbert Simpson, Dark Companions: The African Contribution to the European Exploration of East Africa (London, 1975); Stephen J. Rockel, 'Wage labor and the culture of porterage in nineteenth-century Tanzania: the central caravan routes', Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East, 15 (1995), 14-24; Stephen J. Rockel, 'Caravan porters of the nyika: labour, culture and society in nineteenth-century Tanzania' (Ph.D. thesis, University of Toronto, 1997).
15. Iliffe, Modern History, 45, 77.
16. These innovations were clearly limited in many respects, and were hindered by the very fact of the transportation problem. Nevertheless, there is evidence for the spread of market relations in foodstuffs and the partial and uneven commercialization of agriculture along parts of the central and northern routes. For introductory comments, see O. F. Raum, 'German East Africa: Changes in African tribal life under German administration, 1882-1914', in Vincent Harlow and E. M. Chilver (eds.), A History of East Africa (2 vols.) (Oxford, 1965), II, 196-7. For north-east Tanzania and the northern route along the Pangani Valley, see Helge Kjekshus, Ecology Control and Economic Development in East African History (London, Ibadan, Nairobi, Lusaka, 1977), 111-16; Koponen, People and Production, 103-4, 118-9; Isaria N. Kimambo, 'Environmental control and hunger in the mountains and plains of nineteenth-century north-eastern Tanzania', in Gregory Maddox, James Giblin and Isaria N. Kimambo (eds.), Custodians of the Land: Ecology and Culture in the History of Tanzania (London, 1996), 71-95. Glassman, Feasts and Riot, ch. 1, explores some of the implications of the commoditization of material things. For the central routes, see John Hanning Speke, What Led to the Discovery of the Source of the Nile (Edinburgh and London, 1864), 357; Alfred C. Unomah and J. B. Webster, 'East Africa: the expansion of commerce', in John E. Flint (ed.), The Cambridge History of Africa (8 vols.) (London, 1976), V, 296; Rockel, 'Caravan porters of the nyika', 280-2.
17. These innovations were clearly limited in many respects, and were hindered by the very fact of the transportation problem. Nevertheless, there is evidence for the spread of market relations in foodstuffs and the partial and uneven commercialization of agriculture along parts of the central and northern routes. For introductory comments, see O. F. Raum, 'German East Africa: Changes in African tribal life under German administration, 1882-1914', in Vincent Harlow and E. M. Chilver (eds.), A History of East Africa (2 vols.) (Oxford, 1965), II, 196-7. For north-east Tanzania and the northern route along the Pangani Valley, see Helge Kjekshus, Ecology Control and Economic Development in East African History (London, Ibadan, Nairobi, Lusaka, 1977), 111-16; Koponen, People and Production, 103-4, 118-9; Isaria N. Kimambo, 'Environmental control and hunger in the mountains and plains of nineteenth-century north-eastern Tanzania', in Gregory Maddox, James Giblin and Isaria N. Kimambo (eds.), Custodians of the Land: Ecology and Culture in the History of Tanzania (London, 1996), 71-95. Glassman, Feasts and Riot, ch. 1, explores some of the implications of the commoditization of material things. For the central routes, see John Hanning Speke, What Led to the Discovery of the Source of the Nile (Edinburgh and London, 1864), 357; Alfred C. Unomah and J. B. Webster, 'East Africa: the expansion of commerce', in John E. Flint (ed.), The Cambridge History of Africa (8 vols.) (London, 1976), V, 296; Rockel, 'Caravan porters of the nyika', 280-2.
18. These innovations were clearly limited in many respects, and were hindered by the very fact of the transportation problem. Nevertheless, there is evidence for the spread of market relations in foodstuffs and the partial and uneven commercialization of agriculture along parts of the central and northern routes. For introductory comments, see O. F. Raum, 'German East Africa: Changes in African tribal life under German administration, 1882-1914', in Vincent Harlow and E. M. Chilver (eds.), A History of East Africa (2 vols.) (Oxford, 1965), II, 196-7. For north-east Tanzania and the northern route along the Pangani Valley, see Helge Kjekshus, Ecology Control and Economic Development in East African History (London, Ibadan, Nairobi, Lusaka, 1977), 111-16; Koponen, People and Production, 103-4, 118-9; Isaria N. Kimambo, 'Environmental control and hunger in the mountains and plains of nineteenth-century north-eastern Tanzania', in Gregory Maddox, James Giblin and Isaria N. Kimambo (eds.), Custodians of the Land: Ecology and Culture in the History of Tanzania (London, 1996), 71-95. Glassman, Feasts and Riot, ch. 1, explores some of the implications of the commoditization of material things. For the central routes, see John Hanning Speke, What Led to the Discovery of the Source of the Nile (Edinburgh and London, 1864), 357; Alfred C. Unomah and J. B. Webster, 'East Africa: the expansion of commerce', in John E. Flint (ed.), The Cambridge History of Africa (8 vols.) (London, 1976), V, 296; Rockel, 'Caravan porters of the nyika', 280-2.
19. These innovations were clearly limited in many respects, and were hindered by the very fact of the transportation problem. Nevertheless, there is evidence for the spread of market relations in foodstuffs and the partial and uneven commercialization of agriculture along parts of the central and northern routes. For introductory comments, see O. F. Raum, 'German East Africa: Changes in African tribal life under German administration, 1882-1914', in Vincent Harlow and E. M. Chilver (eds.), A History of East Africa (2 vols.) (Oxford, 1965), II, 196-7. For north-east Tanzania and the northern route along the Pangani Valley, see Helge Kjekshus, Ecology Control and Economic Development in East African History (London, Ibadan, Nairobi, Lusaka, 1977), 111-16; Koponen, People and Production, 103-4, 118-9; Isaria N. Kimambo, 'Environmental control and hunger in the mountains and plains of nineteenth-century north-eastern Tanzania', in Gregory Maddox, James Giblin and Isaria N. Kimambo (eds.), Custodians of the Land: Ecology and Culture in the History of Tanzania (London, 1996), 71-95. Glassman, Feasts and Riot, ch. 1, explores some of the implications of the commoditization of material things. For the central routes, see John Hanning Speke, What Led to the Discovery of the Source of the Nile (Edinburgh and London, 1864), 357; Alfred C. Unomah and J. B. Webster, 'East Africa: the expansion of commerce', in John E. Flint (ed.), The Cambridge History of Africa (8 vols.) (London, 1976), V, 296; Rockel, 'Caravan porters of the nyika', 280-2.
20. These innovations were clearly limited in many respects, and were hindered by the very fact of the transportation problem. Nevertheless, there is evidence for the spread of market relations in foodstuffs and the partial and uneven commercialization of agriculture along parts of the central and northern routes. For introductory comments, see O. F. Raum, 'German East Africa: Changes in African tribal life under German administration, 1882-1914', in Vincent Harlow and E. M. Chilver (eds.), A History of East Africa (2 vols.) (Oxford, 1965), II, 196-7. For north-east Tanzania and the northern route along the Pangani Valley, see Helge Kjekshus, Ecology Control and Economic Development in East African History (London, Ibadan, Nairobi, Lusaka, 1977), 111-16; Koponen, People and Production, 103-4, 118-9; Isaria N. Kimambo, 'Environmental control and hunger in the mountains and plains of nineteenth-century north-eastern Tanzania', in Gregory Maddox, James Giblin and Isaria N. Kimambo (eds.), Custodians of the Land: Ecology and Culture in the History of Tanzania (London, 1996), 71-95. Glassman, Feasts and Riot, ch. 1, explores some of the implications of the commoditization of material things. For the central routes, see John Hanning Speke, What Led to the Discovery of the Source of the Nile (Edinburgh and London, 1864), 357; Alfred C. Unomah and J. B. Webster, 'East Africa: the expansion of commerce', in John E. Flint (ed.), The Cambridge History of Africa (8 vols.) (London, 1976), V, 296; Rockel, 'Caravan porters of the nyika', 280-2.
21. These innovations were clearly limited in many respects, and were hindered by the very fact of the transportation problem. Nevertheless, there is evidence for the spread of market relations in foodstuffs and the partial and uneven commercialization of agriculture along parts of the central and northern routes. For introductory comments, see O. F. Raum, 'German East Africa: Changes in African tribal life under German administration, 1882-1914', in Vincent Harlow and E. M. Chilver (eds.), A History of East Africa (2 vols.) (Oxford, 1965), II, 196-7. For north-east Tanzania and the northern route along the Pangani Valley, see Helge Kjekshus, Ecology Control and Economic Development in East African History (London, Ibadan, Nairobi, Lusaka, 1977), 111-16; Koponen, People and Production, 103-4, 118-9; Isaria N. Kimambo, 'Environmental control and hunger in the mountains and plains of nineteenth-century north-eastern Tanzania', in Gregory Maddox, James Giblin and Isaria N. Kimambo (eds.), Custodians of the Land: Ecology and Culture in the History of Tanzania (London, 1996), 71-95. Glassman, Feasts and Riot, ch. 1, explores some of the implications of the commoditization of material things. For the central routes, see John Hanning Speke, What Led to the Discovery of the Source of the Nile (Edinburgh and London, 1864), 357; Alfred C. Unomah and J. B. Webster, 'East Africa: the expansion of commerce', in John E. Flint (ed.), The Cambridge History of Africa (8 vols.) (London, 1976), V, 296; Rockel, 'Caravan porters of the nyika', 280-2.
22. These innovations were clearly limited in many respects, and were hindered by the very fact of the transportation problem. Nevertheless, there is evidence for the spread of market relations in foodstuffs and the partial and uneven commercialization of agriculture along parts of the central and northern routes. For introductory comments, see O. F. Raum, 'German East Africa: Changes in African tribal life under German administration, 1882-1914', in Vincent Harlow and E. M. Chilver (eds.), A History of East Africa (2 vols.) (Oxford, 1965), II, 196-7. For north-east Tanzania and the northern route along the Pangani Valley, see Helge Kjekshus, Ecology Control and Economic Development in East African History (London, Ibadan, Nairobi, Lusaka, 1977), 111-16; Koponen, People and Production, 103-4, 118-9; Isaria N. Kimambo, 'Environmental control and hunger in the mountains and plains of nineteenth-century north-eastern Tanzania', in Gregory Maddox, James Giblin and Isaria N. Kimambo (eds.), Custodians of the Land: Ecology and Culture in the History of Tanzania (London, 1996), 71-95. Glassman, Feasts and Riot, ch. 1, explores some of the implications of the commoditization of material things. For the central routes, see John Hanning Speke, What Led to the Discovery of the Source of the Nile (Edinburgh and London, 1864), 357; Alfred C. Unomah and J. B. Webster, 'East Africa: the expansion of commerce', in John E. Flint (ed.), The Cambridge History of Africa (8 vols.) (London, 1976), V, 296; Rockel, 'Caravan porters of the nyika', 280-2.
23. These innovations were clearly limited in many respects, and were hindered by the very fact of the transportation problem. Nevertheless, there is evidence for the spread of market relations in foodstuffs and the partial and uneven commercialization of agriculture along parts of the central and northern routes. For introductory comments, see O. F. Raum, 'German East Africa: Changes in African tribal life under German administration, 1882-1914', in Vincent Harlow and E. M. Chilver (eds.), A History of East Africa (2 vols.) (Oxford, 1965), II, 196-7. For north-east Tanzania and the northern route along the Pangani Valley, see Helge Kjekshus, Ecology Control and Economic Development in East African History (London, Ibadan, Nairobi, Lusaka, 1977), 111-16; Koponen, People and Production, 103-4, 118-9; Isaria N. Kimambo, 'Environmental control and hunger in the mountains and plains of nineteenth-century north-eastern Tanzania', in Gregory Maddox, James Giblin and Isaria N. Kimambo (eds.), Custodians of the Land: Ecology and Culture in the History of Tanzania (London, 1996), 71-95. Glassman, Feasts and Riot, ch. 1, explores some of the implications of the commoditization of material things. For the central routes, see John Hanning Speke, What Led to the Discovery of the Source of the Nile (Edinburgh and London, 1864), 357; Alfred C. Unomah and J. B. Webster, 'East Africa: the expansion of commerce', in John E. Flint (ed.), The Cambridge History of Africa (8 vols.) (London, 1976), V, 296; Rockel, 'Caravan porters of the nyika', 280-2.
24. It also depends on an analysis of bargaining and wage payments. See Rockel, 'Caravan porters', ch. 6, for discussions of bargaining, customary control over the labour process, and wages.
25. Rockel, 'Caravan porters', passim.
26. For rice in pre-colonial Unyamwezi, see Rockel, 'Caravan porters', 87, 90-1.
27. Rockel, 'Caravan porters', 94-122; Sharon B. Stichter, Migrant Laborers (Cambridge, 1985), 10-12, 35-9, 58, and passim.
28. Rockel, 'Caravan porters', 94-122; Sharon B. Stichter, Migrant Laborers (Cambridge, 1985), 10-12, 35-9, 58, and passim.
29. For the Mgunda Mkali, see Rockel, 'Caravan porters', 35-8.
30. Rockel, 'Caravan porters', 94-122; Sharon B. Stichter, Migrant Laborers (Cambridge, 1985), 10-12, 35-9, 58, and passim. For Ugogo in the nineteenth century, see Carol Jane Sissons, 'Economic prosperity in Ugogo, East Africa, 1860-1890' (Ph.D. thesis, University of Toronto, 1984). For Ugogo in the nineteenth century, see Carol Jane Sissons, 'Economic prosperity in Ugogo, East Africa, 1860-1890' (Ph.D. thesis, University of Toronto, 1984).
31. See Aylward Shorter, Chiefship in Western Tanzania: A Political History of the Kimbu (Oxford, 1972);
32. For the Mgunda Mkali, see Rockel, 'Caravan porters', 35-8. For Ugogo in the nineteenth century, see Carol Jane Sissons, 'Economic prosperity in Ugogo, East Africa, 1860-1890' (Ph.D. thesis, University of Toronto, 1984). Rockel, 'Caravan porters', ch. 2. Rockel, 'Caravan porters', ch. 2.
33. Shorter, Chiefship in Western Tanzania, 225.
34. J. E. G. Sutton and Andrew D. Roberts, 'Uvinza and its salt industry', Azania, 3 (1968), 45-86;
35. Andrew Roberts, 'Nyamwezi trade', in Gray and Birmingham, Pre-Colonial African Trade, 44-7.
36. Sutton and Roberts, 'Uvinza';
37. J. E. G. Sutton and Andrew D. Roberts, 'Uvinza and its salt industry', Azania, 3 (1968), 45-86; Andrew Roberts, 'Nyamwezi trade', in Gray and Birmingham, Pre- Colonial African Trade, 44-7. Roberts, 'Nyamwezi trade'; Roberts, 'Nyamwezi trade'; Unomah and Webster, 'East Africa: the expansion of commerce', 273; A. C. Unomah, Mirambo of Tanzania (London, Nairobi, Ibadan, Lusaka, 1977), 7-8.
38. Unomah and Webster, 'East Africa: the expansion of commerce', 273;
39. A. C. Unomah, Mirambo of Tanzania (London, Nairobi, Ibadan, Lusaka, 1977), 7-8.
40. For detailed discussion of these topics, see Rockel, 'Caravan porters', ch. 4.
41. See Rockel, 'Caravan porters', ch. 2.
42. This idea is borrowed from Unomah, Mirambo, 7.
43. For the political history of the Nyamwezi, see also R. G. Abrahams, The Political Organization of Unyamwezi (Cambridge, 1967);
44. This idea is borrowed from Unomah, Mirambo, 7. R. G. Abrahams, The Peoples of Greater Unyamwezi, Tanzania (London, 1967); R. G. Abrahams, The Peoples of Greater Unyamwezi, Tanzania (London, 1967); Achim Gottberg, 'On the historical importance of the crisis of the Fundikira empire', in W. Markov (ed.), Afrika-Studien (Leipzig, 1967), 63-83; Andrew Roberts, 'The Nyamwezi', in Andrew Roberts (ed.), Tanzania before 1900 (Nairobi, 1968), 117-50; Norman R. Bennett, Mirambo of Tanzania, 1840?-1884 (New York, 1971); Shorter, Chiefship in Western Tanzania; Alfred Chukwudi Unomah, 'Economic expansion and political change in Unyanyembe (c. 1840-1900)' (Ph.D. thesis, University of Ibadan, 1972); J. B. Kabeya, King Mirambo (Nairobi, Kampala, Dar es Salaam, 1976). Little new has been published since the 1970s in any language on the history of this very important ethnic group.
45. This idea is borrowed from Unomah, Mirambo, 7. For the political history of the Nyamwezi, see also R. G. Abrahams, The Political Organization of Unyamwezi (Cambridge, 1967); Achim Gottberg, 'On the historical importance of the crisis of the Fundikira empire', in W. Markov (ed.), Afrika-Studien (Leipzig, 1967), 63-83; Achim Gottberg, 'On the historical importance of the crisis of the Fundikira empire', in W. Markov (ed.), Afrika-Studien (Leipzig, 1967), 63-83; Andrew Roberts, 'The Nyamwezi', in Andrew Roberts (ed.), Tanzania before 1900 (Nairobi, 1968), 117-50; Norman R. Bennett, Mirambo of Tanzania, 1840?-1884 (New York, 1971); Shorter, Chiefship in Western Tanzania; Alfred Chukwudi Unomah, 'Economic expansion and political change in Unyanyembe (c. 1840-1900)' (Ph.D. thesis, University of Ibadan, 1972); J. B. Kabeya, King Mirambo (Nairobi, Kampala, Dar es Salaam, 1976). Little new has been published since the 1970s in any language on the history of this very important ethnic group.
46. This idea is borrowed from Unomah, Mirambo, 7. For the political history of the Nyamwezi, see also R. G. Abrahams, The Political Organization of Unyamwezi (Cambridge, 1967); R. G. Abrahams, The Peoples of Greater Unyamwezi, Tanzania (London, 1967); Andrew Roberts, 'The Nyamwezi', in Andrew Roberts (ed.), Tanzania before 1900 (Nairobi, 1968), 117-50; Andrew Roberts, 'The Nyamwezi', in Andrew Roberts (ed.), Tanzania before 1900 (Nairobi, 1968), 117-50; Norman R. Bennett, Mirambo of Tanzania, 1840?-1884 (New York, 1971); Shorter, Chiefship in Western Tanzania; Alfred Chukwudi Unomah, 'Economic expansion and political change in Unyanyembe (c. 1840-1900)' (Ph.D. thesis, University of Ibadan, 1972); J. B. Kabeya, King Mirambo (Nairobi, Kampala, Dar es Salaam, 1976). Little new has been published since the 1970s in any language on the history of this very important ethnic group.
47. This idea is borrowed from Unomah, Mirambo, 7. For the political history of the Nyamwezi, see also R. G. Abrahams, The Political Organization of Unyamwezi (Cambridge, 1967); R. G. Abrahams, The Peoples of Greater Unyamwezi, Tanzania (London, 1967); Achim Gottberg, 'On the historical importance of the crisis of the Fundikira empire', in W. Markov (ed.), Afrika-Studien (Leipzig, 1967), 63-83; Norman R. Bennett, Mirambo of Tanzania, 1840?-1884 (New York, 1971); Norman R. Bennett, Mirambo of Tanzania, 1840?-1884 (New York, 1971); Shorter, Chiefship in Western Tanzania; Alfred Chukwudi Unomah, 'Economic expansion and political change in Unyanyembe (c. 1840-1900)' (Ph.D. thesis, University of Ibadan, 1972); J. B. Kabeya, King Mirambo (Nairobi, Kampala, Dar es Salaam, 1976). Little new has been published since the 1970s in any language on the history of this very important ethnic group.
48. This idea is borrowed from Unomah, Mirambo, 7. For the political history of the Nyamwezi, see also R. G. Abrahams, The Political Organization of Unyamwezi (Cambridge, 1967); R. G. Abrahams, The Peoples of Greater Unyamwezi, Tanzania (London, 1967); Achim Gottberg, 'On the historical importance of the crisis of the Fundikira empire', in W. Markov (ed.), Afrika-Studien (Leipzig, 1967), 63-83; Andrew Roberts, 'The Nyamwezi', in Andrew Roberts (ed.), Tanzania before 1900 (Nairobi, 1968), 117-50; Shorter, Chiefship in Western Tanzania; Shorter, Chiefship in Western Tanzania; Alfred Chukwudi Unomah, 'Economic expansion and political change in Unyanyembe (c. 1840-1900)' (Ph.D. thesis, University of Ibadan, 1972); J. B. Kabeya, King Mirambo (Nairobi, Kampala, Dar es Salaam, 1976). Little new has been published since the 1970s in any language on the history of this very important ethnic group.
49. This idea is borrowed from Unomah, Mirambo, 7. For the political history of the Nyamwezi, see also R. G. Abrahams, The Political Organization of Unyamwezi (Cambridge, 1967); R. G. Abrahams, The Peoples of Greater Unyamwezi, Tanzania (London, 1967); Achim Gottberg, 'On the historical importance of the crisis of the Fundikira empire', in W. Markov (ed.), Afrika-Studien (Leipzig, 1967), 63-83; Andrew Roberts, 'The Nyamwezi', in Andrew Roberts (ed.), Tanzania before 1900 (Nairobi, 1968), 117-50; Norman R. Bennett, Mirambo of Tanzania, 1840?-1884 (New York, 1971); Alfred Chukwudi Unomah, 'Economic expansion and political change in Unyanyembe (c. 1840-1900)' (Ph.D. thesis, University of Ibadan, 1972); Alfred Chukwudi Unomah, 'Economic expansion and political change in Unyanyembe (c. 1840-1900)' (Ph.D. thesis, University of Ibadan, 1972); J. B. Kabeya, King Mirambo (Nairobi, Kampala, Dar es Salaam, 1976). Little new has been published since the 1970s in any language on the history of this very important ethnic group.
50. This idea is borrowed from Unomah, Mirambo, 7. For the political history of the Nyamwezi, see also R. G. Abrahams, The Political Organization of Unyamwezi (Cambridge, 1967); R. G. Abrahams, The Peoples of Greater Unyamwezi, Tanzania (London, 1967); Achim Gottberg, 'On the historical importance of the crisis of the Fundikira empire', in W. Markov (ed.), Afrika-Studien (Leipzig, 1967), 63-83; Andrew Roberts, 'The Nyamwezi', in Andrew Roberts (ed.), Tanzania before 1900 (Nairobi, 1968), 117-50; Norman R. Bennett, Mirambo of Tanzania, 1840?-1884 (New York, 1971); Shorter, Chiefship in Western Tanzania; J. B. Kabeya, King Mirambo (Nairobi, Kampala, Dar es Salaam, 1976). Little new has been published since the 1970s in any language on the history of this very important ethnic group. J. B. Kabeya, King Mirambo (Nairobi, Kampala, Dar es Salaam, 1976). Little new has been published since the 1970s in any language on the history of this very important ethnic group.
51. Known as the Watuta. See Elzear Ebner, The History of the Wangoni (Ndanda-Peramiho, 1987), 59-61;
52. This idea is borrowed from Unomah, Mirambo, 7. For the political history of the Nyamwezi, see also R. G. Abrahams, The Political Organization of Unyamwezi (Cambridge, 1967); R. G. Abrahams, The Peoples of Greater Unyamwezi, Tanzania (London, 1967); Achim Gottberg, 'On the historical importance of the crisis of the Fundikira empire', in W. Markov (ed.), Afrika-Studien (Leipzig, 1967), 63-83; Andrew Roberts, 'The Nyamwezi', in Andrew Roberts (ed.), Tanzania before 1900 (Nairobi, 1968), 117-50; Norman R. Bennett, Mirambo of Tanzania, 1840?-1884 (New York, 1971); Shorter, Chiefship in Western Tanzania; Alfred Chukwudi Unomah, 'Economic expansion and political change in Unyanyembe (c. 1840-1900)' (Ph.D. thesis, University of Ibadan, 1972); J. B. Kabeya, King Mirambo (Nairobi, Kampala, Dar es Salaam, 1976). Little new has been published since the 1970s in any language on the history of this very important ethnic group. Shorter, Chiefship in Western Tanzania, 255-61; Shorter, Chiefship in Western Tanzania, 255-61; Abdul M. H. Sheriff, 'Tanzanian societies at the time of the partition', in M. H. Y. Kaniki (ed.), Tanzania Under Colonial Rule (London, 1980), 33.
53. Known as the Watuta. See Elzear Ebner, The History of the Wangoni (Ndanda- Peramiho, 1987), 59-61; Abdul M. H. Sheriff, 'Tanzanian societies at the time of the partition', in M. H. Y. Kaniki (ed.), Tanzania Under Colonial Rule (London, 1980), 33. Abdul M. H. Sheriff, 'Tanzanian societies at the time of the partition', in M. H. Y. Kaniki (ed.), Tanzania Under Colonial Rule (London, 1980), 33.
54. Abrahams, Political Organization of Unyamwezi, 9-10;
55. Known as the Watuta. See Elzear Ebner, The History of the Wangoni (Ndanda- Peramiho, 1987), 59-61; Shorter, Chiefship in Western Tanzania, 255-61; Abdul M. H. Sheriff, 'Tanzanian societies at the time of the partition', in M. H. Y. Kaniki (ed.), Tanzania Under Colonial Rule (London, 1980), 33. Bennett, Mirambo, 10. The phrase is Bennett's. Bennett, Mirambo, 10. The phrase is Bennett's.
56. D. A. Low, 'The northern interior, 1840-84', in Roland Oliver and Gervase Mathew (eds.), History of East Africa (2 vols.) (London, 1963), I, 314;
57. Abrahams, Political Organization of Unyamwezi, 9-10; Bennett, Mirambo, 10. The phrase is Bennett's. Robert J. Cummings, 'Aspects of human porterage with special reference to the Akamba of Kenya: towards an economic history, 1820-1920' (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles, 1975), 48, 103-4, 108-9; Robert J. Cummings, 'Aspects of human porterage with special reference to the Akamba of Kenya: towards an economic history, 1820-1920' (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles, 1975), 48, 103-4, 108-9; Report of Sir A. Hardinge for the Year 1897-98, House of Commons Parliamentary Papers, C.9125, m.f. 105.547-548, 26.
58. D. A. Low, 'The northern interior, 1840-84', in Roland Oliver and Gervase Mathew (eds.), History of East Africa (2 vols.) (London, 1963), I, 314; Report of Sir A. Hardinge for the Year 1897-98, House of Commons Parliamentary Papers, C.9125, m.f. 105.547-548, 26. Report of Sir A. Hardinge for the Year 1897-98, House of Commons Parliamentary Papers, C.9125, m.f. 105.547-548, 26.
59. Verney Lovett Cameron, Across Africa (2 vols.) (London, 1877), I, 191 ;
60. D. A. Low, 'The northern interior, 1840-84', in Roland Oliver and Gervase Mathew (eds.), History of East Africa (2 vols.) (London, 1963), I, 314; Robert J. Cummings, 'Aspects of human porterage with special reference to the Akamba of Kenya: towards an economic history, 1820-1920' (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles, 1975), 48, 103-4, 108-9; Report of Sir A. Hardinge for the Year 1897-98, House of Commons Parliamentary Papers, C.9125, m.f. 105.547-548, 26. also Richard F. Burton, The Lake Regions of Central Africa (New York, 1860), 255. also Richard F. Burton, The Lake Regions of Central Africa (New York, 1860), 255.
61. (Jacob Wainwright), 'Tagebuch von Jacob Wainright über den Transport von Dr. Livingstone's Leiche, 4. Mai 1873-18. Februar 1874', Petermann's Mittheilungen, 20 (1874), 192. Wainwright was mission-educated and wrote the first safari journal by an East African.
62. Carol Sissons tell us: 'There was no way of integrating a travelling occupation, such as long-distance trade during dry season months, with the demands of the agricultural cycle'. See, 'Economic prosperity in Ugogo', 177.
63. Alfred J. Swann, Fighting the Slave Hunters in Central Africa (London, 1969; 1st ed., 1910), 58. Nyamwezi porters arriving at Zanzibar told Bishop Edward Steere that they considered any of their compatriots who never undertook a journey to the coast as a 'milksop'.
64. See Bennett, Mirambo, 12;
65. Alfred J. Swann, Fighting the Slave Hunters in Central Africa (London, 1969; 1st ed., 1910), 58. Nyamwezi porters arriving at Zanzibar told Bishop Edward Steere that they considered any of their compatriots who never undertook a journey to the coast as a 'milksop'. also Burton, Lake Regions, 235; also Burton, Lake Regions, 235; Roberts, 'Nyamwezi trade', 66.
66. Alfred J. Swann, Fighting the Slave Hunters in Central Africa (London, 1969; 1st ed., 1910), 58. Nyamwezi porters arriving at Zanzibar told Bishop Edward Steere that they considered any of their compatriots who never undertook a journey to the coast as a 'milksop'. See Bennett, Mirambo, 12; Roberts, 'Nyamwezi trade', 66. Roberts, 'Nyamwezi trade', 66.
67. C. T. Wilson and R. W. Felkin, Uganda and the Egyptian Sudan (2 vols.) (London, 1882), I, 43.
68. Paul Reichard, 'Die Wanjamuesi', Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft für Erdkunde zu Berlin, 24 (1889), 259;
69. Bennett, Mirambo, 12.
70. Jonathan Glassmam has recently written: '[Nyamwezi] caravan labour was seen not as a way to earn a living, but as a way to prove one's manhood'. Glassman, Feasts and Riot, 59.
71. See also Bennett, Mirambo, 12;
72. Jonathan Glassmam has recently written: '[Nyamwezi] caravan labour was seen not as a way to earn a living, but as a way to prove one's manhood'. Glassman, Feasts and Riot, 59. Unomah and Webster, 'East Africa: the expansion of commerce', 284. Unomah and Webster, 'East Africa: the expansion of commerce', 284.
73. J. Clyde Mitchell, 'The causes of labour migration', reprinted in Abebe Zegeye and Shubi Ishemo (eds.), Forced Labour and Migration: Patterns of Movement Within Africa (London, Munich, New York, 1989), 28-54. It should be noted that long-distance porterage was a specific kind of migrant labour, with important differences from the more familiar migrant labour systems of the colonial period.
74. As Helge Kjekshus points out, we must look to local factors as well as external forces when considering the expansion of the caravan trade and porterage: Kjekshus, Ecology Control, 111-25.
75. See also Koponen, People and Production, 81.
76. Glassman makes a similar point, although he describes the contrast in terms of struggles over culture, and identity politics in the coastal termini of the main routes: Jonathan Glassman, 'Social rebellion and Swahili culture: the response to German conquest of the northern Mrima' (Ph.D. thesis, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1988), ch. 2;
77. As Helge Kjekshus points out, we must look to local factors as well as external forces when considering the expansion of the caravan trade and porterage: Kjekshus, Ecology Control, 111-25. See also Koponen, People and Production, 81. Feasts and Riot, ch. 2. Feasts and Riot, ch. 2.
78. Glassman recognizes this, but in the context of his argument concerning the defence of Nyamwezi autonomy against Swahili domination of the trade routes: Feasts and Riot, 59-60. I would argue that Nyamwezi cultural dominance in caravans working the central routes long predated coastal economic domination.
79. Burton, Lake Regions, 237;
80. James B. Wolf (ed.), The Central African Diaries of Walter Hutley, 1877-1881 (Boston, 1976), 36, 22 June 1878;
81. Burton, Lake Regions, 237; Abrahams, Peoples of Greater Unyamwezi, 38; Abrahams, Peoples of Greater Unyamwezi, 38; Unomah and Webster, 'East Africa: the expansion of commerce', 285; Iliffe, Modern History, 44.
82. Burton, Lake Regions, 237; James B. Wolf (ed.), The Central African Diaries of Walter Hutley, 1877-1881 (Boston, 1976), 36, 22 June 1878; Unomah and Webster, 'East Africa: the expansion of commerce', 285; Unomah and Webster, 'East Africa: the expansion of commerce', 285; Iliffe, Modern History, 44.
83. Burton, Lake Regions, 237; James B. Wolf (ed.), The Central African Diaries of Walter Hutley, 1877-1881 (Boston, 1976), 36, 22 June 1878; Abrahams, Peoples of Greater Unyamwezi, 38; Iliffe, Modern History, 44. Iliffe, Modern History, 44.
84. Cameron, Across Africa, I, 183;
85. Burton, Lake Regions, 237; James B. Wolf (ed.), The Central African Diaries of Walter Hutley, 1877-1881 (Boston, 1976), 36, 22 June 1878; Abrahams, Peoples of Greater Unyamwezi, 38; Unomah and Webster, 'East Africa: the expansion of commerce', 285; Iliffe, Modern History, 44. Wilson and Felkin, Uganda, I, 76-7. Wilson and Felkin, Uganda, I, 76-7. Similar comments are in Richard F. Burton, Zanzibar, City, Island, and Coast (2 vols.) (London, 1872), II, 298; François Coulbois, Dix années au Tanganyka (Limoges, 1901), 48; Mackay to Wright, Uyui, 25 May 1878, Church Missionary Society (CMS) CA6/016; Broyon to McGregor, Zanzibar, 1 Oct. 1879, London Missionary Society (LMS), School of Oriental and African Studies, London, 2/3/D.
86. Cameron, Across Africa, I, 183; Similar comments are in Richard F. Burton, Zanzibar, City, Island, and Coast (2 vols.) (London, 1872), II, 298; Similar comments are in Richard F. Burton, Zanzibar, City, Island, and Coast (2 vols.) (London, 1872), II, 298; François Coulbois, Dix années au Tanganyka (Limoges, 1901), 48; Mackay to Wright, Uyui, 25 May 1878, Church Missionary Society (CMS) CA6/016; Broyon to McGregor, Zanzibar, 1 Oct. 1879, London Missionary Society (LMS), School of Oriental and African Studies, London, 2/3/D.
87. Cameron, Across Africa, I, 183; Wilson and Felkin, Uganda, I, 76-7. François Coulbois, Dix années au Tanganyka (Limoges, 1901), 48; Mackay to Wright, Uyui, 25 May 1878, Church Missionary Society (CMS) CA6/016; Broyon to McGregor, Zanzibar, 1 Oct. 1879, London Missionary Society (LMS), School of Oriental and African Studies, London, 2/3/D. François Coulbois, Dix années au Tanganyka (Limoges, 1901), 48; Mackay to Wright, Uyui, 25 May 1878, Church Missionary Society (CMS) CA6/016; Broyon to McGregor, Zanzibar, 1 Oct. 1879, London Missionary Society (LMS), School of Oriental and African Studies, London, 2/3/D.
88. Francis Patrick Nolan, 'Christianity in Unyamwezi, 1878-1928' (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Cambridge, 1977), 36, 201-2;
89. Cameron, Across Africa, I, 183; Wilson and Felkin, Uganda, I, 76-7. Similar comments are in Richard F. Burton, Zanzibar, City, Island, and Coast (2
90. Francis Patrick Nolan, 'Christianity in Unyamwezi, 1878-1928' (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Cambridge, 1977), 36, 201-2; Philip Stigger, 'The late nineteenth-century caravan trade and some of its modern implications' (unpublished paper, Simon Fraser University, n.d.), 11-17, has accounts of small-scale trade in northern Unyamwezi and Usukuma leading to participation in caravans to the coast. The Nyamwezi and Sukuma share similar institutions and cultures. Philip Stigger, 'The late nineteenth-century caravan trade and some of its modern implications' (unpublished paper, Simon Fraser University, n.d.), 11-17, has accounts of small-scale trade in northern Unyamwezi and Usukuma leading to participation in caravans to the coast. The Nyamwezi and Sukuma share similar institutions and cultures.
91. Sheriff, Slaves, Spices and Ivory, 174;
92. Francis Patrick Nolan, 'Christianity in Unyamwezi, 1878-1928' (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Cambridge, 1977), 36, 201-2; Koponen, People and Production, 114, 116. Philip Stigger, 'The late nineteenth-century caravan trade and some of its modern implications' (unpublished paper, Simon Fraser University, n.d.), 11-17, has accounts of small-scale trade in northern Unyamwezi and Usukuma leading to participation in caravans to the coast. The Nyamwezi and Sukuma share similar institutions and cultures. Glassman, 'Social rebellion', 104; Glassman, 'Social rebellion', 104; Speke, Discovery of the Source of the Nile, 350. Mackay reported meeting 'many small caravans' bound for the coast in mid 1876: Mackay to Wright, Zanzibar, 12 Dec. 1876, CMS CA6/016.
93. Sheriff, Slaves, Spices and Ivory, 174; Speke, Discovery of the Source of the Nile, 350. Mackay reported meeting 'many small caravans' bound for the coast in mid 1876: Mackay to Wright, Zanzibar, 12 Dec. 1876, CMS CA6/016. Speke, Discovery of the Source of the Nile, 350. Mackay reported meeting 'many small caravans' bound for the coast in mid 1876: Mackay to Wright, Zanzibar, 12 Dec. 1876, CMS CA6/016.
94. Robert Pickering Ashe, Chronicles of Uganda (London, 1971; 1st ed. 1894), 22.
95. Graf von Schweinitz, 'Das Trägerpersonal der Karawanen', Deutsche Kolonialzeitung, 2 (1894), 19;
96. Norman R. Bennett (ed.), From Zanzibar to Ujiji: The Journal of Arthur W. Dodgshun 1877-1871) (Boston, 1969), 64, 2-8 May 1878;
97. Graf von Schweinitz, 'Das Trägerpersonal der Karawanen', Deutsche Kolonialzeitung, 2 (1894), 19; Nolan, 'Christianity in Unyamwezi', 36, 201-2. Nolan, 'Christianity in Unyamwezi', 36, 201-2.
98. Alfred R. Tucker, Eighteen Years in Uganda and East Africa (London, 1911), 57.
99. Burton, Lake Regions, 111-2;
100. Richard F. Burton, 'The lake regions of Central Equatorial Africa', Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, 29 (1859), 411-12;
101. Burton, Lake Regions, 111-2; Cummings, 'A note on the history of caravan porters', 114. Cummings, 'A note on the history of caravan porters', 114.
102. Southon to Thompson, Urambo, 17 Apr. 1882, LMS 4/4/B; Griffith to Thompson, Uguha, 1 July 1882, LMS 4/4/C; Copplestone to Thompson, Uyui, 2 Sept. 1882, LMS 4/5/A; Roberts, 'Nyamwezi trade', 65, n. 5. Mwana Kapisi's caravan only got as far as Uyui. For more on Mwana Seria, see Stokes to Lang, Uyui, 18 Dec. 1884, CMS G3A6/02.
103. Anne Luck, Charles Stokes in Africa (Nairobi, 1972), 59, 63-5, 68, 85, 157-8, 163, 203;
104. Nicholas Harman, Bwana Stokesi and his African Conquests (London, 1986), 23, 34-47, 54-6; Blackburn to Lang, Uyui, 2 July 1885, CMS G3A6/02 (quote). Stokes wrote soon after his first wife's death, thankful to be on safari, that he was 'quite at home' with his 'wild boys'. Stokes to Lang, Kulehi camp, 26 July 1884, CMS G3A6/01;
105. Anne Luck, Charles Stokes in Africa (Nairobi, 1972), 59, 63-5, 68, 85, 157-8, 163, 203; Luck, Charles Stokes, 59. Luck, Charles Stokes, 59.
106. Tucker, Eighteen Years, 26-7. Tucker implies that it was Stokes who had created this system. In fact, this ordered arrangement was typical of most caravans, whether Nyamwezi, Sukuma, or coastal. The cloth noticed by Tucker was probably a portion of the porters' advance wages.
107. I use the Swahiliised wanyampara. In the original political context in Usukuma, for example, the correct term is banamhala.
108. C. T. Wilson, 'A journey from Kagei to Tabora and back', Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, 2 (1880), 619;
109. also quoted in Achim Gottberg, Unyamwesi. Quellensammlung und Geschichte (Berlin, 1971), 120.
110. C. F. Holmes and R. A. Austen, 'The pre-colonial Sukuma', Journal of World History, 14 (1972), 384, state that a banamhala was 'an advisory council of village elders', subject to the authority of ng'wanangwa (pl. banangwa), who was subject to the mtemi.
111. Copplestone to Hutchinson, Uyui, 22 Mar. 1881, CMS G3A6/01; Tabora Stationschef, 'Beantwortung des Fragebogens' (1899), in Gottberg, Unyamwesi, 242-4. The author wrote that the position was only open to senior males, and that a mnyampara had 'several villages under him'. In Ukimbu the elders making up the council of the chiefdoms were known as ivanyaampala. In Usumbwa they were banyampara. See Shorter, Chiefship, 24, 120-2.
112. Raum, 'German East Africa', 169.
113. John Hanning Speke, Journal of the Discovery of the Source of the Nile (New York, 1864), 125;
114. Nolan, 'Christianity in Unyamwezi', 53;
115. John Hanning Speke, Journal of the Discovery of the Source of the Nile (New York, 1864), 125; Sheriff, Slaves, Spices and Ivory, 181. Sheriff, Slaves, Spices and Ivory, 181.
116. F. J. Lake, 'The organisation of ancestor worship', 1-2, Nzega District Book, Tanzania National Archives, Dar es Salaam.
117. John Hanning Speke, Journal of the Discovery of the Source of the Nile (New York, 1864), 125; Nolan, 'Christianity in Unyamwezi', 53; Sheriff, Slaves, Spices and Ivory, 181. See Glassman, 'Social rebellion', 138, for a brief discussion of religious ritual on caravans working the northern routes. See Glassman, 'Social rebellion', 138, for a brief discussion of religious ritual on caravans working the northern routes.
118. Burton, Lake Regions, 509-10, 241.
119. Also kilangozi or kiongozi. Compare with -ongoza (Kiswahili): to drive forward, carry on vigorously, lead.
120. Although a missionary described his kirangozi as a 'Wanyamwezi chief', and Wilson believed he was usually chosen from among the wanyampara. Southon to Whitehouse, Lagula, Ugogo, 6 Aug. 1879, LMS 2/1/D; Wilson and Felkin, Uganda, I, 43.
121. Burton, Lake Regions, 112;
122. Wilson and Felkin, Uganda, I, 43;
123. Burton, Lake Regions, 112; Swann, Fighting the Slave-Hunters, 41. Swann, Fighting the Slave-Hunters, 41. For the election of a kirangozi, see Burton, Lake Regions, 431-2. For a somewhat different account of the functions of virangozi in coastal caravans, see Glassman, 'Social rebellion', 93.
124. Burton, Lake Regions, 112; Wilson and Felkin, Uganda, I, 43; For the election of a kirangozi, see Burton, Lake Regions, 431-2. For a somewhat different account of the functions of virangozi in coastal caravans, see Glassman, 'Social rebellion', 93. For the election of a kirangozi, see Burton, Lake Regions, 431-2. For a somewhat different account of the functions of virangozi in coastal caravans, see Glassman, 'Social rebellion', 93.
125. Speke, Journal, 50. Burton is incorrect when he says that a present was optional at the end of a journey. His evidence on wages and customary payments is unreliable given his own failure to pay his porters according to their agreement with the British consul in Zanzibar.
126. Unomah, 'Economic expansion', 262-3.
127. Burton, Lake Regions, 240.
128. For more on the characteristics of professional porters, see Rockel, 'Caravan porters', 146-60
129. and Rockel, 'Wage labour and the culture of porterage'.
130. Sheriff, Slaves, Spices and Ivory, 247.
131. Sheriff, Slaves, Spices and Ivory, 182.
132. Probably more than one third during the dry season, representing several tens of thousands. For a short discussion of numbers, see Rockel, 'Caravan porters', 342.
133. As has been done for peasants and pastoralists in Tanzanian environmental history. See Maddox et al., Custodians of the Land.
134. In German territory from the late 18908 Africans needed permits to take caravans to the coast. Further restrictions on elephant hunting, trading and firearms acquisition were imposed in the early years of the twentieth century. See Stigger, 'The late nineteenth century caravan trade', 18-19. Enforcement of firearm regulations was probably spotty until after Maji Maji.
135. See Juhani Koponen, Development For Exploitation: German Colonial Policies in Mainland Tanzania, 1884-1914 (Helsinki and Hamburg, 1994), 541.
136. In German territory from the late 18908 Africans needed permits to take caravans to the coast. Further restrictions on elephant hunting, trading and firearms acquisition were imposed in the early years of the twentieth century. See Stigger, 'The late nineteenth century caravan trade', 18-19. Enforcement of firearm regulations was probably spotty until after Maji Maji. For further discussion, see Rockel, 'Caravan porters', 173-4. For further discussion, see Rockel, 'Caravan porters', 173-4.
137. Sheriff, Slaves, Spices and Ivory, 181-2.
138. For recruitment practices, see Rockel, 'Caravan porters', 163-72.
139. For a brief discussion of personal motivations, see Rockel, 'Caravan porters', 135-8.
140. Burton dated the innovation of Nyamwezi porters hiring themselves out to coastal traders travelling the central route to 'a few years ago', i.e. a few years before 1857-8. Previously, 'servile gangs' hired at the coast or Zanzibar had been used, and these were still employed on the routes leading from the northern Mrima to the Maasai country and beyond, and the southern roads to Lake Nyassa. See Burton, Lake Regions, 235;
141. Unomah, 'Economic expansion', 77.
142. Burton, Lake Regions, 153, 186. It is possible that many members of these caravans were independent traders who had joined the larger group for security.
143. Hamid bin Muhammed (Tippu Tip) (ed. and trans. W. H. Whitely), Maisha ya Hamed bin Muhammed el Murjebi yaani Tippu Tip (Nairobi, Kampala, Dar es Salaam, 1974), 53, 68, 75, 77, 100, 103;
144. Henry Morton Stanley, Through the Dark Continent (2 vols.) (Toronto, London, 1988; orig. pub. London, 1899), II, 100, and passim;
145. Hamid bin Muhammed (Tippu Tip) (ed. and trans. W. H. Whitely), Maisha ya Hamed bin Muhammed el Murjebi yaani Tippu Tip (Nairobi, Kampala, Dar es Salaam, 1974), 53, 68, 75, 77, 100, 103; Cameron, Across Africa, I, 299. In this region the opportunities for plunder and trade probably outweighed wage incentives. Cameron, Across Africa, I, 299. In this region the opportunities for plunder and trade probably outweighed wage incentives.
146. John Hanning Speke, 'On the commerce of Central Africa', Transactions of the Bombay Geographical Society, 15 (1860), 141;
147. Hamid bin Muhammed (Tippu Tip) (ed. and trans. W. H. Whitely), Maisha ya Hamed bin Muhammed el Murjebi yaani Tippu Tip (Nairobi, Kampala, Dar es Salaam, 1974), 53, 68, 75, 77, 100, 103; Henry Morton Stanley, Through the Dark Continent (2 vols.) (Toronto, London, 1988; orig. pub. London, 1899), II, 100, and passim; Cameron, Across Africa, I, 299. In this region the opportunities for plunder and trade probably outweighed wage incentives. Speke, Journal, 62, 23 Oct. 1860; Speke, Journal, 62, 23 Oct. 1860; Burton, 'Lake regions', 57, 80; Lake Regions, 82, 119-20, 236. For similar activities of 'couriers' in the Kilwa Kivinje area and 'touts' in Uzigua, see David Lawrence Horne, 'Mode of production in the social and economic history of Kilwa to 1884' (Ph.D. thesis, University of California, Los Angeles, 1984), 156; James L. Giblin, The Politics of Environmental Control in Northeastern Tanzania, 1840-1940 (Philadelphia, 1992), 46-8.
148. John Hanning Speke, 'On the commerce of Central Africa', Transactions of the Bombay Geographical Society, 15 (1860), 141; Burton, 'Lake regions', 57, 80; Burton, 'Lake regions', 57, 80; Lake Regions, 82, 119-20, 236. For similar activities of 'couriers' in the Kilwa Kivinje area and 'touts' in Uzigua, see David Lawrence Horne, 'Mode of production in the social and economic history of Kilwa to 1884' (Ph.D. thesis, University of California, Los Angeles, 1984), 156; James L. Giblin, The Politics of Environmental Control in Northeastern Tanzania, 1840-1940 (Philadelphia, 1992), 46-8.
149. John Hanning Speke, 'On the commerce of Central Africa', Transactions of the Bombay Geographical Society, 15 (1860), 141; Speke, Journal, 62, 23 Oct. 1860; Lake Regions, 82, 119-20, 236. Lake Regions, 82, 119-20, 236. For similar activities of 'couriers' in the Kilwa Kivinje area and 'touts' in Uzigua, see David Lawrence Horne, 'Mode of production in the social and economic history of Kilwa to 1884' (Ph.D. thesis, University of California, Los Angeles, 1984), 156; James L. Giblin, The Politics of Environmental Control in Northeastern Tanzania, 1840-1940 (Philadelphia, 1992), 46-8.
150. John Hanning Speke, 'On the commerce of Central Africa', Transactions of the Bombay Geographical Society, 15 (1860), 141; Speke, Journal, 62, 23 Oct. 1860; Burton, 'Lake regions', 57, 80; For similar activities of 'couriers' in the Kilwa Kivinje area and 'touts' in Uzigua, see David Lawrence Horne, 'Mode of production in the social and economic history of Kilwa to 1884' (Ph.D. thesis, University of California, Los Angeles, 1984), 156; For similar activities of 'couriers' in the Kilwa Kivinje area and 'touts' in Uzigua, see David Lawrence Horne, 'Mode of production in the social and economic history of Kilwa to 1884' (Ph.D. thesis, University of California, Los Angeles, 1984), 156; James L. Giblin, The Politics of Environmental Control in Northeastern Tanzania, 1840-1940 (Philadelphia, 1992), 46-8.
151. John Hanning Speke, 'On the commerce of Central Africa', Transactions of the Bombay Geographical Society, 15 (1860), 141; Speke, Journal, 62, 23 Oct. 1860; Burton, 'Lake regions', 57, 80; Lake Regions, 82, 119-20, 236. James L. Giblin, The Politics of Environmental Control in Northeastern Tanzania, 1840-1940 (Philadelphia, 1992), 46-8. James L. Giblin, The Politics of Environmental Control in Northeastern Tanzania, 1840-1940 (Philadelphia, 1992), 46-8.
152. Sheriff, Slaves, Spices and Ivory
153. John Hanning Speke, 'On the commerce of Central Africa', Transactions of the Bombay Geographical Society, 15 (1860), 141; Speke, Journal, 62, 23 Oct. 1860; Burton, 'Lake regions', 57, 80; Lake Regions, 82, 119-20, 236. For similar activities of 'couriers' in the Kilwa Kivinje area and 'touts' in Uzigua, see David Lawrence Horne, 'Mode of production in the social and economic history of Kilwa to 1884' (Ph.D. thesis, University of California, Los Angeles, 1984), 156; James L. Giblin, The Politics of Environmental Control in Northeastern Tanzania, 1840-1940 (Philadelphia, 1992), 46-8. Appendix C, 'Ivory imports into the United Kingdom, 1792-1875', 257-8. Appendix C, 'Ivory imports into the United Kingdom, 1792-1875', 257-8.
154. Sheriff, Slaves, Spices and Ivory, 122-6.
155. Burton, Lake Regions, 237;
156. Glassman, 'Social rebellion', 92-3.
157. Roger Price, Report of the Rev. R. Price of His Visit to Zanzibar and the Coast of Eastern Africa (London, 1876), 23, 39;
158. Burton, Lake Regions, 237; Glassman, 'Social rebellion', 92-3. Wolf, Central African Diaries, 25-6 (5 May), 30 (30 May), 34 (16 and 17 June), 35 (18 June), 37 (24 June). The first of these was not an ivory caravan but one of work seekers. In another entry Hutley notes that at the Kidete river, on the road to Mpwapwa, 'several caravans … passed during the day, some going in and others coming out'. There is no indication here whether these were Nyamwezi or Swahili/Arab caravans. Wolf, Central African Diaries, 25-6 (5 May), 30 (30 May), 34 (16 and 17 June), 35 (18 June), 37 (24 June). The first of these was not an ivory caravan but one of work seekers. In another entry Hutley notes that at the Kidete river, on the road to Mpwapwa, 'several caravans … passed during the day, some going in and others coming out'. There is no indication here whether these were Nyamwezi or Swahili/Arab caravans. Wolf, Central African Diaries, 19-20, 7 Apr. 1878. Note that Price and Hutley used the same route from Saadani to Mpwapwa. The situation may have been different on the Usagara road. See also Nolan, 'Christianity in Unyamwezi', 59.
159. Roger Price, Report of the Rev. R. Price of His Visit to Zanzibar and the Coast of Eastern Africa (London, 1876), 23, 39; Wolf, Central African Diaries, 19-20, 7 Apr. 1878. Note that Price and Hutley used the same route from Saadani to Mpwapwa. The situation may have been different on the Usagara road. Wolf, Central African Diaries, 19-20, 7 Apr. 1878. Note that Price and Hutley used the same route from Saadani to Mpwapwa. The situation may have been different on the Usagara road. See also Nolan, 'Christianity in Unyamwezi', 59.
160. Roger Price, Report of the Rev. R. Price of His Visit to Zanzibar and the Coast of Eastern Africa (London, 1876), 23, 39; Wolf, Central African Diaries, 25-6 (5 May), 30 (30 May), 34 (16 and 17 June), 35 (18 June), 37 (24 June). The first of these was not an ivory caravan but one of work seekers. In another entry Hutley notes that at the Kidete river, on the road to Mpwapwa, 'several caravans … passed during the day, some going in and others coming out'. There is no indication here whether these were Nyamwezi or Swahili/Arab caravans. See also Nolan, 'Christianity in Unyamwezi', 59. See also Nolan, 'Christianity in Unyamwezi', 59.
161. Sheriff, Slaves, Spices and Ivory, 181-2.
162. As long ago as 1972, Alfred Unomah's work radically revised prevailing ideas about the extent of Arab power in Unyamwezi: see 'Economic expansion'. This is a slightly different issue, but still relevant.
163. Sheriff, Slaves, Spices and Ivory, 182;
164. also quoted in Glassman, Feasts and Riot, 59. Glassman goes further than Sheriff when he writes (p. 56) that the central routes 'would … become notable for a high degree of Arab control and for the exclusion of upcountry people from all but the most menial of roles'. See also p. 58 where Glassman's argument is virtually identical to Sheriff's. Both writers ignore the continuing importance of Nyamwezi and Sumbwa commerce along the routes to Katanga.
165. Kirk to Major E. Smith, Private Secretary to Sir Bartle Frere, Zanzibar, 10 Mar. 1873, Cameron Papers, VLC 6/1, Royal Geographical Society (RGS), London. See also Murphy to Kirk, Bagamoyo Camp, 19 Apr. 1873, Cameron Papers, VLC 3/4, RGS, and Walter Thaddeus Brown, 'A pre-colonial history of Bagamoyo: aspects of the growth of an East African coastal town' (Ph.D. dissertation, Boston University, 1971), 158. Murphy believed that there were, in fact, sufficient Nyamwezi porters in Bagamoyo, but they were demanding excessive wages and the entire amount in advance, rather than just the usual instalment. In addition, the porters he succeeded in hiring quickly deserted, and others were seized by Arabs because they were 'Mirambo's' men. These conditions probably reflected the insecurity of the time.
166. Murphy to Sir B. Frere, Zanzibar, 7 Mar. 1874, VLC 3/4, RGS; Cameron, Across Africa, I, 175-6. On numerous occasions Cameron points to the disruption of trade and the difficulties and dangers of travelling in western Unyamwezi as a consequence of the war. For instance, of Ugunda in Jan. 1874 he wrote: 'In consequence of the disturbances between Mirambo and the Arabs, trade had suffered much and the whole country was very unsettled'.
167. See Across Africa, 77, 151, 161-2, 163, 175-6, 201 (quote), 212.
168. Norman R. Bennett (ed.) Stanley's Despatches to the New York Herald, 1871-1872, 1874-1877 (Boston, 1970), 26;
169. Murphy to Sir B. Frere, Zanzibar, 7 Mar. 1874, VLC 3/4, RGS; Cameron, Across Africa, I, 175-6. On numerous occasions Cameron points to the disruption of trade and the difficulties and dangers of travelling in western Unyamwezi as a consequence of the war. For instance, of Ugunda in Jan. 1874 he wrote: 'In consequence of the disturbances between Mirambo and the Arabs, trade had suffered much and the whole country was very unsettled'. See Across Africa, 77, 151, 161-2, 163, 175-6, 201 (quote), 212. Simpson, Dark Companions, 79; Simpson, Dark Companions, 79; David Livingstone (ed. H. Waller), The Last Journals of David Livingstone (New York, 1875), 430, 10 June 1872; the war continued through the dry season: 434, 436, 21 and 28 June; 449, 17 July.
170. Norman R. Bennett (ed.) Stanley's Despatches to the New York Herald, 1871-1872, 1874-1877 (Boston, 1970), 26; David Livingstone (ed. H. Waller), The Last Journals of David Livingstone (New York, 1875), 430, 10 June 1872; the war continued through the dry season: 434, 436, 21 and 28 June; 449, 17 July. David Livingstone (ed. H. Waller), The Last Journals of David Livingstone (New York, 1875), 430, 10 June 1872; the war continued through the dry season: 434, 436, 21 and 28 June; 449, 17 July.
171. Sheriff, Slaves, Spices and Ivory, 181, 122-3, 125.
172. Charles Stokes gave Smith, Mackenzie and Co. of Zanzibar a quote of MT$30 per load to transport goods to Msalala in northern Unyamwezi for the Emin Pash relief expedition. The quote was based on the cost of hiring Nyamwezi porters. The usual charge using coastal porters was MT$40. See Smith, Mackenzie and Co. to Gray, Dawes and Co., Zanzibar, 7 Oct. 1887, Box 83, Mackinnon Papers, School of Oriental and African Studies, London. The difference is partly explained by the heavier loads carried by the Nyamwezi, and perhaps by Stokes' special relationship with them, which was equivalent to that of a large Nyamwezi trader.
173. Sheriff, Slaves, Spices and Ivory, 181-2, 198, n. 59.
174. Sheriff, Slaves, Spices and Ivory, 108.
175. In 1884-5, during the severe famine in eastern and central regions of Tanzania, parties of Nyamwezi carried surplus grain to Ugogo, hundreds of kilometres to the east through the Mgunda Mkali, while Gogo travelled in the opposite direction to seek relief in Unyanyembe. See Annie Hore, To Lake Tanganyika in a Bath Chair (London, 1886), 120, 125, 127.
176. The early examples in Rockel, 'Caravan porters', 58-9, are clear evidence.
177. Rochus Schmidt, Geschichte de Araberaufstandes in Ost-Afrika (Frankfurt a. Oder, 1892), 29, 78;
178. Brown, 'A pre-colonial history of Bagamoyo', 282;
179. Rochus Schmidt, Geschichte de Araberaufstandes in Ost-Afrika (Frankfurt a. Oder, 1892), 29, 78; Walter Thaddeus Brown, 'Bagamoyo; an historical introduction', Tanzania Notes and Records, 71 (1970), 82. Walter Thaddeus Brown, 'Bagamoyo; an historical introduction', Tanzania Notes and Records, 71 (1970), 82. Brown's source is H. F. von Behr, Kriegsbilder aus dem Araberaufstand in Deutsch Ostafrika (Leipzig, 1891), 138. See also Glassman, Feasts and Riot, 203, 213-4.
180. Rochus Schmidt, Geschichte de Araberaufstandes in Ost-Afrika (Frankfurt a. Oder, 1892), 29, 78; Brown, 'A pre-colonial history of Bagamoyo', 282; Brown's source is H. F. von Behr, Kriegsbilder aus dem Araberaufstand in Deutsch Ostafrika (Leipzig, 1891), 138. Brown's source is H. F. von Behr, Kriegsbilder aus dem Araberaufstand in Deutsch Ostafrika (Leipzig, 1891), 138. See also Glassman, Feasts and Riot, 203, 213-4.
181. Rochus Schmidt, Geschichte de Araberaufstandes in Ost-Afrika (Frankfurt a. Oder, 1892), 29, 78; Brown, 'A pre-colonial history of Bagamoyo', 282; Walter Thaddeus Brown, 'Bagamoyo; an historical introduction', Tanzania Notes and Records, 71 (1970), 82. See also Glassman, Feasts and Riot, 203, 213-4. See also Glassman, Feasts and Riot, 203, 213-4.
182. A. J. Mounteney Jephson (ed. Dorothy Middleton), The Diary of A. J. Mounteney Jephson: Emin Pasha Relief Expedition 1887-1889 (Cambridge, 1969), 409, 17 Oct. 1889;
183. Rochus Schmidt, Geschichte de Araberaufstandes in Ost-Afrika (Frankfurt a. Oder, 1892), 29, 78; Brown, 'A pre-colonial history of Bagamoyo', 282; Walter Thaddeus Brown, 'Bagamoyo; an historical introduction', Tanzania Notes and Records, 71 (1970), 82. Brown's source is H. F. von Behr, Kriegsbilder aus dem Araberaufstand in Deutsch Ostafrika (Leipzig, 1891), 138. See also Glassman, Feasts and Riot, 203, 213-4. Carl Peters (trans. H. W. Dulcken), New Light on Dark Africa (London, 1891) 531, 533, 535. Carl Peters (trans. H. W. Dulcken), New Light on Dark Africa (London, 1891) 531, 533, 535.
184. J. A. Moloney, With Captain Stairs to Katanga (London, 1893), 57.
185. Ashe, Chronicles of Uganda, 439.
186. See examples in William G. Stairs, 'De Zanzibar au Katanga: journal du Capitaine Stairs (1890-1891)', Le Congo Illustré, 2 (1893), 47, 29 July 1891;
187. Janina M. Konczacki (ed.), Victorian Explorer: The African Diaries of Captain William G. Stairs, 1887-1892 (Halifax, N.S., 1994), 201-2, 31 July 1891;
188. See examples in William G. Stairs, 'De Zanzibar au Katanga: journal du Capitaine Stairs (1890-1891)', Le Congo Illustré, 2 (1893), 47, 29 July 1891; and the discussion in Brown, 'A pre-colonial history of Bagamoyo', 282-6; and the discussion in Brown, 'A pre-colonial history of Bagamoyo', 282-6; Brown, 'Bagamoyo: an historical introduction', 82.
189. See examples in William G. Stairs, 'De Zanzibar au Katanga: journal du Capitaine Stairs (1890-1891)', Le Congo Illustré, 2 (1893), 47, 29 July 1891; Janina M. Konczacki (ed.), Victorian Explorer: The African Diaries of Captain William G. Stairs, 1887-1892 (Halifax, N.S., 1994), 201-2, 31 July 1891; Brown, 'Bagamoyo: an historical introduction', 82. Brown, 'Bagamoyo: an historical introduction', 82.
190. It is probable that the porters were Nyamwezi and Sukuma because, when at Bagamoyo previously, Stairs had commented on the 'numerous close columns of Wanyamwezi' which arrived virtually every day. The issue was complicated because by this time Nyamwezi caravans carried the German flag. See Konczacki, Victorian Explorer, 193, 8 July 1891; 197, 19 July; 190, 2 July; 202, 1 Aug;
191. See examples in William G. Stairs, 'De Zanzibar au Katanga: journal du Capitaine Stairs (1890-1891)', Le Congo Illustré, 2 (1893), 47, 29 July 1891; Janina M. Konczacki (ed.), Victorian Explorer: The African Diaries of Captain William G. Stairs, 1887-1892 (Halifax, N.S., 1994), 201-2, 31 July 1891; and the discussion in Brown, 'A pre-colonial history of Bagamoyo', 282-6; Brown, 'Bagamoyo: an historical introduction', 82. Moloney, With Captain Stairs, 36. Moloney, With Captain Stairs, 36.
192. Stigger, 'Late nineteenth-century caravan trade', 3-9.
193. It is probable that the porters were Nyamwezi and Sukuma because, when at Bagamoyo previously, Stairs had commented on the 'numerous close columns of Wanyamwezi' which arrived virtually every day. The issue was complicated because by this time Nyamwezi caravans carried the German flag. See Konczacki, Victorian Explorer, 193, 8 July 1891; 197, 19 July; 190, 2 July; 202, 1 Aug; Moloney, With Captain Stairs, 36. Compare with the account of political instability in Usiha itself in Holmes and Austen, 'Pre-colonial Sukuma', 392, 394. Holmes and Austen discuss Shinyanga and western Usiha, but the main caravanserai was in Negezi in eastern Usiha. For the Lake Victoria route, Compare with the account of political instability in Usiha itself in Holmes and Austen, 'Pre-colonial Sukuma', 392, 394. Holmes and Austen discuss Shinyanga and western Usiha, but the main caravanserai was in Negezi in eastern Usiha. For the Lake Victoria route, see C. F. Holmes, 'Zanzibari influence at the southern end of Lake Victoria: the lake route', African Historical Studies 4 (1971), 477-503.
194. Stigger, 'Late nineteenth-century caravan trade', 3-9. see C. F. Holmes, 'Zanzibari influence at the southern end of Lake Victoria: the lake route', African Historical Studies 4 (1971), 477-503. see C. F. Holmes, 'Zanzibari influence at the southern end of Lake Victoria: the lake route', African Historical Studies 4 (1971), 477-503.
195. Stigger, 'Late nineteenth-century caravan trade', 9-10. According to Holmes and Austen, Stokes' Sukuma name was Ndokeji, suspiciously similar to Ndekeja. It is possible that the two caravan leaders have been confused in tradition. See
196. Stigger, 'Late nineteenth-century caravan trade', 3-9. Compare with the account of political instability in Usiha itself in Holmes and Austen, 'Pre-colonial Sukuma', 392, 394. Holmes and Austen discuss Shinyanga and western Usiha, but the main caravanserai was in Negezi in eastern Usiha. For the Lake Victoria route, see C. F. Holmes, 'Zanzibari influence at the southern end of Lake Victoria: the lake route', African Historical Studies 4 (1971), 477-503. Holmes and Austen, 'The pre-colonial Sukuma', 391. I accept Stigger's account given his extensive research in Usiha. A contemporary of Ndekeja and another important caravan leader operating from Usiha was Telekeza. Holmes and Austen, 'The pre-colonial Sukuma', 391. I accept Stigger's account given his extensive research in Usiha. A contemporary of Ndekeja and another important caravan leader operating from Usiha was Telekeza. See Schmidt, Geschichte de Araberaufstandes, 101, 153;
197. Stigger, 'Late nineteenth-century caravan trade', 9-10. According to Holmes and Austen, Stokes' Sukuma name was Ndokeji, suspiciously similar to Ndekeja. It is possible that the two caravan leaders have been confused in tradition. See See Schmidt, Geschichte de Araberaufstandes, 101, 153; See Schmidt, Geschichte de Araberaufstandes, 101, 153;
198. Peters, New Light on Dark Africa, 502-4;
199. Stigger, 'Late nineteenth-century caravan trade', 9-10. According to Holmes and Austen, Stokes' Sukuma name was Ndokeji, suspiciously similar to Ndekeja. It is possible that the two caravan leaders have been confused in tradition. See Holmes and Austen, 'The pre-colonial Sukuma', 391. I accept Stigger's account given his extensive research in Usiha. A contemporary of Ndekeja and another important caravan leader operating from Usiha was Telekeza. See Schmidt, Geschichte de Araberaufstandes, 101, 153; von Schweinitz, 'Das Trägerpersonal der Karawanen', 19; von Schweinitz, 'Das Trägerpersonal der Karawanen', 19; Franz Stuhlmann, Mit Emin Pascha ins Herz von Afrika (Berlin, 1894), 754-5.
200. Peters, New Light on Dark Africa, 502-4; Franz Stuhlmann, Mit Emin Pascha ins Herz von Afrika (Berlin, 1894), 754-5. Franz Stuhlmann, Mit Emin Pascha ins Herz von Afrika (Berlin, 1894), 754-5.
201. Bennett, From Zanzibar to Ujiji, 57 (ed. n.);
202. Peters, New Light on Dark Africa, 502-4; von Schweinitz, 'Das Trägerpersonal der Karawanen', 19; Franz Stuhlmann, Mit Emin Pascha ins Herz von Afrika (Berlin, 1894), 754-5. Frederick Cooper, From Slaves to Squatters: Plantation Labor and Agriculture in Zanzibar and Coastal Kenya, 1890-1925 (New Haven, 1980), 52. Frederick Cooper, From Slaves to Squatters: Plantation Labor and Agriculture in Zanzibar and Coastal Kenya, 1890-1925 (New Haven, 1980), 52.
203. Bennett, From Zanzibar to Ujiji, 77, 11 Aug., 1878;
204. Bennett, From Zanzibar to Ujiji, 57 (ed. n.); Frederick Cooper, From Slaves to Squatters: Plantation Labor and Agriculture in Zanzibar and Coastal Kenya, 1890-1925 (New Haven, 1980), 52. Beidelman, 'The organization and maintenance of caravans', 610. Beidelman, 'The organization and maintenance of caravans', 610.
205. Muxworthy to Thompson, Zanzibar, 14 July 1882, LMS 4/5/D/
206. Wolf, Central African Diaries, 86, 7 Mar. 1879.
207. Bennett, From Zanzibar to Ujiji, 56-7, 26 Jan. 1878.
208. Joseph Thomson, Through Masai Land (London, 1968; 1st ed. 1885), 23.
209. See also Stokes to Lang, Zanzibar, 1 Mar. 1883, CMS G3A6/01;
210. Joseph Thomson, Through Masai Land (London, 1968; 1st ed. 1885), 23. Kathryn Barrett-Gaines, 'Travel writing, experiences and silences. What is left out of European travelers' accounts - the case of Richard D. Mohun', History in Africa, 24 (1997), 58. Kathryn Barrett-Gaines, 'Travel writing, experiences and silences. What is left out of European travelers' accounts - the case of Richard D. Mohun', History in Africa, 24 (1997), 58. For similar comments referring to various recruitment centres, see Henry Morton Stanley, How I Found Livingstone (London, 1872), 49; Bennett, From Zanzibar to Ujiji, 67-8, 13 May 1878; Mackay to Wright (?), Uzigua, 9 Dec. 1877, CMS CA6/016; O'Flaherty to Hutchinson, Mpwapwa, 20 Oct. 1880, CMS G3A6/01; Hore to Thompson, Zanzibar, 23 June 1882, LMS 4/4/C; Hore to Thompson, LMS Camp, Makwui, 17 July 1882, LMS 4/4/D; Wolf, Central African Diaries, 270, 21 June 1881.
211. Joseph Thomson, Through Masai Land (London, 1968; 1st ed. 1885), 23. See also Stokes to Lang, Zanzibar, 1 Mar. 1883, CMS G3A6/01; For similar comments referring to various recruitment centres, see Henry Morton Stanley, How I Found Livingstone (London, 1872), 49; For similar comments referring to various recruitment centres, see Henry Morton Stanley, How I Found Livingstone (London, 1872), 49; Bennett, From Zanzibar to Ujiji, 67-8, 13 May 1878; Mackay to Wright (?), Uzigua, 9 Dec. 1877, CMS CA6/016; O'Flaherty to Hutchinson, Mpwapwa, 20 Oct. 1880, CMS G3A6/01; Hore to Thompson, Zanzibar, 23 June 1882, LMS 4/4/C; Hore to Thompson, LMS Camp, Makwui, 17 July 1882, LMS 4/4/D; Wolf, Central African Diaries, 270, 21 June 1881.
212. Joseph Thomson, Through Masai Land (London, 1968; 1st ed. 1885), 23. See also Stokes to Lang, Zanzibar, 1 Mar. 1883, CMS G3A6/01; Kathryn Barrett-Gaines, 'Travel writing, experiences and silences. What is left out of European travelers' accounts - the case of Richard D. Mohun', History in Africa, 24 (1997), 58. Bennett, From Zanzibar to Ujiji, 67-8, 13 May 1878; Bennett, From Zanzibar to Ujiji, 67-8, 13 May 1878; Mackay to Wright (?), Uzigua, 9 Dec. 1877, CMS CA6/016; O'Flaherty to Hutchinson, Mpwapwa, 20 Oct. 1880, CMS G3A6/01; Hore to Thompson, Zanzibar, 23 June 1882, LMS 4/4/C; Hore to Thompson, LMS Camp, Makwui, 17 July 1882, LMS 4/4/D; Wolf, Central African Diaries, 270, 21 June 1881.
213. Joseph Thomson, Through Masai Land (London, 1968; 1st ed. 1885), 23. See also Stokes to Lang, Zanzibar, 1 Mar. 1883, CMS G3A6/01; Kathryn Barrett-Gaines, 'Travel writing, experiences and silences. What is left out of European travelers' accounts - the case of Richard D. Mohun', History in Africa, 24 (1997), 58. For similar comments referring to various recruitment centres, see Henry Morton Stanley, How I Found Livingstone (London, 1872), 49; Mackay to Wright (?), Uzigua, 9 Dec. 1877, CMS CA6/016; O'Flaherty to Hutchinson, Mpwapwa, 20 Oct. 1880, CMS G3A6/01; Hore to Thompson, Zanzibar, 23 June 1882, LMS 4/4/C; Hore to Thompson, LMS Camp, Makwui, 17 July 1882, LMS 4/4/D; Mackay to Wright (?), Uzigua, 9 Dec. 1877, CMS CA6/016; O'Flaherty to Hutchinson, Mpwapwa, 20 Oct. 1880, CMS G3A6/01; Hore to Thompson, Zanzibar, 23 June 1882, LMS 4/4/C; Hore to Thompson, LMS Camp, Makwui, 17 July 1882, LMS 4/4/D; Wolf, Central African Diaries, 270, 21 June 1881.
214. Joseph Thomson, Through Masai Land (London, 1968; 1st ed. 1885), 23. See also Stokes to Lang, Zanzibar, 1 Mar. 1883, CMS G3A6/01; Kathryn Barrett-Gaines, 'Travel writing, experiences and silences. What is left out of European travelers' accounts - the case of Richard D. Mohun', History in Africa, 24 (1997), 58. For similar comments referring to various recruitment centres, see Henry Morton Stanley, How I Found Livingstone (London, 1872), 49; Bennett, From Zanzibar to Ujiji, 67-8, 13 May 1878; Wolf, Central African Diaries, 270, 21 June 1881. Wolf, Central African Diaries, 270, 21 June 1881.
215. Konczacki, Victorian Explorer, 188, 13 June 1891;
216. Joseph Thomson, Through Masai Land (London, 1968; 1st ed. 1885), 23. See also Stokes to Lang, Zanzibar, 1 Mar. 1883, CMS G3A6/01; Kathryn Barrett-Gaines, 'Travel writing, experiences and silences. What is left out of European travelers' accounts - the case of Richard D. Mohun', History in Africa, 24 (1997), 58. For similar comments referring to various recruitment centres, see Henry Morton Stanley, How I Found Livingstone (London, 1872), 49; Bennett, From Zanzibar to Ujiji, 67-8, 13 May 1878; Mackay to Wright (?), Uzigua, 9 Dec. 1877, CMS CA6/016; O'Flaherty to Hutchinson, Mpwapwa, 20 Oct. 1880, CMS G3A6/01; Hore to Thompson, Zanzibar, 23 June 1882, LMS 4/4/C; Hore to Thompson, LMS Camp, Makwui, 17 July 1882, LMS 4/4/D; Wolf, Central African Diaries, 270, 21 June 1881. May French-Sheldon, Sultan to Sultan (London, 1892), 85. The shortage of porters at Zanzibar reflects the general labour market for porters at the coast, and the demand for both Waungwana and Nyamwezi. May French-Sheldon, Sultan to Sultan (London, 1892), 85. The shortage of porters at Zanzibar reflects the general labour market for porters at the coast, and the demand for both Waungwana and Nyamwezi.
217. Bennett, From Zanzibar to Ujiji, 79, 17 Aug. 1878.