The limits of 'eco-efficiency': Arsenic pollution and the Cottrell electrical precipitator in the U.S. copper smelting industry

Environmental History

Volumn 5, Issue 3, 2000, Pages 336-351

  LeCain, Timothy ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARSENIC; COPPER; HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE; POLLUTION CONTROL; SMELTING;

UNITED STATES;

EID: 0033806418     PISSN: 10845453     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/3985480     Document Type: Article

References (114)

1. On industrial efficiency, see Alfred Chandler, The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1977). On efficiency and Frederick Winslow Taylor's ideas on "Scientific Management," see Samuel Haber, Efficiency and Uplift: Scientific Management in the Progressive Era, 1890-1920 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964); John M. Jordan, Machine Age Ideology: Social Engineering and American Liberalism, 1911-1939 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994); and Robert Kanigel, The One Best Way: Frederick Winslow Taylor and the Enigma of Efficiency (New York: Viking, 1997).
2. On industrial efficiency, see Alfred Chandler, The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1977). On efficiency and Frederick Winslow Taylor's ideas on "Scientific Management," see Samuel Haber, Efficiency and Uplift: Scientific Management in the Progressive Era, 1890-1920 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964); John M. Jordan, Machine Age Ideology: Social Engineering and American Liberalism, 1911-1939 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994); and Robert Kanigel, The One Best Way: Frederick Winslow Taylor and the Enigma of Efficiency (New York: Viking, 1997).
3. On industrial efficiency, see Alfred Chandler, The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1977). On efficiency and Frederick Winslow Taylor's ideas on "Scientific Management," see Samuel Haber, Efficiency and Uplift: Scientific Management in the Progressive Era, 1890-1920 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964); John M. Jordan, Machine Age Ideology: Social Engineering and American Liberalism, 1911-1939 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994); and Robert Kanigel, The One Best Way: Frederick Winslow Taylor and the Enigma of Efficiency (New York: Viking, 1997).
4. On industrial efficiency, see Alfred Chandler, The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1977). On efficiency and Frederick Winslow Taylor's ideas on "Scientific Management," see Samuel Haber, Efficiency and Uplift: Scientific Management in the Progressive Era, 1890-1920 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964); John M. Jordan, Machine Age Ideology: Social Engineering and American Liberalism, 1911-1939 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994); and Robert Kanigel, The One Best Way: Frederick Winslow Taylor and the Enigma of Efficiency (New York: Viking, 1997).
5. Some recent examples of eco-efficiency advocacy include Livio D. De Simone and Frank Popoff Eco-Efficiency: The Business Link to Sustainable Development (Cambridge Mass.: MIT Press, 1997); Keith Erlam and Ludolf Plass, Eco-Efficiency and Cleaner Production: Charting the Course to Sustainability (World Business Council for Sustainable Development, 1997; available at http://www.wbcsd.ch/publications); and Joseph Fiskel, "Achieving Eco-Efficiency Through Design for Environment," Perspectives (fall 1994). A well-known example of eco-efficiency advocacy might also include Vice President Albert Gore's book, Earth in the Balance: Ecology and the Human Spirit (New York: Plume, 1992), ii, where he argues that "it turns out that pollution is often the best marker by which to identify and eliminate inefficiency."
6. Some recent examples of eco-efficiency advocacy include Livio D. De Simone and Frank Popoff Eco-Efficiency: The Business Link to Sustainable Development (Cambridge Mass.: MIT Press, 1997); Keith Erlam and Ludolf Plass, Eco-Efficiency and Cleaner Production: Charting the Course to Sustainability (World Business Council for Sustainable Development, 1997; available at http://www.wbcsd.ch/publications); and Joseph Fiskel, "Achieving Eco-Efficiency Through Design for Environment," Perspectives (fall 1994). A well-known example of eco-efficiency advocacy might also include Vice President Albert Gore's book, Earth in the Balance: Ecology and the Human Spirit (New York: Plume, 1992), ii, where he argues that "it turns out that pollution is often the best marker by which to identify and eliminate inefficiency."
7. Some recent examples of eco-efficiency advocacy include Livio D. De Simone and Frank Popoff Eco-Efficiency: The Business Link to Sustainable Development (Cambridge Mass.: MIT Press, 1997); Keith Erlam and Ludolf Plass, Eco-Efficiency and Cleaner Production: Charting the Course to Sustainability (World Business Council for Sustainable Development, 1997; available at http://www.wbcsd.ch/publications); and Joseph Fiskel, "Achieving Eco-Efficiency Through Design for Environment," Perspectives (fall 1994). A well-known example of eco-efficiency advocacy might also include Vice President Albert Gore's book, Earth in the Balance: Ecology and the Human Spirit (New York: Plume, 1992), ii, where he argues that "it turns out that pollution is often the best marker by which to identify and eliminate inefficiency."
8. Some recent examples of eco-efficiency advocacy include Livio D. De Simone and Frank Popoff Eco-Efficiency: The Business Link to Sustainable Development (Cambridge Mass.: MIT Press, 1997); Keith Erlam and Ludolf Plass, Eco-Efficiency and Cleaner Production: Charting the Course to Sustainability (World Business Council for Sustainable Development, 1997; available at http://www.wbcsd.ch/publications); and Joseph Fiskel, "Achieving Eco-Efficiency Through Design for Environment," Perspectives (fall 1994). A well-known example of eco-efficiency advocacy might also include Vice President Albert Gore's book, Earth in the Balance: Ecology and the Human Spirit (New York: Plume, 1992), ii, where he argues that "it turns out that pollution is often the best marker by which to identify and eliminate inefficiency."
9. See William McDonough and Michael Braungart, "The NEXT Industrial Revolution," Atlantic Monthly 4 (October 1998): 82-92, quote on 85. A more moderate critique of certain aspects of eco-efficiency theory is Robert M. Day's, "Beyond Eco-Efficiency: Sustainability as a Drive for Innovation," Perspectives (March 1998; available at http:// www.wri.org/wri/meb/sei/beyond.html). Herman E. Daly, Steady-State Economics (Washington, D.C.: Island Press, 1991) and Donald Worster, "The Slippery Path of Sustainable Development," in The Wealth of Nature: Environmental History and the Ecological Imagination, ed. Donald Worster (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), make similar criticisms of current theories of sustainable industrial growth, though these works proceeded the neologism "eco-efficiency." For a broader critique of recent ideas of sustainability, see John Byrne, Steven M. Hoffman, and Cecilia R. Martinez, "The Social Structure of Nature," Proceedings of the Sixth Annual Meeting of the National Association of Science, Technology and Society (1991): 67-76, noting that "economy, efficiency and scientific validity identify the boundaries of action" in current attempts to solve serious environmental threats, thus obscuring the systemic problems with modern industrial civilization (76).
10. See William McDonough and Michael Braungart, "The NEXT Industrial Revolution," Atlantic Monthly 4 (October 1998): 82-92, quote on 85. A more moderate critique of certain aspects of eco-efficiency theory is Robert M. Day's, "Beyond Eco-Efficiency: Sustainability as a Drive for Innovation," Perspectives (March 1998; available at http:// www.wri.org/wri/meb/sei/beyond.html). Herman E. Daly, Steady-State Economics (Washington, D.C.: Island Press, 1991) and Donald Worster, "The Slippery Path of Sustainable Development," in The Wealth of Nature: Environmental History and the Ecological Imagination, ed. Donald Worster (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), make similar criticisms of current theories of sustainable industrial growth, though these works proceeded the neologism "eco-efficiency." For a broader critique of recent ideas of sustainability, see John Byrne, Steven M. Hoffman, and Cecilia R. Martinez, "The Social Structure of Nature," Proceedings of the Sixth Annual Meeting of the National Association of Science, Technology and Society (1991): 67-76, noting that "economy, efficiency and scientific validity identify the boundaries of action" in current attempts to solve serious environmental threats, thus obscuring the systemic problems with modern industrial civilization (76).
11. See William McDonough and Michael Braungart, "The NEXT Industrial Revolution," Atlantic Monthly 4 (October 1998): 82-92, quote on 85. A more moderate critique of certain aspects of eco-efficiency theory is Robert M. Day's, "Beyond Eco-Efficiency: Sustainability as a Drive for Innovation," Perspectives (March 1998; available at http:// www.wri.org/wri/meb/sei/beyond.html). Herman E. Daly, Steady-State Economics (Washington, D.C.: Island Press, 1991) and Donald Worster, "The Slippery Path of Sustainable Development," in The Wealth of Nature: Environmental History and the Ecological Imagination, ed. Donald Worster (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), make similar criticisms of current theories of sustainable industrial growth, though these works proceeded the neologism "eco-efficiency." For a broader critique of recent ideas of sustainability, see John Byrne, Steven M. Hoffman, and Cecilia R. Martinez, "The Social Structure of Nature," Proceedings of the Sixth Annual Meeting of the National Association of Science, Technology and Society (1991): 67-76, noting that "economy, efficiency and scientific validity identify the boundaries of action" in current attempts to solve serious environmental threats, thus obscuring the systemic problems with modern industrial civilization (76).
12. See William McDonough and Michael Braungart, "The NEXT Industrial Revolution," Atlantic Monthly 4 (October 1998): 82-92, quote on 85. A more moderate critique of certain aspects of eco-efficiency theory is Robert M. Day's, "Beyond Eco-Efficiency: Sustainability as a Drive for Innovation," Perspectives (March 1998; available at http:// www.wri.org/wri/meb/sei/beyond.html). Herman E. Daly, Steady-State Economics (Washington, D.C.: Island Press, 1991) and Donald Worster, "The Slippery Path of Sustainable Development," in The Wealth of Nature: Environmental History and the Ecological Imagination, ed. Donald Worster (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), make similar criticisms of current theories of sustainable industrial growth, though these works proceeded the neologism "eco-efficiency." For a broader critique of recent ideas of sustainability, see John Byrne, Steven M. Hoffman, and Cecilia R. Martinez, "The Social Structure of Nature," Proceedings of the Sixth Annual Meeting of the National Association of Science, Technology and Society (1991): 67-76, noting that "economy, efficiency and scientific validity identify the boundaries of action" in current attempts to solve serious environmental threats, thus obscuring the systemic problems with modern industrial civilization (76).
13. See William McDonough and Michael Braungart, "The NEXT Industrial Revolution," Atlantic Monthly 4 (October 1998): 82-92, quote on 85. A more moderate critique of certain aspects of eco-efficiency theory is Robert M. Day's, "Beyond Eco-Efficiency: Sustainability as a Drive for Innovation," Perspectives (March 1998; available at http:// www.wri.org/wri/meb/sei/beyond.html). Herman E. Daly, Steady-State Economics (Washington, D.C.: Island Press, 1991) and Donald Worster, "The Slippery Path of Sustainable Development," in The Wealth of Nature: Environmental History and the Ecological Imagination, ed. Donald Worster (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), make similar criticisms of current theories of sustainable industrial growth, though these works proceeded the neologism "eco-efficiency." For a broader critique of recent ideas of sustainability, see John Byrne, Steven M. Hoffman, and Cecilia R. Martinez, "The Social Structure of Nature," Proceedings of the Sixth Annual Meeting of the National Association of Science, Technology and Society (1991): 67-76, noting that "economy, efficiency and scientific validity identify the boundaries of action" in current attempts to solve serious environmental threats, thus obscuring the systemic problems with modern industrial civilization (76).
14. Clearly some early conservationist advocates embraced a broader ecological view of conservation that went beyond a narrow emphasis on efficiency. See Carl H. Moneyhon, "The Environmental Crisis and American Politics, 1860-1920," in Historical Ecology: Essays on Environmental and Social Change, ed. Lester J. Bilsky (Port Washington, N.Y.: Kennikat Press, 1980), and Clayton R. Koppes, "Environmental Policy and American Liberalism: The Department of the Interior, 1933-1953," Environmental Review 7 (1983): 1-21. On the technocratic origins of conservation, see Samuel P. Hays, Conservation and the Gospel of Efficiency (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1959); Gabriel Kolko, The Triumph of Conservatism (New York: Glencoe, 1963); and William Cronon, Nature's Metropolis: Chicago and the Great West (New York: W. W. Norton & Company), 445 n. 160. For an excellent analysis of the successes and failures of technocratic conservationist principles in mitigating environmental problems in the oil industry, see Hugh Gorman, "From Conservation to Environment: The Engineering Response to Pollution Concerns in the U.S. Petroleum Industry, 1921-1981" (Ph.D. diss., Carnegie Mellon University, 1996). Lynne Page Snyder, in "'The Death-Dealing Smog Over Donora, Pennsylvania': Industrial Air Pollution, Public Health Policy, and the Politics of Expertise, 1948-1949," Environmental History Review 18 (1994): 117-139, also illustrates the inadequacies of the early conservation approach.
15. Clearly some early conservationist advocates embraced a broader ecological view of conservation that went beyond a narrow emphasis on efficiency. See Carl H. Moneyhon, "The Environmental Crisis and American Politics, 1860-1920," in Historical Ecology: Essays on Environmental and Social Change, ed. Lester J. Bilsky (Port Washington, N.Y.: Kennikat Press, 1980), and Clayton R. Koppes, "Environmental Policy and American Liberalism: The Department of the Interior, 1933-1953," Environmental Review 7 (1983): 1-21. On the technocratic origins of conservation, see Samuel P. Hays, Conservation and the Gospel of Efficiency (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1959); Gabriel Kolko, The Triumph of Conservatism (New York: Glencoe, 1963); and William Cronon, Nature's Metropolis: Chicago and the Great West (New York: W. W. Norton & Company), 445 n. 160. For an excellent analysis of the successes and failures of technocratic conservationist principles in mitigating environmental problems in the oil industry, see Hugh Gorman, "From Conservation to Environment: The Engineering Response to Pollution Concerns in the U.S. Petroleum Industry, 1921-1981" (Ph.D. diss., Carnegie Mellon University, 1996). Lynne Page Snyder, in "'The Death-Dealing Smog Over Donora, Pennsylvania': Industrial Air Pollution, Public Health Policy, and the Politics of Expertise, 1948-1949," Environmental History Review 18 (1994): 117-139, also illustrates the inadequacies of the early conservation approach.
16. Clearly some early conservationist advocates embraced a broader ecological view of conservation that went beyond a narrow emphasis on efficiency. See Carl H. Moneyhon, "The Environmental Crisis and American Politics, 1860-1920," in Historical Ecology: Essays on Environmental and Social Change, ed. Lester J. Bilsky (Port Washington, N.Y.: Kennikat Press, 1980), and Clayton R. Koppes, "Environmental Policy and American Liberalism: The Department of the Interior, 1933-1953," Environmental Review 7 (1983): 1-21. On the technocratic origins of conservation, see Samuel P. Hays, Conservation and the Gospel of Efficiency (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1959); Gabriel Kolko, The Triumph of Conservatism (New York: Glencoe, 1963); and William Cronon, Nature's Metropolis: Chicago and the Great West (New York: W. W. Norton & Company), 445 n. 160. For an excellent analysis of the successes and failures of technocratic conservationist principles in mitigating environmental problems in the oil industry, see Hugh Gorman, "From Conservation to Environment: The Engineering Response to Pollution Concerns in the U.S. Petroleum Industry, 1921-1981" (Ph.D. diss., Carnegie Mellon University, 1996). Lynne Page Snyder, in "'The Death-Dealing Smog Over Donora, Pennsylvania': Industrial Air Pollution, Public Health Policy, and the Politics of Expertise, 1948-1949," Environmental History Review 18 (1994): 117-139, also illustrates the inadequacies of the early conservation approach.
17. Clearly some early conservationist advocates embraced a broader ecological view of conservation that went beyond a narrow emphasis on efficiency. See Carl H. Moneyhon, "The Environmental Crisis and American Politics, 1860-1920," in Historical Ecology: Essays on Environmental and Social Change, ed. Lester J. Bilsky (Port Washington, N.Y.: Kennikat Press, 1980), and Clayton R. Koppes, "Environmental Policy and American Liberalism: The Department of the Interior, 1933-1953," Environmental Review 7 (1983): 1-21. On the technocratic origins of conservation, see Samuel P. Hays, Conservation and the Gospel of Efficiency (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1959); Gabriel Kolko, The Triumph of Conservatism (New York: Glencoe, 1963); and William Cronon, Nature's Metropolis: Chicago and the Great West (New York: W. W. Norton & Company), 445 n. 160. For an excellent analysis of the successes and failures of technocratic conservationist principles in mitigating environmental problems in the oil industry, see Hugh Gorman, "From Conservation to Environment: The Engineering Response to Pollution Concerns in the U.S. Petroleum Industry, 1921-1981" (Ph.D. diss., Carnegie Mellon University, 1996). Lynne Page Snyder, in "'The Death-Dealing Smog Over Donora, Pennsylvania': Industrial Air Pollution, Public Health Policy, and the Politics of Expertise, 1948-1949," Environmental History Review 18 (1994): 117-139, also illustrates the inadequacies of the early conservation approach.
18. Clearly some early conservationist advocates embraced a broader ecological view of conservation that went beyond a narrow emphasis on efficiency. See Carl H. Moneyhon, "The Environmental Crisis and American Politics, 1860-1920," in Historical Ecology: Essays on Environmental and Social Change, ed. Lester J. Bilsky (Port Washington, N.Y.: Kennikat Press, 1980), and Clayton R. Koppes, "Environmental Policy and American Liberalism: The Department of the Interior, 1933-1953," Environmental Review 7 (1983): 1-21. On the technocratic origins of conservation, see Samuel P. Hays, Conservation and the Gospel of Efficiency (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1959); Gabriel Kolko, The Triumph of Conservatism (New York: Glencoe, 1963); and William Cronon, Nature's Metropolis: Chicago and the Great West (New York: W. W. Norton & Company), 445 n. 160. For an excellent analysis of the successes and failures of technocratic conservationist principles in mitigating environmental problems in the oil industry, see Hugh Gorman, "From Conservation to Environment: The Engineering Response to Pollution Concerns in the U.S. Petroleum Industry, 1921-1981" (Ph.D. diss., Carnegie Mellon University, 1996). Lynne Page Snyder, in "'The Death-Dealing Smog Over Donora, Pennsylvania': Industrial Air Pollution, Public Health Policy, and the Politics of Expertise, 1948-1949," Environmental History Review 18 (1994): 117-139, also illustrates the inadequacies of the early conservation approach.
19. Clearly some early conservationist advocates embraced a broader ecological view of conservation that went beyond a narrow emphasis on efficiency. See Carl H. Moneyhon, "The Environmental Crisis and American Politics, 1860-1920," in Historical Ecology: Essays on Environmental and Social Change, ed. Lester J. Bilsky (Port Washington, N.Y.: Kennikat Press, 1980), and Clayton R. Koppes, "Environmental Policy and American Liberalism: The Department of the Interior, 1933-1953," Environmental Review 7 (1983): 1-21. On the technocratic origins of conservation, see Samuel P. Hays, Conservation and the Gospel of Efficiency (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1959); Gabriel Kolko, The Triumph of Conservatism (New York: Glencoe, 1963); and William Cronon, Nature's Metropolis: Chicago and the Great West (New York: W. W. Norton & Company), 445 n. 160. For an excellent analysis of the successes and failures of technocratic conservationist principles in mitigating environmental problems in the oil industry, see Hugh Gorman, "From Conservation to Environment: The Engineering Response to Pollution Concerns in the U.S. Petroleum Industry, 1921-1981" (Ph.D. diss., Carnegie Mellon University, 1996). Lynne Page Snyder, in "'The Death-Dealing Smog Over Donora, Pennsylvania': Industrial Air Pollution, Public Health Policy, and the Politics of Expertise, 1948-1949," Environmental History Review 18 (1994): 117-139, also illustrates the inadequacies of the early conservation approach.
20. Clearly some early conservationist advocates embraced a broader ecological view of conservation that went beyond a narrow emphasis on efficiency. See Carl H. Moneyhon, "The Environmental Crisis and American Politics, 1860-1920," in Historical Ecology: Essays on Environmental and Social Change, ed. Lester J. Bilsky (Port Washington, N.Y.: Kennikat Press, 1980), and Clayton R. Koppes, "Environmental Policy and American Liberalism: The Department of the Interior, 1933-1953," Environmental Review 7 (1983): 1-21. On the technocratic origins of conservation, see Samuel P. Hays, Conservation and the Gospel of Efficiency (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1959); Gabriel Kolko, The Triumph of Conservatism (New York: Glencoe, 1963); and William Cronon, Nature's Metropolis: Chicago and the Great West (New York: W. W. Norton & Company), 445 n. 160. For an excellent analysis of the successes and failures of technocratic conservationist principles in mitigating environmental problems in the oil industry, see Hugh Gorman, "From Conservation to Environment: The Engineering Response to Pollution Concerns in the U.S. Petroleum Industry, 1921-1981" (Ph.D. diss., Carnegie Mellon University, 1996). Lynne Page Snyder, in "'The Death-Dealing Smog Over Donora, Pennsylvania': Industrial Air Pollution, Public Health Policy, and the Politics of Expertise, 1948-1949," Environmental History Review 18 (1994): 117-139, also illustrates the inadequacies of the early conservation approach.
21. A similar theoretical point is made by Day, "Beyond Eco-Efficiency," 4-5, who distinguishes between "process efficiency [which] simply gets us where we are going faster," and "product enhancement," which demands fundamental changes in the industrial technology. The giant open-pit mines of the West were the ultimate expression of this drive for increased efficiency in the copper industry; see Timothy J. LeCain, "Moving Mountains: Technology and the Environment in Western Copper Mining" (Ph.D. diss., University of Delaware, 1998), 610-741. On the increasing technical efficiency of copper mining, see Harold Barger and Sam H. Schurr, The Mining Industries, 1899-1939: A Study of Output, Employment, and Productivity (New York: National Bureau of Economic Research, 1944); Thomas R. Navin, Copper Mining & Management (Tucson: University of Arizona Press); and Christopher Schmitz, "The Rise of Big Business in the World Copper Industry, 1870-1930," Economic History 39 (1986): 392-410. Of course, under modern U.S. environmental laws, mining companies are often compelled to include mine shut-down costs and site-remediation in their operating plan. In these instances, the cost-savings of increased efficiency might prove more environmentally beneficial.
22. A similar theoretical point is made by Day, "Beyond Eco-Efficiency," 4-5, who distinguishes between "process efficiency [which] simply gets us where we are going faster," and "product enhancement," which demands fundamental changes in the industrial technology. The giant open-pit mines of the West were the ultimate expression of this drive for increased efficiency in the copper industry; see Timothy J. LeCain, "Moving Mountains: Technology and the Environment in Western Copper Mining" (Ph.D. diss., University of Delaware, 1998), 610-741. On the increasing technical efficiency of copper mining, see Harold Barger and Sam H. Schurr, The Mining Industries, 1899-1939: A Study of Output, Employment, and Productivity (New York: National Bureau of Economic Research, 1944); Thomas R. Navin, Copper Mining & Management (Tucson: University of Arizona Press); and Christopher Schmitz, "The Rise of Big Business in the World Copper Industry, 1870-1930," Economic History 39 (1986): 392-410. Of course, under modern U.S. environmental laws, mining companies are often compelled to include mine shut-down costs and site-remediation in their operating plan. In these instances, the cost-savings of increased efficiency might prove more environmentally beneficial.
23. A similar theoretical point is made by Day, "Beyond Eco-Efficiency," 4-5, who distinguishes between "process efficiency [which] simply gets us where we are going faster," and "product enhancement," which demands fundamental changes in the industrial technology. The giant open-pit mines of the West were the ultimate expression of this drive for increased efficiency in the copper industry; see Timothy J. LeCain, "Moving Mountains: Technology and the Environment in Western Copper Mining" (Ph.D. diss., University of Delaware, 1998), 610-741. On the increasing technical efficiency of copper mining, see Harold Barger and Sam H. Schurr, The Mining Industries, 1899-1939: A Study of Output, Employment, and Productivity (New York: National Bureau of Economic Research, 1944); Thomas R. Navin, Copper Mining & Management (Tucson: University of Arizona Press); and Christopher Schmitz, "The Rise of Big Business in the World Copper Industry, 1870-1930," Economic History 39 (1986): 392-410. Of course, under modern U.S. environmental laws, mining companies are often compelled to include mine shut-down costs and site-remediation in their operating plan. In these instances, the cost-savings of increased efficiency might prove more environmentally beneficial.
24. A similar theoretical point is made by Day, "Beyond Eco-Efficiency," 4-5, who distinguishes between "process efficiency [which] simply gets us where we are going faster," and "product enhancement," which demands fundamental changes in the industrial technology. The giant open-pit mines of the West were the ultimate expression of this drive for increased efficiency in the copper industry; see Timothy J. LeCain, "Moving Mountains: Technology and the Environment in Western Copper Mining" (Ph.D. diss., University of Delaware, 1998), 610-741. On the increasing technical efficiency of copper mining, see Harold Barger and Sam H. Schurr, The Mining Industries, 1899-1939: A Study of Output, Employment, and Productivity (New York: National Bureau of Economic Research, 1944); Thomas R. Navin, Copper Mining & Management (Tucson: University of Arizona Press); and Christopher Schmitz, "The Rise of Big Business in the World Copper Industry, 1870-1930," Economic History 39 (1986): 392-410. Of course, under modern U.S. environmental laws, mining companies are often compelled to include mine shut-down costs and site-remediation in their operating plan. In these instances, the cost-savings of increased efficiency might prove more environmentally beneficial.
25. A similar theoretical point is made by Day, "Beyond Eco-Efficiency," 4-5, who distinguishes between "process efficiency [which] simply gets us where we are going faster," and "product enhancement," which demands fundamental changes in the industrial technology. The giant open-pit mines of the West were the ultimate expression of this drive for increased efficiency in the copper industry; see Timothy J. LeCain, "Moving Mountains: Technology and the Environment in Western Copper Mining" (Ph.D. diss., University of Delaware, 1998), 610-741. On the increasing technical efficiency of copper mining, see Harold Barger and Sam H. Schurr, The Mining Industries, 1899-1939: A Study of Output, Employment, and Productivity (New York: National Bureau of Economic Research, 1944); Thomas R. Navin, Copper Mining & Management (Tucson: University of Arizona Press); and Christopher Schmitz, "The Rise of Big Business in the World Copper Industry, 1870-1930," Economic History 39 (1986): 392-410. Of course, under modern U.S. environmental laws, mining companies are often compelled to include mine shut-down costs and site-remediation in their operating plan. In these instances, the cost-savings of increased efficiency might prove more environmentally beneficial.
26. During the smelting process, a host of complex chemical reactions occur, both within the liquified ore itself and with the atmosphere, producing gases, vapors, and particles, some of which are harmful to human, animal, and plant life. In particular, the process of smelting many of the low-grade copper ores of the western United States drove off sulphur and arsenic, which combined with oxygen to form sulphur dioxide, arsenic trioxide, and other noxious gases and particles. On the early-twentieth-century copper smelting technology, see James E. Fells, Ores to Metals: The Rocky Mountain Smelting Industry (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1979); Donald M. Levy, Modern Copper Smelting (London: Charles Griffin & Company, Ltd., 1912); and Edward Dyer Peters, The Practice of Copper Smelting (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1911).
27. During the smelting process, a host of complex chemical reactions occur, both within the liquified ore itself and with the atmosphere, producing gases, vapors, and particles, some of which are harmful to human, animal, and plant life. In particular, the process of smelting many of the low-grade copper ores of the western United States drove off sulphur and arsenic, which combined with oxygen to form sulphur dioxide, arsenic trioxide, and other noxious gases and particles. On the early-twentieth-century copper smelting technology, see James E. Fells, Ores to Metals: The Rocky Mountain Smelting Industry (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1979); Donald M. Levy, Modern Copper Smelting (London: Charles Griffin & Company, Ltd., 1912); and Edward Dyer Peters, The Practice of Copper Smelting (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1911).
28. During the smelting process, a host of complex chemical reactions occur, both within the liquified ore itself and with the atmosphere, producing gases, vapors, and particles, some of which are harmful to human, animal, and plant life. In particular, the process of smelting many of the low-grade copper ores of the western United States drove off sulphur and arsenic, which combined with oxygen to form sulphur dioxide, arsenic trioxide, and other noxious gases and particles. On the early-twentieth-century copper smelting technology, see James E. Fells, Ores to Metals: The Rocky Mountain Smelting Industry (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1979); Donald M. Levy, Modern Copper Smelting (London: Charles Griffin & Company, Ltd., 1912); and Edward Dyer Peters, The Practice of Copper Smelting (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1911).
29. 4) is a dense, colorless, oily liquid that is highly corrosive to many organic materials and damaging to many food crops and grasses, but which also has many industrial uses. Encyclopedia Britannica, 16th ed., s.v. "sulfuric acid." On the Ducktown smelter smoke problem, see M. L. Quinn, "Industry and Environment in the Appalachian Copper Basin, 1890-1930," Technology and Culture 34 (1993): 575- 612; Charles H. Fulton, Metallurgical Smoke (Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Mines, 1915); and Robert E. Swain, "Smoke and Fume Investigations," Industrial and Engineering Chemistry 41 (1949).
30. 4) is a dense, colorless, oily liquid that is highly corrosive to many organic materials and damaging to many food crops and grasses, but which also has many industrial uses. Encyclopedia Britannica, 16th ed., s.v. "sulfuric acid." On the Ducktown smelter smoke problem, see M. L. Quinn, "Industry and Environment in the Appalachian Copper Basin, 1890-1930," Technology and Culture 34 (1993): 575- 612; Charles H. Fulton, Metallurgical Smoke (Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Mines, 1915); and Robert E. Swain, "Smoke and Fume Investigations," Industrial and Engineering Chemistry 41 (1949).
31. 4) is a dense, colorless, oily liquid that is highly corrosive to many organic materials and damaging to many food crops and grasses, but which also has many industrial uses. Encyclopedia Britannica, 16th ed., s.v. "sulfuric acid." On the Ducktown smelter smoke problem, see M. L. Quinn, "Industry and Environment in the Appalachian Copper Basin, 1890-1930," Technology and Culture 34 (1993): 575- 612; Charles H. Fulton, Metallurgical Smoke (Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Mines, 1915); and Robert E. Swain, "Smoke and Fume Investigations," Industrial and Engineering Chemistry 41 (1949).
32. 4) is a dense, colorless, oily liquid that is highly corrosive to many organic materials and damaging to many food crops and grasses, but which also has many industrial uses. Encyclopedia Britannica, 16th ed., s.v. "sulfuric acid." On the Ducktown smelter smoke problem, see M. L. Quinn, "Industry and Environment in the Appalachian Copper Basin, 1890-1930," Technology and Culture 34 (1993): 575- 612; Charles H. Fulton, Metallurgical Smoke (Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Mines, 1915); and Robert E. Swain, "Smoke and Fume Investigations," Industrial and Engineering Chemistry 41 (1949).
33. On the Utah cases, see John E. Lamborn, "The Substance of the Land: Agriculture v. Industry in the Smelter Cases of 1904 and 1906," Utah Historical Quarterly 53 (1985): 310-12; on California, see Fulton, Metallurgical Smoke, and Joseph A. Holmes et al., Report of the Selby Smelter Commission, Bulletin 98 (Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Mines, 1915).
34. On the Utah cases, see John E. Lamborn, "The Substance of the Land: Agriculture v. Industry in the Smelter Cases of 1904 and 1906," Utah Historical Quarterly 53 (1985): 310-12; on California, see Fulton, Metallurgical Smoke, and Joseph A. Holmes et al., Report of the Selby Smelter Commission, Bulletin 98 (Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Mines, 1915).
35. Frank Cameron, Cottrell: Samaritan of Science (New York: Doubleday & Company, Inc., 1952), 38, 117; and Encyclopedia of American Biography, s.v. "Frederick G. Cottrell."
36. Frank Cameron, Cottrell: Samaritan of Science (New York: Doubleday & Company, Inc., 1952), 38, 117; and Encyclopedia of American Biography, s.v. "Frederick G. Cottrell."
37. On Lodge's early experiments, see his two articles: "Historical Note on Dust Electrification and Heat," Nature 71 (1905): 582, and "The Electrical Deposition of Dust and Smoke with Special Reference to the Collection of Metallic Fumes and to a Possible Purification of the Atmosphere," Journal of the Society of the Chemical Industry 5 (1886): 572-76. On Cottrell's early experiments, see Joseph Warren Barker, Research Corporation (1912-1952): Dedicated to Progress in Education and Science (New York: The Newcomen Society in North America, 1952), 8-9; Frederick Cottrell, "The Electrical Precipitation of Suspended Particles," in Recent Copper Smelting, ed. Thomasx Read (San Francisco: Mining and Scientific Press, 1914), 246; and Cameron, Cottrell, 121-24.
38. On Lodge's early experiments, see his two articles: "Historical Note on Dust Electrification and Heat," Nature 71 (1905): 582, and "The Electrical Deposition of Dust and Smoke with Special Reference to the Collection of Metallic Fumes and to a Possible Purification of the Atmosphere," Journal of the Society of the Chemical Industry 5 (1886): 572-76. On Cottrell's early experiments, see Joseph Warren Barker, Research Corporation (1912-1952): Dedicated to Progress in Education and Science (New York: The Newcomen Society in North America, 1952), 8-9; Frederick Cottrell, "The Electrical Precipitation of Suspended Particles," in Recent Copper Smelting, ed. Thomasx Read (San Francisco: Mining and Scientific Press, 1914), 246; and Cameron, Cottrell, 121-24.
39. On Lodge's early experiments, see his two articles: "Historical Note on Dust Electrification and Heat," Nature 71 (1905): 582, and "The Electrical Deposition of Dust and Smoke with Special Reference to the Collection of Metallic Fumes and to a Possible Purification of the Atmosphere," Journal of the Society of the Chemical Industry 5 (1886): 572-76. On Cottrell's early experiments, see Joseph Warren Barker, Research Corporation (1912-1952): Dedicated to Progress in Education and Science (New York: The Newcomen Society in North America, 1952), 8-9; Frederick Cottrell, "The Electrical Precipitation of Suspended Particles," in Recent Copper Smelting, ed. Thomasx Read (San Francisco: Mining and Scientific Press, 1914), 246; and Cameron, Cottrell, 121-24.
40. On Lodge's early experiments, see his two articles: "Historical Note on Dust Electrification and Heat," Nature 71 (1905): 582, and "The Electrical Deposition of Dust and Smoke with Special Reference to the Collection of Metallic Fumes and to a Possible Purification of the Atmosphere," Journal of the Society of the Chemical Industry 5 (1886): 572-76. On Cottrell's early experiments, see Joseph Warren Barker, Research Corporation (1912-1952): Dedicated to Progress in Education and Science (New York: The Newcomen Society in North America, 1952), 8-9; Frederick Cottrell, "The Electrical Precipitation of Suspended Particles," in Recent Copper Smelting, ed. Thomasx Read (San Francisco: Mining and Scientific Press, 1914), 246; and Cameron, Cottrell, 121-24.
41. On Lodge's early experiments, see his two articles: "Historical Note on Dust Electrification and Heat," Nature 71 (1905): 582, and "The Electrical Deposition of Dust and Smoke with Special Reference to the Collection of Metallic Fumes and to a Possible Purification of the Atmosphere," Journal of the Society of the Chemical Industry 5 (1886): 572-76. On Cottrell's early experiments, see Joseph Warren Barker, Research Corporation (1912-1952): Dedicated to Progress in Education and Science (New York: The Newcomen Society in North America, 1952), 8-9; Frederick Cottrell, "The Electrical Precipitation of Suspended Particles," in Recent Copper Smelting, ed. Thomasx Read (San Francisco: Mining and Scientific Press, 1914), 246; and Cameron, Cottrell, 121-24.
42. Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, 3d ed. (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1977), 677-82; Frederick Cottrell, "Electrical Precipitation: Historical Sketch," Transactions of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers 34, part I (1915): 387-96; Cameron, Cottrell, 121-24. Also see Cottrell's patent, United States Patent Office, Official Gazette, Patent Number 895,729, August 11, 1908, 1233-34.
43. Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, 3d ed. (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1977), 677-82; Frederick Cottrell, "Electrical Precipitation: Historical Sketch," Transactions of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers 34, part I (1915): 387-96; Cameron, Cottrell, 121-24. Also see Cottrell's patent, United States Patent Office, Official Gazette, Patent Number 895,729, August 11, 1908, 1233-34.
44. Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, 3d ed. (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1977), 677-82; Frederick Cottrell, "Electrical Precipitation: Historical Sketch," Transactions of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers 34, part I (1915): 387-96; Cameron, Cottrell, 121-24. Also see Cottrell's patent, United States Patent Office, Official Gazette, Patent Number 895,729, August 11, 1908, 1233-34.
45. Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, 3d ed. (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1977), 677-82; Frederick Cottrell, "Electrical Precipitation: Historical Sketch," Transactions of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers 34, part I (1915): 387-96; Cameron, Cottrell, 121-24. Also see Cottrell's patent, United States Patent Office, Official Gazette, Patent Number 895,729, August 11, 1908, 1233-34.
46. On the challenges of transforming an experimental device into a viable industrial technology, see Thomas P. Hughes, "The Development Phase of Technological Change," and "The Development of the Diesel Engine," Technology and Culture 17 (1976): 423-47; and David A. Hounshell and John Kenly Smith, Jr., Science and Corporate Strategy: Du Pont R&D, 1902-1980 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), 249-74. On the Selby smoke problem, see Joseph A. Holmes et al., Report of the Selby Smelter Commission, Bulletin 98 (Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Mines, 1915). On Cottrell's leaving Du Pont, see Barker, Research Corporation, 9-10, quote on 10.
47. On the challenges of transforming an experimental device into a viable industrial technology, see Thomas P. Hughes, "The Development Phase of Technological Change," and "The Development of the Diesel Engine," Technology and Culture 17 (1976): 423-47; and David A. Hounshell and John Kenly Smith, Jr., Science and Corporate Strategy: Du Pont R&D, 1902-1980 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), 249-74. On the Selby smoke problem, see Joseph A. Holmes et al., Report of the Selby Smelter Commission, Bulletin 98 (Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Mines, 1915). On Cottrell's leaving Du Pont, see Barker, Research Corporation, 9-10, quote on 10.
48. On the challenges of transforming an experimental device into a viable industrial technology, see Thomas P. Hughes, "The Development Phase of Technological Change," and "The Development of the Diesel Engine," Technology and Culture 17 (1976): 423-47; and David A. Hounshell and John Kenly Smith, Jr., Science and Corporate Strategy: Du Pont R&D, 1902-1980 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), 249-74. On the Selby smoke problem, see Joseph A. Holmes et al., Report of the Selby Smelter Commission, Bulletin 98 (Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Mines, 1915). On Cottrell's leaving Du Pont, see Barker, Research Corporation, 9-10, quote on 10.
49. On the challenges of transforming an experimental device into a viable industrial technology, see Thomas P. Hughes, "The Development Phase of Technological Change," and "The Development of the Diesel Engine," Technology and Culture 17 (1976): 423-47; and David A. Hounshell and John Kenly Smith, Jr., Science and Corporate Strategy: Du Pont R&D, 1902-1980 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), 249-74. On the Selby smoke problem, see Joseph A. Holmes et al., Report of the Selby Smelter Commission, Bulletin 98 (Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Mines, 1915). On Cottrell's leaving Du Pont, see Barker, Research Corporation, 9-10, quote on 10.
50. Frederick G. Cottrell, &The Social Responsibility of the Engineer,& Science 85 (1937): 529-31, quote on 530.
51. On Cottrell's work at Selby, see Cottrell's diary and personal notebook, 1 July to 26 August 1907, vol. 1, box 1, Frederick G. Cottrell Papers, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress Washington, D.C., and Cottrell, "Electrical Precipitation," 387-396.
52. On Cottrell's work at Selby, see Cottrell's diary and personal notebook, 1 July to 26 August 1907, vol. 1, box 1, Frederick G. Cottrell Papers, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress Washington, D.C., and Cottrell, "Electrical Precipitation," 387-396.
53. Cottrell Diary, July 1911, Cottrell Papers, Library of Congress; Linn Bradley, "Practical Applications of Electrical Precipitation and Progress of the Research Corporation," Transactions of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers 43 (1915): 425-27; "The Cottrell Plant at Garfield, Utah," Engineering and Mining Journal 98 (1914): 873; W. H. Howard, "Electrical Fume Precipitation at Garfield," Transactions of the American Institute of Mining Engineers 44 (1914): 540-560; Cameron, Cottrell, 144-48.
54. Cottrell Diary, July 1911, Cottrell Papers, Library of Congress; Linn Bradley, "Practical Applications of Electrical Precipitation and Progress of the Research Corporation," Transactions of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers 43 (1915): 425-27; "The Cottrell Plant at Garfield, Utah," Engineering and Mining Journal 98 (1914): 873; W. H. Howard, "Electrical Fume Precipitation at Garfield," Transactions of the American Institute of Mining Engineers 44 (1914): 540-560; Cameron, Cottrell, 144-48.
55. Cottrell Diary, July 1911, Cottrell Papers, Library of Congress; Linn Bradley, "Practical Applications of Electrical Precipitation and Progress of the Research Corporation," Transactions of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers 43 (1915): 425-27; "The Cottrell Plant at Garfield, Utah," Engineering and Mining Journal 98 (1914): 873; W. H. Howard, "Electrical Fume Precipitation at Garfield," Transactions of the American Institute of Mining Engineers 44 (1914): 540-560; Cameron, Cottrell, 144-48.
56. Cottrell Diary, July 1911, Cottrell Papers, Library of Congress; Linn Bradley, "Practical Applications of Electrical Precipitation and Progress of the Research Corporation," Transactions of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers 43 (1915): 425-27; "The Cottrell Plant at Garfield, Utah," Engineering and Mining Journal 98 (1914): 873; W. H. Howard, "Electrical Fume Precipitation at Garfield," Transactions of the American Institute of Mining Engineers 44 (1914): 540-560; Cameron, Cottrell, 144-48.
57. On Cottrell's philosophy of public service, see Cottrell, "Social Responsibility, 532-33. On the Research Corporation, see Frederick Cottrell, "The Research Corporation, An Experiment in Public Administration of Patent Rights," Journal of Industrial Engineering Chemistry 4 (1912): 864-67; and James S. Coles, "The Cottrell Legacy: Research Corporation, A Foundation for the Advancement of Science," in Cottrell Centennial Symposium: Air Pollution and Its Impact on Agriculture (Turlock, Calif.: Cal State Associates, 1977), viii-xvii.
58. On Cottrell's philosophy of public service, see Cottrell, "Social Responsibility, 532-33. On the Research Corporation, see Frederick Cottrell, "The Research Corporation, An Experiment in Public Administration of Patent Rights," Journal of Industrial Engineering Chemistry 4 (1912): 864-67; and James S. Coles, "The Cottrell Legacy: Research Corporation, A Foundation for the Advancement of Science," in Cottrell Centennial Symposium: Air Pollution and Its Impact on Agriculture (Turlock, Calif.: Cal State Associates, 1977), viii-xvii.
59. On Cottrell's philosophy of public service, see Cottrell, "Social Responsibility, 532-33. On the Research Corporation, see Frederick Cottrell, "The Research Corporation, An Experiment in Public Administration of Patent Rights," Journal of Industrial Engineering Chemistry 4 (1912): 864-67; and James S. Coles, "The Cottrell Legacy: Research Corporation, A Foundation for the Advancement of Science," in Cottrell Centennial Symposium: Air Pollution and Its Impact on Agriculture (Turlock, Calif.: Cal State Associates, 1977), viii-xvii.
60. Donald MacMillan, "A History of the Struggle to Abate Air Pollution From Copper Smelters of the Far West, 1885-1933" (Ph.D. diss., University of Montana, 1973), 22.
61. This powerful Montana and later international mining company has gone through several corporate forms and names; for convenience, in this article the corporation is generally referred to as the Anaconda Company. See Robert George Raymer, A History of Copper Mining in Montana (Chicago: The Lewis Publishing Company, 1930) 27, 44, 75; Isaac F. Marcosson, Anaconda (New York: Dodd, Mead & Company, 1957), 310; and Michael P. Malone, The Battle for Butte: Mining and Politics on the Northern Frontier 1864-1906 (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1981).
62. This powerful Montana and later international mining company has gone through several corporate forms and names; for convenience, in this article the corporation is generally referred to as the Anaconda Company. See Robert George Raymer, A History of Copper Mining in Montana (Chicago: The Lewis Publishing Company, 1930) 27, 44, 75; Isaac F. Marcosson, Anaconda (New York: Dodd, Mead & Company, 1957), 310; and Michael P. Malone, The Battle for Butte: Mining and Politics on the Northern Frontier 1864-1906 (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1981).
63. This powerful Montana and later international mining company has gone through several corporate forms and names; for convenience, in this article the corporation is generally referred to as the Anaconda Company. See Robert George Raymer, A History of Copper Mining in Montana (Chicago: The Lewis Publishing Company, 1930) 27, 44, 75; Isaac F. Marcosson, Anaconda (New York: Dodd, Mead & Company, 1957), 310; and Michael P. Malone, The Battle for Butte: Mining and Politics on the Northern Frontier 1864-1906 (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1981).
64. Raymer, Copper Mining in Montana, 67; MacMillan, "Struggle to Abate Air Pollution," 107-108.
65. Raymer, Copper Mining in Montana, 67; MacMillan, "Struggle to Abate Air Pollution," 107-108.
66. Gordon Morris Bakken, "Was There Arsenic in the Air?: Anaconda Versus the Farmers of Deer Lodge Valley," Montana 41 (1991): 32; Wells, Smelter Smoke, 6.
67. Gordon Morris Bakken, "Was There Arsenic in the Air?: Anaconda Versus the Farmers of Deer Lodge Valley," Montana 41 (1991): 32; Wells, Smelter Smoke, 6.
68. MacMillan, "Struggle to Abate Air Pollution," 108-112, quote 108.
69. Anaconda Minerals Company, Mill Creek Remedial Investigation Report (Anaconda, Mont.: Anaconda Minerals Company, 1986), 24.
70. Dust chambers are simply areas where the flow of the smoke is slowed so that some of the heavier particulate pollution will settle out. See Peters, Copper Smelting.
71. The seminal account of the Anaconda smelter pollution and subsequent legal battles is Donald MacMillan's, "A History of the Struggle to Abate Air Pollution in Copper Smelters of the Far West, 1885-1933" (Ph.D. diss., University of Montana, 1973); see also the excellent new history by Frederic L. Quivik, "Smoke and Tailings: An Environmental History of Copper Smelting Technologies in Montana, 1880-1930" (Ph.D. diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1998). Also see the court record Fred J. Bliss v. Anaconda Copper Mining Company, Ninth Circuit Court of the United States, District of Montana Judge William H. Bunt. A more favorable view of the Anaconda Company's actions in the smelter smoke case can be found in the expert report prepared by David Emmons in the defense of the Atlantic Richfield Company (current owner of the Anaconda Company) in an ongoing federal suit, United States of America v. Atlantic Richfield Company, et al. (July 15, 1996), 153-95. Note that the author of this article has also served as an expert witness in the same case, although only in areas unrelated to the smoke pollution issue. For a contemporary account of the smoke case, see Ligon Johnson, "The History and Legal Phases of the Smoke Problem," Transactions of the American Institute of Mining Engineers 58 (1918): 198-214. For a general biography of Holmes, see The National Cyclopedia of American Biography, s.v. "Joseph Holmes," and Fred Wilbur Powell, The Bureau of Mines: Its History, Activities, and Organization (New York: D. Appleton Company, 1922). On Hammond, see The Autobiography of John Hays Hammond (New York: Farrar & Rinehard, Inc., 1935), and MacMillan, "Struggle to Abate Air Pollution," 302. On Ricketts, see Marcosson, Anaconda, 256-59, and the National Cyclopedia of American Biography, s.v. "Louis Davidson Ricketts."
72. The seminal account of the Anaconda smelter pollution and subsequent legal battles is Donald MacMillan's, "A History of the Struggle to Abate Air Pollution in Copper Smelters of the Far West, 1885-1933" (Ph.D. diss., University of Montana, 1973); see also the excellent new history by Frederic L. Quivik, "Smoke and Tailings: An Environmental History of Copper Smelting Technologies in Montana, 1880-1930" (Ph.D. diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1998). Also see the court record Fred J. Bliss v. Anaconda Copper Mining Company, Ninth Circuit Court of the United States, District of Montana Judge William H. Bunt. A more favorable view of the Anaconda Company's actions in the smelter smoke case can be found in the expert report prepared by David Emmons in the defense of the Atlantic Richfield Company (current owner of the Anaconda Company) in an ongoing federal suit, United States of America v. Atlantic Richfield Company, et al. (July 15, 1996), 153-95. Note that the author of this article has also served as an expert witness in the same case, although only in areas unrelated to the smoke pollution issue. For a contemporary account of the smoke case, see Ligon Johnson, "The History and Legal Phases of the Smoke Problem," Transactions of the American Institute of Mining Engineers 58 (1918): 198-214. For a general biography of Holmes, see The National Cyclopedia of American Biography, s.v. "Joseph Holmes," and Fred Wilbur Powell, The Bureau of Mines: Its History, Activities, and Organization (New York: D. Appleton Company, 1922). On Hammond, see The Autobiography of John Hays Hammond (New York: Farrar & Rinehard, Inc., 1935), and MacMillan, "Struggle to Abate Air Pollution," 302. On Ricketts, see Marcosson, Anaconda, 256-59, and the National Cyclopedia of American Biography, s.v. "Louis Davidson Ricketts."
73. The seminal account of the Anaconda smelter pollution and subsequent legal battles is Donald MacMillan's, "A History of the Struggle to Abate Air Pollution in Copper Smelters of the Far West, 1885-1933" (Ph.D. diss., University of Montana, 1973); see also the excellent new history by Frederic L. Quivik, "Smoke and Tailings: An Environmental History of Copper Smelting Technologies in Montana, 1880-1930" (Ph.D. diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1998). Also see the court record Fred J. Bliss v. Anaconda Copper Mining Company, Ninth Circuit Court of the United States, District of Montana Judge William H. Bunt. A more favorable view of the Anaconda Company's actions in the smelter smoke case can be found in the expert report prepared by David Emmons in the defense of the Atlantic Richfield Company (current owner of the Anaconda Company) in an ongoing federal suit, United States of America v. Atlantic Richfield Company, et al. (July 15, 1996), 153-95. Note that the author of this article has also served as an expert witness in the same case, although only in areas unrelated to the smoke pollution issue. For a contemporary account of the smoke case, see Ligon Johnson, "The History and Legal Phases of the Smoke Problem," Transactions of the American Institute of Mining Engineers 58 (1918): 198-214. For a general biography of Holmes, see The National Cyclopedia of American Biography, s.v. "Joseph Holmes," and Fred Wilbur Powell, The Bureau of Mines: Its History, Activities, and Organization (New York: D.
74. The seminal account of the Anaconda smelter pollution and subsequent legal battles is Donald MacMillan's, "A History of the Struggle to Abate Air Pollution in Copper Smelters of the Far West, 1885-1933" (Ph.D. diss., University of Montana, 1973); see also the excellent new history by Frederic L. Quivik, "Smoke and Tailings: An Environmental History of Copper Smelting Technologies in Montana, 1880-1930" (Ph.D. diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1998). Also see the court record Fred J. Bliss v. Anaconda Copper Mining Company, Ninth Circuit Court of the United States, District of Montana Judge William H. Bunt. A more favorable view of the Anaconda Company's actions in the smelter smoke case can be found in the expert report prepared by David Emmons in the defense of the Atlantic Richfield Company (current owner of the Anaconda Company) in an ongoing federal suit, United States of America v. Atlantic Richfield Company, et al. (July 15, 1996), 153-95. Note that the author of this article has also served as an expert witness in the same case, although only in areas unrelated to the smoke pollution issue. For a contemporary account of the smoke case, see Ligon Johnson, "The History and Legal Phases of the Smoke Problem," Transactions of the American Institute of Mining Engineers 58 (1918): 198-214. For a general biography of Holmes, see The National Cyclopedia of American Biography, s.v. "Joseph Holmes," and Fred Wilbur Powell, The Bureau of Mines: Its History, Activities, and Organization (New York: D. Appleton Company, 1922). On Hammond, see The Autobiography of John Hays Hammond (New York: Farrar & Rinehard, Inc., 1935), and MacMillan, "Struggle to Abate Air Pollution," 302. On Ricketts, see Marcosson, Anaconda, 256-59, and the National Cyclopedia of American Biography, s.v. "Louis Davidson Ricketts."
75. The seminal account of the Anaconda smelter pollution and subsequent legal battles is Donald MacMillan's, "A History of the Struggle to Abate Air Pollution in Copper Smelters of the Far West, 1885-1933" (Ph.D. diss., University of Montana, 1973); see also the excellent new history by Frederic L. Quivik, "Smoke and Tailings: An Environmental History of Copper Smelting Technologies in Montana, 1880-1930" (Ph.D. diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1998). Also see the court record Fred J. Bliss v. Anaconda Copper Mining Company, Ninth Circuit Court of the United States, District of Montana Judge William H. Bunt. A more favorable view of the Anaconda Company's actions in the smelter smoke case can be found in the expert report prepared by David Emmons in the defense of the Atlantic Richfield Company (current owner of the Anaconda Company) in an ongoing federal suit, United States of America v. Atlantic Richfield Company, et al. (July 15, 1996), 153-95. Note that the author of this article has also served as an expert witness in the same case, although only in areas unrelated to the smoke pollution issue. For a contemporary account of the smoke case, see Ligon Johnson, "The History and Legal Phases of the Smoke Problem," Transactions of the American Institute of Mining Engineers 58 (1918): 198-214. For a general biography of Holmes, see The National Cyclopedia of American Biography, s.v. "Joseph Holmes," and Fred Wilbur Powell, The Bureau of Mines: Its History, Activities, and Organization (New York: D. Appleton Company, 1922). On Hammond, see The Autobiography of John Hays Hammond (New York: Farrar & Rinehard, Inc., 1935), and MacMillan, "Struggle to Abate Air Pollution," 302. On Ricketts, see Marcosson, Anaconda, 256-59, and the National Cyclopedia of American Biography, s.v. "Louis Davidson Ricketts."
76. The seminal account of the Anaconda smelter pollution and subsequent legal battles is Donald MacMillan's, "A History of the Struggle to Abate Air Pollution in Copper Smelters of the Far West, 1885-1933" (Ph.D. diss., University of Montana, 1973); see also the excellent new history by Frederic L. Quivik, "Smoke and Tailings: An Environmental History of Copper Smelting Technologies in Montana, 1880-1930" (Ph.D. diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1998). Also see the court record Fred J. Bliss v. Anaconda Copper Mining Company, Ninth Circuit Court of the United States, District of Montana Judge William H. Bunt. A more favorable view of the Anaconda Company's actions in the smelter smoke case can be found in the expert report prepared by David Emmons in the defense of the Atlantic Richfield Company (current owner of the Anaconda Company) in an ongoing federal suit, United States of America v. Atlantic Richfield Company, et al. (July 15, 1996), 153-95. Note that the author of this article has also served as an expert witness in the same case, although only in areas unrelated to the smoke pollution issue. For a contemporary account of the smoke case, see Ligon Johnson, "The History and Legal Phases of the Smoke Problem," Transactions of the American Institute of Mining Engineers 58 (1918): 198-214. For a general biography of Holmes, see The National Cyclopedia of American Biography, s.v. "Joseph Holmes," and Fred Wilbur Powell, The Bureau of Mines: Its History, Activities, and Organization (New York: D. Appleton Company, 1922). On Hammond, see The Autobiography of John Hays Hammond (New York: Farrar & Rinehard, Inc., 1935), and MacMillan, "Struggle to Abate Air Pollution," 302. On Ricketts, see Marcosson, Anaconda, 256-59, and the National Cyclopedia of American Biography, s.v. "Louis Davidson Ricketts."
77. The seminal account of the Anaconda smelter pollution and subsequent legal battles is Donald MacMillan's, "A History of the Struggle to Abate Air Pollution in Copper Smelters of the Far West, 1885-1933" (Ph.D. diss., University of Montana, 1973); see also the excellent new history by Frederic L. Quivik, "Smoke and Tailings: An Environmental History of Copper Smelting Technologies in Montana, 1880-1930" (Ph.D. diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1998). Also see the court record Fred J. Bliss v. Anaconda Copper Mining Company, Ninth Circuit Court of the United States, District of Montana Judge William H. Bunt. A more favorable view of the Anaconda Company's actions in the smelter smoke case can be found in the expert report prepared by David Emmons in the defense of the Atlantic Richfield Company (current owner of the Anaconda Company) in an ongoing federal suit, United States of America v. Atlantic Richfield Company, et al. (July 15, 1996), 153-95. Note that the author of this article has also served as an expert witness in the same case, although only in areas unrelated to the smoke pollution issue. For a contemporary account of the smoke case, see Ligon Johnson, "The History and Legal Phases of the Smoke Problem," Transactions of the American Institute of Mining Engineers 58 (1918): 198-214. For a general biography of Holmes, see The National Cyclopedia of American Biography, s.v. "Joseph Holmes," and Fred Wilbur Powell, The Bureau of Mines: Its History, Activities, and Organization (New York: D. Appleton Company, 1922). On Hammond, see The Autobiography of John Hays Hammond (New York: Farrar & Rinehard, Inc., 1935), and MacMillan, "Struggle to Abate Air Pollution," 302. On Ricketts, see Marcosson, Anaconda, 256-59, and the National Cyclopedia of American Biography, s.v. "Louis Davidson Ricketts."
78. The seminal account of the Anaconda smelter pollution and subsequent legal battles is Donald MacMillan's, "A History of the Struggle to Abate Air Pollution in Copper Smelters of the Far West, 1885-1933" (Ph.D. diss., University of Montana, 1973); see also the excellent new history by Frederic L. Quivik, "Smoke and Tailings: An Environmental History of Copper Smelting Technologies in Montana, 1880-1930" (Ph.D. diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1998). Also see the court record Fred J. Bliss v. Anaconda Copper Mining Company, Ninth Circuit Court of the United States, District of Montana Judge William H. Bunt. A more favorable view of the Anaconda Company's actions in the smelter smoke case can be found in the expert report prepared by David Emmons in the defense of the Atlantic Richfield Company (current owner of the Anaconda Company) in an ongoing federal suit, United States of America v. Atlantic Richfield Company, et al. (July 15, 1996), 153-95. Note that the author of this article has also served as an expert witness in the same case, although only in areas unrelated to the smoke pollution issue. For a contemporary account of the smoke case, see Ligon Johnson, "The History and Legal Phases of the Smoke Problem," Transactions of the American Institute of Mining Engineers 58 (1918): 198-214. For a general biography of Holmes, see The National Cyclopedia of American Biography, s.v. "Joseph Holmes," and Fred Wilbur Powell, The Bureau of Mines: Its History, Activities, and Organization (New York: D. Appleton Company, 1922). On Hammond, see The Autobiography of John Hays Hammond (New York: Farrar & Rinehard, Inc., 1935), and MacMillan, "Struggle to Abate Air Pollution," 302. On Ricketts, see Marcosson, Anaconda, 256-59, and the National Cyclopedia of American Biography, s.v. "Louis Davidson Ricketts."
79. The seminal account of the Anaconda smelter pollution and subsequent legal battles is Donald MacMillan's, "A History of the Struggle to Abate Air Pollution in Copper Smelters of the Far West, 1885-1933" (Ph.D. diss., University of Montana, 1973); see also the excellent new history by Frederic L. Quivik, "Smoke and Tailings: An Environmental History of Copper Smelting Technologies in Montana, 1880-1930" (Ph.D. diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1998). Also see the court record Fred J. Bliss v. Anaconda Copper Mining Company, Ninth Circuit Court of the United States, District of Montana Judge William H. Bunt. A more favorable view of the Anaconda Company's actions in the smelter smoke case can be found in the expert report prepared by David Emmons in the defense of the Atlantic Richfield Company (current owner of the Anaconda Company) in an ongoing federal suit, United States of America v. Atlantic Richfield Company, et al. (July 15, 1996), 153-95. Note that the author of this article has also served as an expert witness in the same case, although only in areas unrelated to the smoke pollution issue. For a contemporary account of the smoke case, see Ligon Johnson, "The History and Legal Phases of the Smoke Problem," Transactions of the American Institute of Mining Engineers 58 (1918): 198-214. For a general biography of Holmes, see The National Cyclopedia of American Biography, s.v. "Joseph Holmes," and Fred Wilbur Powell, The Bureau of Mines: Its History, Activities, and Organization (New York: D. Appleton Company, 1922). On Hammond, see The Autobiography of John Hays Hammond (New York: Farrar & Rinehard, Inc., 1935), and MacMillan, "Struggle to Abate Air Pollution," 302. On Ricketts, see Marcosson, Anaconda, 256-59, and the National Cyclopedia of American Biography, s.v. "Louis Davidson Ricketts."
80. Van H. Manning, Yearbook of the Bureau of Mines (1916) (Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Mines, 1917), 153.
81. Cameron, Cottrell, 178; Swain, "Smoke and Fume Investigations," 2385; Wells, Smelter Smoke, 25, 53; J. O. Elton, "Arsenic Trioxide from Flue Dust," Transactions of the American Institute of Mining Engineers 46 (1913): 690; H. Welch and L. H. Duschak, "The Vapor Pressure of Arsenic Trioxide," Technical Paper No. 81 (Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Mines, 1914). Cottrell's work on flue dust testing are discussed in J. H. Klepinger to Cottrell, 18 October 1911, box 261, Anaconda Copper Mining Company Records, Montana Historical Society, Helena.
82. Cameron, Cottrell, 178; Swain, "Smoke and Fume Investigations," 2385; Wells, Smelter Smoke, 25, 53; J. O. Elton, "Arsenic Trioxide from Flue Dust," Transactions of the American Institute of Mining Engineers 46 (1913): 690; H. Welch and L. H. Duschak, "The Vapor Pressure of Arsenic Trioxide," Technical Paper No. 81 (Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Mines, 1914). Cottrell's work on flue dust testing are discussed in J. H. Klepinger to Cottrell, 18 October 1911, box 261, Anaconda Copper Mining Company Records, Montana Historical Society, Helena.
83. Cameron, Cottrell, 178; Swain, "Smoke and Fume Investigations," 2385; Wells, Smelter Smoke, 25, 53; J. O. Elton, "Arsenic Trioxide from Flue Dust," Transactions of the American Institute of Mining Engineers 46 (1913): 690; H. Welch and L. H. Duschak, "The Vapor Pressure of Arsenic Trioxide," Technical Paper No. 81 (Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Mines, 1914). Cottrell's work on flue dust testing are discussed in J. H. Klepinger to Cottrell, 18 October 1911, box 261, Anaconda Copper Mining Company Records, Montana Historical Society, Helena.
84. Cameron, Cottrell, 178; Swain, "Smoke and Fume Investigations," 2385; Wells, Smelter Smoke, 25, 53; J. O. Elton, "Arsenic Trioxide from Flue Dust," Transactions of the American Institute of Mining Engineers 46 (1913): 690; H. Welch and L. H. Duschak, "The Vapor Pressure of Arsenic Trioxide," Technical Paper No. 81 (Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Mines, 1914). Cottrell's work on flue dust testing are discussed in J. H. Klepinger to Cottrell, 18 October 1911, box 261, Anaconda Copper Mining Company Records, Montana Historical Society, Helena.
85. Cameron, Cottrell, 178; Swain, "Smoke and Fume Investigations," 2385; Wells, Smelter Smoke, 25, 53; J. O. Elton, "Arsenic Trioxide from Flue Dust," Transactions of the American Institute of Mining Engineers 46 (1913): 690; H. Welch and L. H. Duschak, "The Vapor Pressure of Arsenic Trioxide," Technical Paper No. 81 (Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Mines, 1914). Cottrell's work on flue dust testing are discussed in J. H. Klepinger to Cottrell, 18 October 1911, box 261, Anaconda Copper Mining Company Records, Montana Historical Society, Helena.
86. Cameron, Cottrell, 159.
87. Cottrell diary, 14 August 1913, Cottrell Papers, Library of Congress.
88. Wells, Wells Smelter Smoke, 2, 50; A. E. Wells to Cottrell, 20 January 1917, and telegram from A. E. Wells to Cottrell, 21 July 1916, box 302, Record Group 70, National Archives, Washington, D.C.
89. Wells, Wells Smelter Smoke, 2, 50; A. E. Wells to Cottrell, 20 January 1917, and telegram from A. E. Wells to Cottrell, 21 July 1916, box 302, Record Group 70, National Archives, Washington, D.C.
90. On the continuing Anaconda delays, see Wells, Smelter Smoke, 67-68. On BOM efforts to find markets for arsenic, see Wells, Smelter Smoke, 30, and A. E. Wells to Frederick Laist, Manager of Washoe Works, 6 November 1917, box 30, and A. E. Wells to F. F. Frick, Anaconda Research Engineer, 12 July 12 1919, box 84-A, Record Group 70, National Archives. On the Madison laboratory see The Forest Products Laboratory (Washington, D.C.: United States Forest Service, 1938).
91. On the continuing Anaconda delays, see Wells, Smelter Smoke, 67-68. On BOM efforts to find markets for arsenic, see Wells, Smelter Smoke, 30, and A. E. Wells to Frederick Laist, Manager of Washoe Works, 6 November 1917, box 30, and A. E. Wells to F. F. Frick, Anaconda Research Engineer, 12 July 12 1919, box 84-A, Record Group 70, National Archives. On the Madison laboratory see The Forest Products Laboratory (Washington, D.C.: United States Forest Service, 1938).
92. On the continuing Anaconda delays, see Wells, Smelter Smoke, 67-68. On BOM efforts to find markets for arsenic, see Wells, Smelter Smoke, 30, and A. E. Wells to Frederick Laist, Manager of Washoe Works, 6 November 1917, box 30, and A. E. Wells to F. F. Frick, Anaconda Research Engineer, 12 July 12 1919, box 84-A, Record Group 70, National Archives. On the Madison laboratory see The Forest Products Laboratory (Washington, D.C.: United States Forest Service, 1938).
93. Anaconda Smelter Commission, "Progress Report," 21 June 1922, box 302, Record Group 70, National Archives.
94. MacMillan, "Struggle to Abate Air Pollution," 332-49. Even in modern copper smelting plants designed to capture and utilize pollutants, the levels of arsenic and sulphur compounds that continue to be released have often still been dangerously high. See Peter Dorman, "Environmental Protection, Employment, and Profit: The Politics of Public Interest in the Tacoma/Asarco Arsenic Dispute," Review of Radical Political Economics 16 (1984): 151-76.
95. MacMillan, "Struggle to Abate Air Pollution," 332-49. Even in modern copper smelting plants designed to capture and utilize pollutants, the levels of arsenic and sulphur compounds that continue to be released have often still been dangerously high. See Peter Dorman, "Environmental Protection, Employment, and Profit: The Politics of Public Interest in the Tacoma/Asarco Arsenic Dispute," Review of Radical Political Economics 16 (1984): 151-76.
96. The unexpected consequences of shifting an industrial waste from one means of disposal to another is well illustrated in Joel Tarr's The Search for the Ultimate Sink: Urban Pollution in Historical Perspective (Akron, Ohio: University of Akron Press, 1996).
97. "Arsenic Plant Cost, Sales & Profit Statement (1933)," box 64, folder 3, General Office records, Collection No. 169, Anaconda Copper Mining Company Records, Montana Historical Society, Helena.
98. Fumio Matsumura, Toxicology of Insecticides (New York: Plenum Press, 1985), 92-93; James C. Whorton, in Before Silent Spring: Pesticides and Public Health in Pre-DDT America (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1975), 17, observes that arsenical compounds - usually arsenic trioxide - were the most important and widely used of the first inorganic pesticides.
99. Fumio Matsumura, Toxicology of Insecticides (New York: Plenum Press, 1985), 92-93; James C. Whorton, in Before Silent Spring: Pesticides and Public Health in Pre-DDT America (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1975), 17, observes that arsenical compounds - usually arsenic trioxide - were the most important and widely used of the first inorganic pesticides.
100. On William A. Clark, who was also one of Montana's first senators, see Michael P. Malone's, The Battle for Butte, and "Midas of the West: The Incredible Career of William Andrews Clark," Montana 33 (autumn 1983): 2-17. Less reliable but still useful is William D. Mangam, The Clarks of Montana (Washington, D.C.: Service Printing, 1939).
101. On William A. Clark, who was also one of Montana's first senators, see Michael P. Malone's, The Battle for Butte, and "Midas of the West: The Incredible Career of William Andrews Clark," Montana 33 (autumn 1983): 2-17. Less reliable but still useful is William D. Mangam, The Clarks of Montana (Washington, D.C.: Service Printing, 1939).
102. Environmental Protection Agency, Revised Community Relations Plan: Milltown Reservoir Sediments Superfund Site, Milltown, Montana (Washington, D.C.: EPA, 1992), section 2, 1-8, section 3, 5; William W. Woessner, Arsenic Sources and Waste Supply Remedial Action Study, Milltown, Montana (Helena: Montana Department of Health and Environmental Sciences, 1984), i, 1-2. On the dangers of environmental arsenic poisoning in humans, see Wayland J. Hayes, Jr., and Edward R. Laws, Jr., Handbook of Pesticide Toxicology (New York: Academic Press, 1991), 548, and Whorton, Silent Spring, 36-67.
103. Environmental Protection Agency, Revised Community Relations Plan: Milltown Reservoir Sediments Superfund Site, Milltown, Montana (Washington, D.C.: EPA, 1992), section 2, 1-8, section 3, 5; William W. Woessner, Arsenic Sources and Waste Supply Remedial Action Study, Milltown, Montana (Helena: Montana Department of Health and Environmental Sciences, 1984), i, 1-2. On the dangers of environmental arsenic poisoning in humans, see Wayland J. Hayes, Jr., and Edward R. Laws, Jr., Handbook of Pesticide Toxicology (New York: Academic Press, 1991), 548, and Whorton, Silent Spring, 36-67.
104. Environmental Protection Agency, Revised Community Relations Plan: Milltown Reservoir Sediments Superfund Site, Milltown, Montana (Washington, D.C.: EPA, 1992), section 2, 1-8, section 3, 5; William W. Woessner, Arsenic Sources and Waste Supply Remedial Action Study, Milltown, Montana (Helena: Montana Department of Health and Environmental Sciences, 1984), i, 1-2. On the dangers of environmental arsenic poisoning in humans, see Wayland J. Hayes, Jr., and Edward R. Laws, Jr., Handbook of Pesticide Toxicology (New York: Academic Press, 1991), 548, and Whorton, Silent Spring, 36-67.
105. Environmental Protection Agency, Revised Community Relations Plan: Milltown Reservoir Sediments Superfund Site, Milltown, Montana (Washington, D.C.: EPA, 1992), section 2, 1-8, section 3, 5; William W. Woessner, Arsenic Sources and Waste Supply Remedial Action Study, Milltown, Montana (Helena: Montana Department of Health and Environmental Sciences, 1984), i, 1-2. On the dangers of environmental arsenic poisoning in humans, see Wayland J. Hayes, Jr., and Edward R. Laws, Jr., Handbook of Pesticide Toxicology (New York: Academic Press, 1991), 548, and Whorton, Silent Spring, 36-67.
106. The Anaconda Company initially stored about three-quarters of the arsenic captured by the precipitators: see Frederick Laist to Con Kelley, 22 September 1914, box 63, folder 6, Anaconda Copper Mining Records, Montana Historical Society, Helena. On heavy metal contamination of the Clark Fork, see Environmental Protection Agency, "Superfund Program Fact Sheet: Anaconda Smelter Site, Anaconda, Montana," June 1985. On Mill Creek, see Joshua Lipton, Terrestrial Resources Injury Assessment Report (Helena: State of Montana Natural Resource Damage Program, 1993), section 2, 2- 5, and Cleaning up Montana: Superfund Accomplishments (Helena: Department of Environmental Quality, 1996), 26.
107. The Anaconda Company initially stored about three-quarters of the arsenic captured by the precipitators: see Frederick Laist to Con Kelley, 22 September 1914, box 63, folder 6, Anaconda Copper Mining Records, Montana Historical Society, Helena. On heavy metal contamination of the Clark Fork, see Environmental Protection Agency, "Superfund Program Fact Sheet: Anaconda Smelter Site, Anaconda, Montana," June 1985. On Mill Creek, see Joshua Lipton, Terrestrial Resources Injury Assessment Report (Helena: State of Montana Natural Resource Damage Program, 1993), section 2, 2- 5, and Cleaning up Montana: Superfund Accomplishments (Helena: Department of Environmental Quality, 1996), 26.
108. Alan S. Newell, A Brief Historical Overview of Anaconda Copper Mining Company's Principal Mining and Smelting Facilities Along Silver Bow and Warm Spring Creeks, Montana (Missoula: Montana Historical Research Associates, 1995), 52; Environmental Protection Agency, Proposed Plan: Rocker Timber Framing and Treating Plant Operable Unit (Washington, D.C.: EPA, 1995), 4, 6-7; Cleaning up Montana, 35.
109. Alan S. Newell, A Brief Historical Overview of Anaconda Copper Mining Company's Principal Mining and Smelting Facilities Along Silver Bow and Warm Spring Creeks, Montana (Missoula: Montana Historical Research Associates, 1995), 52; Environmental Protection Agency, Proposed Plan: Rocker Timber Framing and Treating Plant Operable Unit (Washington, D.C.: EPA, 1995), 4, 6-7; Cleaning up Montana, 35.
110. Alan S. Newell, A Brief Historical Overview of Anaconda Copper Mining Company's Principal Mining and Smelting Facilities Along Silver Bow and Warm Spring Creeks, Montana (Missoula: Montana Historical Research Associates, 1995), 52; Environmental Protection Agency, Proposed Plan: Rocker Timber Framing and Treating Plant Operable Unit (Washington, D.C.: EPA, 1995), 4, 6-7; Cleaning up Montana, 35.
111. As Day, "Beyond Eco-Efficiency, 4-5, notes, this is precisely the problem with the current "process" approach to eco-efficiency which encourages managers to dedicate resources to preserving "dead-end technologies" rather than developing "radically new, more sustainable products."
112. Lawrence A. Smith et al., Remedial Options for Metals Contaminated Sites (Boca Raton, Fla.: Lewis Publishers, 1995), 17.
113. What percentage of these profitable by-products posed further environmental hazards similar to arsenic is an open question. On the cement industry where precipitators were used to control potash dust, see Walter A. Schmidt, "The Control of Dust in Portland Cement Manufacture by Cottrell Precipitation Processes," Eighth Annual Congress of Applied Chemistry 5 (1912): 117-24. The $20 million figure is from the National Cyclopedia of American Biography, 294-95.
114. What percentage of these profitable by-products posed further environmental hazards similar to arsenic is an open question. On the cement industry where precipitators were used to control potash dust, see Walter A. Schmidt, "The Control of Dust in Portland Cement Manufacture by Cottrell Precipitation Processes," Eighth Annual Congress of Applied Chemistry 5 (1912): 117-24. The $20 million figure is from the National Cyclopedia of American Biography, 294-95.