We lift our voices in thunder tones: African American race men and race women and community agency in Southern Illinois, 1895-1910

Journal of Urban History

Volumn 26, Issue 6, 2000, Pages 740-758

  Portwood, Shirley J ^a  

^a SOUTHERN ILLINOIS UNIVERSITY EDWARDSVILLE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AFRICAN AMERICAN; BLACK POPULATION; CITIZENSHIP; COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION; HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE;

UNITED STATES;

EID: 0033789052     PISSN: 00961442     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/009614420002600602     Document Type: Article

References (205)

1. The quotation is from an article editorializing about the Illinois Afro-American League's position on gaining equal rights for "colored peoples" in the Illinois Record, a Springfield, Illinois black newspaper, on October 1, 1898, p. 1, col. 2. The Record had been selected by the league as "The Organ of the Afro-American League."
2. The quotation is from an article editorializing about the Illinois Afro-American League's position on gaining equal rights for "colored peoples" in the Illinois Record, a Springfield, Illinois black newspaper, on October 1, 1898, p. 1, col. 2. The Record had been selected by the league as "The Organ of the Afro-American League."
3. Illinois Record (Springfield), October 29, 1898, p. 3, col. 1.
4. Cordelia Jones, also called Cordia Jones, was discussed regularly in the Illinois Record, 1898-1899. On October 29, 1898, p. 3, col. 1, the Record discussed the above incident; the February 25, 1899, p. 3, col. 1 issue indicated that she had celebrated her seventeenth birthday in February 1899. See also Illinois Record, March 26, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; April 9, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; August 6, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; November 5,1898, p. 3, col. 1; November 12, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; December 3, 1898, p. 3, col. 3; December 10, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; January 21, 1899, p. 3, col. 1; February 25, 1899, p. 3, cols. 1-2; March 4, 1899, p. 3, col. 2; March 11, 1899, p. 3, col. 1; April 8, 1899, p. 3, col. 1; April 23, 1899, p. 3, col. 1; Alton City Directory, 1899-1900, 137.
5. Cordelia Jones, also called Cordia Jones, was discussed regularly in the Illinois Record, 1898-1899. On October 29, 1898, p. 3, col. 1, the Record discussed the above incident; the February 25, 1899, p. 3, col. 1 issue indicated that she had celebrated her seventeenth birthday in February 1899. See also Illinois Record, March 26, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; April 9, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; August 6, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; November 5,1898, p. 3, col. 1; November 12, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; December 3, 1898, p. 3, col. 3; December 10, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; January 21, 1899, p. 3, col. 1; February 25, 1899, p. 3, cols. 1-2; March 4, 1899, p. 3, col. 2; March 11, 1899, p. 3, col. 1; April 8, 1899, p. 3, col. 1; April 23, 1899, p. 3, col. 1; Alton City Directory, 1899-1900, 137.
6. Cordelia Jones, also called Cordia Jones, was discussed regularly in the Illinois Record, 1898-1899. On October 29, 1898, p. 3, col. 1, the Record discussed the above incident; the February 25, 1899, p. 3, col. 1 issue indicated that she had celebrated her seventeenth birthday in February 1899. See also Illinois Record, March 26, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; April 9, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; August 6, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; November 5,1898, p. 3, col. 1; November 12, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; December 3, 1898, p. 3, col. 3; December 10, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; January 21, 1899, p. 3, col. 1; February 25, 1899, p. 3, cols. 1-2; March 4, 1899, p. 3, col. 2; March 11, 1899, p. 3, col. 1; April 8, 1899, p. 3, col. 1; April 23, 1899, p. 3, col. 1; Alton City Directory, 1899-1900, 137.
7. William H. Gibson Sr., History of the United Brothers of Friendship and Sisters of the Mysterious Ten (Louisville, KY; Bradley and Gilbert, 1898). Gibson, p. 26, indicated that the Alton lodge was Circle Lodge no. 8, but other sources, including the Alton City Directories, 1899-1908, and the Palladium (St. Louis), May 23, 1903, p. 1, col. 4, noted that it was Circle no. 2. State Capital (Springfield, IL), February 27, 1892, p. 1, col. 3; March 5, 1892, p. 1, col. 5; August 13, 1892, p. 4, col. 2; August 27, 1892, p. 1, col. 7; October 8, 1892, p. 1, col. 4; Palladium (St. Louis), March 7, 1903, p. 1, col. 4; May 23, 1903, p. 1, col. 4; Alton Telegraph, November 20, 1897, p. 5, col. 4; January 8, 1900, p. 3. The Illinois Record had references to the United Brothers of Friendship (UBF) in most extant issues of the newspaper, 1897-1899.
8. William H. Gibson Sr., History of the United Brothers of Friendship and Sisters of the Mysterious Ten (Louisville, KY; Bradley and Gilbert, 1898). Gibson, p. 26, indicated that the Alton lodge was Circle Lodge no. 8, but other sources, including the Alton City Directories, 1899-1908, and the Palladium (St. Louis), May 23, 1903, p. 1, col. 4, noted that it was Circle no. 2. State Capital (Springfield, IL), February 27, 1892, p. 1, col. 3; March 5, 1892, p. 1, col. 5; August 13, 1892, p. 4, col. 2; August 27, 1892, p. 1, col. 7; October 8, 1892, p. 1, col. 4; Palladium (St. Louis), March 7, 1903, p. 1, col. 4; May 23, 1903, p. 1, col. 4; Alton Telegraph, November 20, 1897, p. 5, col. 4; January 8, 1900, p. 3. The Illinois Record had references to the United Brothers of Friendship (UBF) in most extant issues of the newspaper, 1897-1899.
9. William H. Gibson Sr., History of the United Brothers of Friendship and Sisters of the Mysterious Ten (Louisville, KY; Bradley and Gilbert, 1898). Gibson, p. 26, indicated that the Alton lodge was Circle Lodge no. 8, but other sources, including the Alton City Directories, 1899-1908, and the Palladium (St. Louis), May 23, 1903, p. 1, col. 4, noted that it was Circle no. 2. State Capital (Springfield, IL), February 27, 1892, p. 1, col. 3; March 5, 1892, p. 1, col. 5; August 13, 1892, p. 4, col. 2; August 27, 1892, p. 1, col. 7; October 8, 1892, p. 1, col. 4; Palladium (St. Louis), March 7, 1903, p. 1, col. 4; May 23, 1903, p. 1, col. 4; Alton Telegraph, November 20, 1897, p. 5, col. 4; January 8, 1900, p. 3. The Illinois Record had references to the United Brothers of Friendship (UBF) in most extant issues of the newspaper, 1897-1899.
10. William H. Gibson Sr., History of the United Brothers of Friendship and Sisters of the Mysterious Ten (Louisville, KY; Bradley and Gilbert, 1898). Gibson, p. 26, indicated that the Alton lodge was Circle Lodge no. 8, but other sources, including the Alton City Directories, 1899-1908, and the Palladium (St. Louis), May 23, 1903, p. 1, col. 4, noted that it was Circle no. 2. State Capital (Springfield, IL), February 27, 1892, p. 1, col. 3; March 5, 1892, p. 1, col. 5; August 13, 1892, p. 4, col. 2; August 27, 1892, p. 1, col. 7; October 8, 1892, p. 1, col. 4; Palladium (St. Louis), March 7, 1903, p. 1, col. 4; May 23, 1903, p. 1, col. 4; Alton Telegraph, November 20, 1897, p. 5, col. 4; January 8, 1900, p. 3. The Illinois Record had references to the United Brothers of Friendship (UBF) in most extant issues of the newspaper, 1897-1899.
11. William H. Gibson Sr., History of the United Brothers of Friendship and Sisters of the Mysterious Ten (Louisville, KY; Bradley and Gilbert, 1898). Gibson, p. 26, indicated that the Alton lodge was Circle Lodge no. 8, but other sources, including the Alton City Directories, 1899-1908, and the Palladium (St. Louis), May 23, 1903, p. 1, col. 4, noted that it was Circle no. 2. State Capital (Springfield, IL), February 27, 1892, p. 1, col. 3; March 5, 1892, p. 1, col. 5; August 13, 1892, p. 4, col. 2; August 27, 1892, p. 1, col. 7; October 8, 1892, p. 1, col. 4; Palladium (St. Louis), March 7, 1903, p. 1, col. 4; May 23, 1903, p. 1, col. 4; Alton Telegraph, November 20, 1897, p. 5, col. 4; January 8, 1900, p. 3. The Illinois Record had references to the United Brothers of Friendship (UBF) in most extant issues of the newspaper, 1897-1899.
12. William H. Gibson Sr., History of the United Brothers of Friendship and Sisters of the Mysterious Ten (Louisville, KY; Bradley and Gilbert, 1898). Gibson, p. 26, indicated that the Alton lodge was Circle Lodge no. 8, but other sources, including the Alton City Directories, 1899-1908, and the Palladium (St. Louis), May 23, 1903, p. 1, col. 4, noted that it was Circle no. 2. State Capital (Springfield, IL), February 27, 1892, p. 1, col. 3; March 5, 1892, p. 1, col. 5; August 13, 1892, p. 4, col. 2; August 27, 1892, p. 1, col. 7; October 8, 1892, p. 1, col. 4; Palladium (St. Louis), March 7, 1903, p. 1, col. 4; May 23, 1903, p. 1, col. 4; Alton Telegraph, November 20, 1897, p. 5, col. 4; January 8, 1900, p. 3. The Illinois Record had references to the United Brothers of Friendship (UBF) in most extant issues of the newspaper, 1897-1899.
13. William H. Gibson Sr., History of the United Brothers of Friendship and Sisters of the Mysterious Ten (Louisville, KY; Bradley and Gilbert, 1898). Gibson, p. 26, indicated that the Alton lodge was Circle Lodge no. 8, but other sources, including the Alton City Directories, 1899-1908, and the Palladium (St. Louis), May 23, 1903, p. 1, col. 4, noted that it was Circle no. 2. State Capital (Springfield, IL), February 27, 1892, p. 1, col. 3; March 5, 1892, p. 1, col. 5; August 13, 1892, p. 4, col. 2; August 27, 1892, p. 1, col. 7; October 8, 1892, p. 1, col. 4; Palladium (St. Louis), March 7, 1903, p. 1, col. 4; May 23, 1903, p. 1, col. 4; Alton Telegraph, November 20, 1897, p. 5, col. 4; January 8, 1900, p. 3. The Illinois Record had references to the United Brothers of Friendship (UBF) in most extant issues of the newspaper, 1897-1899.
14. William H. Gibson Sr., History of the United Brothers of Friendship and Sisters of the Mysterious Ten (Louisville, KY; Bradley and Gilbert, 1898). Gibson, p. 26, indicated that the Alton lodge was Circle Lodge no. 8, but other sources, including the Alton City Directories, 1899-1908, and the Palladium (St. Louis), May 23, 1903, p. 1, col. 4, noted that it was Circle no. 2. State Capital (Springfield, IL), February 27, 1892, p. 1, col. 3; March 5, 1892, p. 1, col. 5; August 13, 1892, p. 4, col. 2; August 27, 1892, p. 1, col. 7; October 8, 1892, p. 1, col. 4; Palladium (St. Louis), March 7, 1903, p. 1, col. 4; May 23, 1903, p. 1, col. 4; Alton Telegraph, November 20, 1897, p. 5, col. 4; January 8, 1900, p. 3. The Illinois Record had references to the United Brothers of Friendship (UBF) in most extant issues of the newspaper, 1897-1899.
15. Shirley J. Portwood, "The Alton School Case and African American Community Consciousness, 1897-1908," Illinois Historical Journal 91, no. 1 (1998): 2-20; August Meier and Elliott M. Rudwick, "Early Boycotts of Segregated Schools: The Alton, Illinois Case, 1897-1908," Journal of Negro Education 36 (1967): 394-402; W. T. Norton, ed. and comp., Centennial History of Madison County, Illinois and Its People, 1812 to 1912 (Chicago: Lewis, 1912), 301-12; Amy Hildebrand, "A Comparative Study of Bias in Newspaper Coverage of Race-Related Events Regarding Education" (Master's thesis, Southern Illinois University at Edwardsville, 1995). Robert McCaul, The Black Struggle for Public Education in Nineteenth-Century Illinois (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1987) presents the larger historical context of black public education in Illinois.
16. Shirley J. Portwood, "The Alton School Case and African American Community Consciousness, 1897-1908," Illinois Historical Journal 91, no. 1 (1998): 2-20; August Meier and Elliott M. Rudwick, "Early Boycotts of Segregated Schools: The Alton, Illinois Case, 1897-1908," Journal of Negro Education 36 (1967): 394-402; W. T. Norton, ed. and comp., Centennial History of Madison County, Illinois and Its People, 1812 to 1912 (Chicago: Lewis, 1912), 301-12; Amy Hildebrand, "A Comparative Study of Bias in Newspaper Coverage of Race-Related Events Regarding Education" (Master's thesis, Southern Illinois University at Edwardsville, 1995). Robert McCaul, The Black Struggle for Public Education in Nineteenth-Century Illinois (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1987) presents the larger historical context of black public education in Illinois.
17. Shirley J. Portwood, "The Alton School Case and African American Community Consciousness, 1897-1908," Illinois Historical Journal 91, no. 1 (1998): 2-20; August Meier and Elliott M. Rudwick, "Early Boycotts of Segregated Schools: The Alton, Illinois Case, 1897-1908," Journal of Negro Education 36 (1967): 394-402; W. T. Norton, ed. and comp., Centennial History of Madison County, Illinois and Its People, 1812 to 1912 (Chicago: Lewis, 1912), 301-12; Amy Hildebrand, "A Comparative Study of Bias in Newspaper Coverage of Race-Related Events Regarding Education" (Master's thesis, Southern Illinois University at Edwardsville, 1995). Robert McCaul, The Black Struggle for Public Education in Nineteenth-Century Illinois (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1987) presents the larger historical context of black public education in Illinois.
18. Shirley J. Portwood, "The Alton School Case and African American Community Consciousness, 1897-1908," Illinois Historical Journal 91, no. 1 (1998): 2-20; August Meier and Elliott M. Rudwick, "Early Boycotts of Segregated Schools: The Alton, Illinois Case, 1897-1908," Journal of Negro Education 36 (1967): 394-402; W. T. Norton, ed. and comp., Centennial History of Madison County, Illinois and Its People, 1812 to 1912 (Chicago: Lewis, 1912), 301-12; Amy Hildebrand, "A Comparative Study of Bias in Newspaper Coverage of Race-Related Events Regarding Education" (Master's thesis, Southern Illinois University at Edwardsville, 1995). Robert McCaul, The Black Struggle for Public Education in Nineteenth-Century Illinois (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1987) presents the larger historical context of black public education in Illinois.
19. Shirley J. Portwood, "The Alton School Case and African American Community Consciousness, 1897-1908," Illinois Historical Journal 91, no. 1 (1998): 2-20; August Meier and Elliott M. Rudwick, "Early Boycotts of Segregated Schools: The Alton, Illinois Case, 1897-1908," Journal of Negro Education 36 (1967): 394-402; W. T. Norton, ed. and comp., Centennial History of Madison County, Illinois and Its People, 1812 to 1912 (Chicago: Lewis, 1912), 301-12; Amy Hildebrand, "A Comparative Study of Bias in Newspaper Coverage of Race-Related Events Regarding Education" (Master's thesis, Southern Illinois University at Edwardsville, 1995). Robert McCaul, The Black Struggle for Public Education in Nineteenth-Century Illinois (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1987) presents the larger historical context of black public education in Illinois.
20. Meier and Rudwick, "Early Boycotts of Segregated Schools," 395; Hildebrand, "A Comparative Study of Bias in Newspaper Coverage," 7, 13-5, 32; Portwood, "The Alton School Case," 5-6.
21. Meier and Rudwick, "Early Boycotts of Segregated Schools," 395; Hildebrand, "A Comparative Study of Bias in Newspaper Coverage," 7, 13-5, 32; Portwood, "The Alton School Case," 5-6.
22. Meier and Rudwick, "Early Boycotts of Segregated Schools," 395; Hildebrand, "A Comparative Study of Bias in Newspaper Coverage," 7, 13-5, 32; Portwood, "The Alton School Case," 5-6.
23. McCaul, The Black Struggle for Public Education, 127-42, has the best discussion of the four Illinois Supreme Court cases involving segregated schools.
24. Alton, Illinois, City Council, "Proceedings, 1896-1908," September 8, 1896; The People of the State of Illinois, ex rel., Scott Bibb v. The Mayor and Common Council of the City of Alton, 1900, Case File, Supreme Court of Illinois, Springfield (hereafter cited as People v. City of Alton Case File), 8-12.
25. Alton, Illinois, City Council, "Proceedings, 1896-1908," September 8, 1896; The People of the State of Illinois, ex rel., Scott Bibb v. The Mayor and Common Council of the City of Alton, 1900, Case File, Supreme Court of Illinois, Springfield (hereafter cited as People v. City of Alton Case File), 8-12.
26. Rayford Logan, The Betrayal of the Negro (New York: Collier, 1954).
27. The scholarship on African American community building and resistance is extensive. For example, Gilbert Osofsky, Harlem: The Making of a Ghetto: Negro New York, 1890-1930 (1963; reprint, New York: Harper & Rowe, 1966); Constance McLaughlin Green, The Secret City: A History of Race Relations in the Nation's Capital (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1967); David Katzman, Before the Ghetto: Detroit in the Nineteenth Century (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1973); John W. Blassingame, Black New Orleans, 1860-1880 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1973); Kenneth L. Kusmer, A Ghetto Takes Shape: Black Cleveland, 1870-1930 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1976); Darrell E. Bigham, We Ask Only a Fair Trial: A History of the Black Community of Evansville, Indiana (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987); Albert S. Broussard, Black San Francisco: The Struggle for Racial Equality in the West, 1900-1954 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1993); Wilbert L. Jenkins, Seizing the New Day: African Americans in Post-Civil War Charleston (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1998); Mark R. Schneider Boston Confronts Jim Crow, 1890-1920 (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1997); Joe William Trotter Jr., River Jordan: African American Urban Life in the Ohio Valley (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1998); Henry Louis Taylor Jr., ed., Race and the City: Work, Community, and Protest in Cincinnati, 1820-1970 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1993).
28. The scholarship on African American community building and resistance is extensive. For example, Gilbert Osofsky, Harlem: The Making of a Ghetto: Negro New York, 1890-1930 (1963; reprint, New York: Harper & Rowe, 1966); Constance McLaughlin Green, The Secret City: A History of Race Relations in the Nation's Capital (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1967); David Katzman, Before the Ghetto: Detroit in the Nineteenth Century (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1973); John W. Blassingame, Black New Orleans, 1860-1880 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1973); Kenneth L. Kusmer, A Ghetto Takes Shape: Black Cleveland, 1870-1930 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1976); Darrell E. Bigham, We Ask Only a Fair Trial: A History of the Black Community of Evansville, Indiana (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987); Albert S. Broussard, Black San Francisco: The Struggle for Racial Equality in the West, 1900-1954 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1993); Wilbert L. Jenkins, Seizing the New Day: African Americans in Post-Civil War Charleston (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1998); Mark R. Schneider Boston Confronts Jim Crow, 1890-1920 (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1997); Joe William Trotter Jr., River Jordan: African American Urban Life in the Ohio Valley (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1998); Henry Louis Taylor Jr., ed., Race and the City: Work, Community, and Protest in Cincinnati, 1820-1970 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1993).
29. The scholarship on African American community building and resistance is extensive. For example, Gilbert Osofsky, Harlem: The Making of a Ghetto: Negro New York, 1890-1930 (1963; reprint, New York: Harper & Rowe, 1966); Constance McLaughlin Green, The Secret City: A History of Race Relations in the Nation's Capital (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1967); David Katzman, Before the Ghetto: Detroit in the Nineteenth Century (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1973); John W. Blassingame, Black New Orleans, 1860-1880 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1973); Kenneth L. Kusmer, A Ghetto Takes Shape: Black Cleveland, 1870-1930 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1976); Darrell E. Bigham, We Ask Only a Fair Trial: A History of the Black Community of Evansville, Indiana (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987); Albert S. Broussard, Black San Francisco: The Struggle for Racial Equality in the West, 1900-1954 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1993); Wilbert L. Jenkins, Seizing the New Day: African Americans in Post-Civil War Charleston (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1998); Mark R. Schneider Boston Confronts Jim Crow, 1890-1920 (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1997); Joe William Trotter Jr., River Jordan: African American Urban Life in the Ohio Valley (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1998); Henry Louis Taylor Jr., ed., Race and the City: Work, Community, and Protest in Cincinnati, 1820-1970 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1993).
30. The scholarship on African American community building and resistance is extensive. For example, Gilbert Osofsky, Harlem: The Making of a Ghetto: Negro New York, 1890-1930 (1963; reprint, New York: Harper & Rowe, 1966); Constance McLaughlin Green, The Secret City: A History of Race Relations in the Nation's Capital (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1967); David Katzman, Before the Ghetto: Detroit in the Nineteenth Century (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1973); John W. Blassingame, Black New Orleans, 1860-1880 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1973); Kenneth L. Kusmer, A Ghetto Takes Shape: Black Cleveland, 1870-1930 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1976); Darrell E. Bigham, We Ask Only a Fair Trial: A History of the Black Community of Evansville, Indiana (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987); Albert S. Broussard, Black San Francisco: The Struggle for Racial Equality in the West, 1900-1954 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1993); Wilbert L. Jenkins, Seizing the New Day: African Americans in Post-Civil War Charleston (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1998); Mark R. Schneider Boston Confronts Jim Crow, 1890-1920 (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1997); Joe William Trotter Jr., River Jordan: African American Urban Life in the Ohio Valley (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1998); Henry Louis Taylor Jr., ed., Race and the City: Work, Community, and Protest in Cincinnati, 1820-1970 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1993).
31. The scholarship on African American community building and resistance is extensive. For example, Gilbert Osofsky, Harlem: The Making of a Ghetto: Negro New York, 1890-1930 (1963; reprint, New York: Harper & Rowe, 1966); Constance McLaughlin Green, The Secret City: A History of Race Relations in the Nation's Capital (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1967); David Katzman, Before the Ghetto: Detroit in the Nineteenth Century (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1973); John W. Blassingame, Black New Orleans, 1860-1880 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1973); Kenneth L. Kusmer, A Ghetto Takes Shape: Black Cleveland, 1870-1930 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1976); Darrell E. Bigham, We Ask Only a Fair Trial: A History of the Black Community of Evansville, Indiana (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987); Albert S. Broussard, Black San Francisco: The Struggle for Racial Equality in the West, 1900-1954 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1993); Wilbert L. Jenkins, Seizing the New Day: African Americans in Post-Civil War Charleston (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1998); Mark R. Schneider Boston Confronts Jim Crow, 1890-1920 (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1997); Joe William Trotter Jr., River Jordan: African American Urban Life in the Ohio Valley (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1998); Henry Louis Taylor Jr., ed., Race and the City: Work, Community, and Protest in Cincinnati, 1820-1970 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1993).
32. The scholarship on African American community building and resistance is extensive. For example, Gilbert Osofsky, Harlem: The Making of a Ghetto: Negro New York, 1890-1930 (1963; reprint, New York: Harper & Rowe, 1966); Constance McLaughlin Green, The Secret City: A History of Race Relations in the Nation's Capital (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1967); David Katzman, Before the Ghetto: Detroit in the Nineteenth Century (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1973); John W. Blassingame, Black New Orleans, 1860-1880 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1973); Kenneth L. Kusmer, A Ghetto Takes Shape: Black Cleveland, 1870-1930 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1976); Darrell E. Bigham, We Ask Only a Fair Trial: A History of the Black Community of Evansville, Indiana (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987); Albert S. Broussard, Black San Francisco: The Struggle for Racial Equality in the West, 1900-1954 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1993); Wilbert L. Jenkins, Seizing the New Day: African Americans in Post-Civil War Charleston (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1998); Mark R. Schneider Boston Confronts Jim Crow, 1890-1920 (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1997); Joe William Trotter Jr., River Jordan: African American Urban Life in the Ohio Valley (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1998); Henry Louis Taylor Jr., ed., Race and the City: Work, Community, and Protest in Cincinnati, 1820-1970 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1993).
33. The scholarship on African American community building and resistance is extensive. For example, Gilbert Osofsky, Harlem: The Making of a Ghetto: Negro New York, 1890-1930 (1963; reprint, New York: Harper & Rowe, 1966); Constance McLaughlin Green, The Secret City: A History of Race Relations in the Nation's Capital (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1967); David Katzman, Before the Ghetto: Detroit in the Nineteenth Century (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1973); John W. Blassingame, Black New Orleans, 1860-1880 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1973); Kenneth L. Kusmer, A Ghetto Takes Shape: Black Cleveland, 1870-1930 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1976); Darrell E. Bigham, We Ask Only a Fair Trial: A History of the Black Community of Evansville, Indiana (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987); Albert S. Broussard, Black San Francisco: The Struggle for Racial Equality in the West, 1900-1954 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1993); Wilbert L. Jenkins, Seizing the New Day: African Americans in Post-Civil War Charleston (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1998); Mark R. Schneider Boston Confronts Jim Crow, 1890-1920 (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1997); Joe William Trotter Jr., River Jordan: African American Urban Life in the Ohio Valley (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1998); Henry Louis Taylor Jr., ed., Race and the City: Work, Community, and Protest in Cincinnati, 1820-1970 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1993).
34. The scholarship on African American community building and resistance is extensive. For example, Gilbert Osofsky, Harlem: The Making of a Ghetto: Negro New York, 1890-1930 (1963; reprint, New York: Harper & Rowe, 1966); Constance McLaughlin Green, The Secret City: A History of Race Relations in the Nation's Capital (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1967); David Katzman, Before the Ghetto: Detroit in the Nineteenth Century (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1973); John W. Blassingame, Black New Orleans, 1860-1880 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1973); Kenneth L. Kusmer, A Ghetto Takes Shape: Black Cleveland, 1870-1930 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1976); Darrell E. Bigham, We Ask Only a Fair Trial: A History of the Black Community of Evansville, Indiana (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987); Albert S. Broussard, Black San Francisco: The Struggle for Racial Equality in the West, 1900-1954 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1993); Wilbert L. Jenkins, Seizing the New Day: African Americans in Post-Civil War Charleston (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1998); Mark R. Schneider Boston Confronts Jim Crow, 1890-1920 (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1997); Joe William Trotter Jr., River Jordan: African American Urban Life in the Ohio Valley (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1998); Henry Louis Taylor Jr., ed., Race and the City: Work, Community, and Protest in Cincinnati, 1820-1970 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1993).
35. The scholarship on African American community building and resistance is extensive. For example, Gilbert Osofsky, Harlem: The Making of a Ghetto: Negro New York, 1890-1930 (1963; reprint, New York: Harper & Rowe, 1966); Constance McLaughlin Green, The Secret City: A History of Race Relations in the Nation's Capital (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1967); David Katzman, Before the Ghetto: Detroit in the Nineteenth Century (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1973); John W. Blassingame, Black New Orleans, 1860-1880 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1973); Kenneth L. Kusmer, A Ghetto Takes Shape: Black Cleveland, 1870-1930 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1976); Darrell E. Bigham, We Ask Only a Fair Trial: A History of the Black Community of Evansville, Indiana (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987); Albert S. Broussard, Black San Francisco: The Struggle for Racial Equality in the West, 1900-1954 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1993); Wilbert L. Jenkins, Seizing the New Day: African Americans in Post-Civil War Charleston (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1998); Mark R. Schneider Boston Confronts Jim Crow, 1890-1920 (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1997); Joe William Trotter Jr., River Jordan: African American Urban Life in the Ohio Valley (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1998); Henry Louis Taylor Jr., ed., Race and the City: Work, Community, and Protest in Cincinnati, 1820-1970 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1993).
36. The scholarship on African American community building and resistance is extensive. For example, Gilbert Osofsky, Harlem: The Making of a Ghetto: Negro New York, 1890-1930 (1963; reprint, New York: Harper & Rowe, 1966); Constance McLaughlin Green, The Secret City: A History of Race Relations in the Nation's Capital (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1967); David Katzman, Before the Ghetto: Detroit in the Nineteenth Century (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1973); John W. Blassingame, Black New Orleans, 1860-1880 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1973); Kenneth L. Kusmer, A Ghetto Takes Shape: Black Cleveland, 1870-1930 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1976); Darrell E. Bigham, We Ask Only a Fair Trial: A History of the Black Community of Evansville, Indiana (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987); Albert S. Broussard, Black San Francisco: The Struggle for Racial Equality in the West, 1900-1954 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1993); Wilbert L. Jenkins, Seizing the New Day: African Americans in Post-Civil War Charleston (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1998); Mark R. Schneider Boston Confronts Jim Crow, 1890-1920 (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1997); Joe William Trotter Jr., River Jordan: African American Urban Life in the Ohio Valley (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1998); Henry Louis Taylor Jr., ed., Race and the City: Work, Community, and Protest in Cincinnati, 1820-1970 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1993).
37. The scholarship on African American community building and resistance is extensive. For example, Gilbert Osofsky, Harlem: The Making of a Ghetto: Negro New York, 1890-1930 (1963; reprint, New York: Harper & Rowe, 1966); Constance McLaughlin Green, The Secret City: A History of Race Relations in the Nation's Capital (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1967); David Katzman, Before the Ghetto: Detroit in the Nineteenth Century (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1973); John W. Blassingame, Black New Orleans, 1860-1880 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1973); Kenneth L. Kusmer, A Ghetto Takes Shape: Black Cleveland, 1870-1930 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1976); Darrell E. Bigham, We Ask Only a Fair Trial: A History of the Black Community of Evansville, Indiana (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987); Albert S. Broussard, Black San Francisco: The Struggle for Racial Equality in the West, 1900-1954 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1993); Wilbert L. Jenkins, Seizing the New Day: African Americans in Post-Civil War Charleston (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1998); Mark R. Schneider Boston Confronts Jim Crow, 1890-1920 (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1997); Joe William Trotter Jr., River Jordan: African American Urban Life in the Ohio Valley (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1998); Henry Louis Taylor Jr., ed., Race and the City: Work, Community, and Protest in Cincinnati, 1820-1970 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1993).
38. Felix A. Armfield, "'Fire on the Prairies': Illinois's First Race Riot: Spring Valley, 1895" (paper presented at the Conference on African Americans in the Land of Lincoln, Southern Illinois University Edwardsville, April 1998), and forthcoming in the Journal of Illinois History; Christopher Hays, "The African American Struggle for Equality and Justice in Cairo, Illinois, 1865-1900," Illinois Historical Journal (IHJ) 90, no. 4 (1997): 265-284 and, "Way Down in Egypt Land: Conflict and Community in Cairo, Illinois 1850-1930" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Missouri at Columbia, 1996); Nupur Chaudhuri, "'We All Seem Like Brothers and Sisters' : The African-American Community in Manhattan, Kansas, 1865-1940," in Darlene Clark Hine, Wilma King, and Linda Reed, eds., "We Specialize in the Wholly Impossible": A Reader in Black Women's History (New York: Carlson, 1995), 543-60; Susan Curtis, "Scott Joplin and Sedalia: The King of Ragtime in the Queen City of Missouri," Gateway Heritage 14, no. 4 (1994): 4-19.
39. Felix A. Armfield, "'Fire on the Prairies': Illinois's First Race Riot: Spring Valley, 1895" (paper presented at the Conference on African Americans in the Land of Lincoln, Southern Illinois University Edwardsville, April 1998), and forthcoming in the Journal of Illinois History; Christopher Hays, "The African American Struggle for Equality and Justice in Cairo, Illinois, 1865-1900," Illinois Historical Journal (IHJ) 90, no. 4 (1997): 265-284 and, "Way Down in Egypt Land: Conflict and Community in Cairo, Illinois 1850-1930" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Missouri at Columbia, 1996); Nupur Chaudhuri, "'We All Seem Like Brothers and Sisters' : The African-American Community in Manhattan, Kansas, 1865-1940," in Darlene Clark Hine, Wilma King, and Linda Reed, eds., "We Specialize in the Wholly Impossible": A Reader in Black Women's History (New York: Carlson, 1995), 543-60; Susan Curtis, "Scott Joplin and Sedalia: The King of Ragtime in the Queen City of Missouri," Gateway Heritage 14, no. 4 (1994): 4-19.
40. Felix A. Armfield, "'Fire on the Prairies': Illinois's First Race Riot: Spring Valley, 1895" (paper presented at the Conference on African Americans in the Land of Lincoln, Southern Illinois University Edwardsville, April 1998), and forthcoming in the Journal of Illinois History; Christopher Hays, "The African American Struggle for Equality and Justice in Cairo, Illinois, 1865-1900," Illinois Historical Journal (IHJ) 90, no. 4 (1997): 265-284 and, "Way Down in Egypt Land: Conflict and Community in Cairo, Illinois 1850-1930" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Missouri at Columbia, 1996); Nupur Chaudhuri, "'We All Seem Like Brothers and Sisters' : The African-American Community in Manhattan, Kansas, 1865-1940," in Darlene Clark Hine, Wilma King, and Linda Reed, eds., "We Specialize in the Wholly Impossible": A Reader in Black Women's History (New York: Carlson, 1995), 543-60; Susan Curtis, "Scott Joplin and Sedalia: The King of Ragtime in the Queen City of Missouri," Gateway Heritage 14, no. 4 (1994): 4-19.
41. Felix A. Armfield, "'Fire on the Prairies': Illinois's First Race Riot: Spring Valley, 1895" (paper presented at the Conference on African Americans in the Land of Lincoln, Southern Illinois University Edwardsville, April 1998), and forthcoming in the Journal of Illinois History; Christopher Hays, "The African American Struggle for Equality and Justice in Cairo, Illinois, 1865-1900," Illinois Historical Journal (IHJ) 90, no. 4 (1997): 265-284 and, "Way Down in Egypt Land: Conflict and Community in Cairo, Illinois 1850-1930" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Missouri at Columbia, 1996); Nupur Chaudhuri, "'We All Seem Like Brothers and Sisters' : The African-American Community in Manhattan, Kansas, 1865-1940," in Darlene Clark Hine, Wilma King, and Linda Reed, eds., "We Specialize in the Wholly Impossible": A Reader in Black Women's History (New York: Carlson, 1995), 543-60; Susan Curtis, "Scott Joplin and Sedalia: The King of Ragtime in the Queen City of Missouri," Gateway Heritage 14, no. 4 (1994): 4-19.
42. Felix A. Armfield, "'Fire on the Prairies': Illinois's First Race Riot: Spring Valley, 1895" (paper presented at the Conference on African Americans in the Land of Lincoln, Southern Illinois University Edwardsville, April 1998), and forthcoming in the Journal of Illinois History; Christopher Hays, "The African American Struggle for Equality and Justice in Cairo, Illinois, 1865-1900," Illinois Historical Journal (IHJ) 90, no. 4 (1997): 265-284 and, "Way Down in Egypt Land: Conflict and Community in Cairo, Illinois 1850-1930" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Missouri at Columbia, 1996); Nupur Chaudhuri, "'We All Seem Like Brothers and Sisters' : The African-American Community in Manhattan, Kansas, 1865-1940," in Darlene Clark Hine, Wilma King, and Linda Reed, eds., "We Specialize in the Wholly Impossible": A Reader in Black Women's History (New York: Carlson, 1995), 543-60; Susan Curtis, "Scott Joplin and Sedalia: The King of Ragtime in the Queen City of Missouri," Gateway Heritage 14, no. 4 (1994): 4-19.
43. Felix A. Armfield, "'Fire on the Prairies': Illinois's First Race Riot: Spring Valley, 1895" (paper presented at the Conference on African Americans in the Land of Lincoln, Southern Illinois University Edwardsville, April 1998), and forthcoming in the Journal of Illinois History; Christopher Hays, "The African American Struggle for Equality and Justice in Cairo, Illinois, 1865-1900," Illinois Historical Journal (IHJ) 90, no. 4 (1997): 265-284 and, "Way Down in Egypt Land: Conflict and Community in Cairo, Illinois 1850-1930" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Missouri at Columbia, 1996); Nupur Chaudhuri, "'We All Seem Like Brothers and Sisters' : The African-American Community in Manhattan, Kansas, 1865-1940," in Darlene Clark Hine, Wilma King, and Linda Reed, eds., "We Specialize in the Wholly Impossible": A Reader in Black Women's History (New York: Carlson, 1995), 543-60; Susan Curtis, "Scott Joplin and Sedalia: The King of Ragtime in the Queen City of Missouri," Gateway Heritage 14, no. 4 (1994): 4-19.
44. Alton Illinois, Board of Education, "Minutes, August 1859-December 1897"; Alton, Illinois, City Council "Proceedings 1896-1908." The public high school remained integrated. The resistance efforts of blacks are discussed in numerous sources, including the following newspapers: Illinois Record (Springfield) 1897-1899; the Alton Telegraph, 1897-1908; St. Louis Post-Dispatch; St. Louis Star; Palladium (St. Louis) 1903-1908; Broad Ax (Salt Lake City and Chicago), 1899-1910. The court cases are chronicled in a series of transcripts, as, for example, People v. City of Alton, Case File, cited earlier, Supreme Court of Illinois, Springfield. Although the lawsuit originally included the School Board of the City of Alton as defendants, they were later removed from the suit.
45. Alton Illinois, Board of Education, "Minutes, August 1859-December 1897"; Alton, Illinois, City Council "Proceedings 1896-1908." The public high school remained integrated. The resistance efforts of blacks are discussed in numerous sources, including the following newspapers: Illinois Record (Springfield) 1897-1899; the Alton Telegraph, 1897-1908; St. Louis Post-Dispatch; St. Louis Star; Palladium (St. Louis) 1903-1908; Broad Ax (Salt Lake City and Chicago), 1899-1910. The court cases are chronicled in a series of transcripts, as, for example, People v. City of Alton, Case File, cited earlier, Supreme Court of Illinois, Springfield. Although the lawsuit originally included the School Board of the City of Alton as defendants, they were later removed from the suit.
46. Alton Illinois, Board of Education, "Minutes, August 1859-December 1897"; Alton, Illinois, City Council "Proceedings 1896-1908." The public high school remained integrated. The resistance efforts of blacks are discussed in numerous sources, including the following newspapers: Illinois Record (Springfield) 1897-1899; the Alton Telegraph, 1897-1908; St. Louis Post-Dispatch; St. Louis Star; Palladium (St. Louis) 1903-1908; Broad Ax (Salt Lake City and Chicago), 1899-1910. The court cases are chronicled in a series of transcripts, as, for example, People v. City of Alton, Case File, cited earlier, Supreme Court of Illinois, Springfield. Although the lawsuit originally included the School Board of the City of Alton as defendants, they were later removed from the suit.
47. Alton Illinois, Board of Education, "Minutes, August 1859-December 1897"; Alton, Illinois, City Council "Proceedings 1896-1908." The public high school remained integrated. The resistance efforts of blacks are discussed in numerous sources, including the following newspapers: Illinois Record (Springfield) 1897-1899; the Alton Telegraph, 1897-1908; St. Louis Post-Dispatch; St. Louis Star; Palladium (St. Louis) 1903-1908; Broad Ax (Salt Lake City and Chicago), 1899-1910. The court cases are chronicled in a series of transcripts, as, for example, People v. City of Alton, Case File, cited earlier, Supreme Court of Illinois, Springfield. Although the lawsuit originally included the School Board of the City of Alton as defendants, they were later removed from the suit.
48. Alton Illinois, Board of Education, "Minutes, August 1859-December 1897"; Alton, Illinois, City Council "Proceedings 1896-1908." The public high school remained integrated. The resistance efforts of blacks are discussed in numerous sources, including the following newspapers: Illinois Record (Springfield) 1897-1899; the Alton Telegraph, 1897-1908; St. Louis Post-Dispatch; St. Louis Star; Palladium (St. Louis) 1903-1908; Broad Ax (Salt Lake City and Chicago), 1899-1910. The court cases are chronicled in a series of transcripts, as, for example, People v. City of Alton, Case File, cited earlier, Supreme Court of Illinois, Springfield. Although the lawsuit originally included the School Board of the City of Alton as defendants, they were later removed from the suit.
49. Alton Illinois, Board of Education, "Minutes, August 1859-December 1897"; Alton, Illinois, City Council "Proceedings 1896-1908." The public high school remained integrated. The resistance efforts of blacks are discussed in numerous sources, including the following newspapers: Illinois Record (Springfield) 1897-1899; the Alton Telegraph, 1897-1908; St. Louis Post-Dispatch; St. Louis Star; Palladium (St. Louis) 1903-1908; Broad Ax (Salt Lake City and Chicago), 1899-1910. The court cases are chronicled in a series of transcripts, as, for example, People v. City of Alton, Case File, cited earlier, Supreme Court of Illinois, Springfield. Although the lawsuit originally included the School Board of the City of Alton as defendants, they were later removed from the suit.
50. Alton Illinois, Board of Education, "Minutes, August 1859-December 1897"; Alton, Illinois, City Council "Proceedings 1896-1908." The public high school remained integrated. The resistance efforts of blacks are discussed in numerous sources, including the following newspapers: Illinois Record (Springfield) 1897-1899; the Alton Telegraph, 1897-1908; St. Louis Post-Dispatch; St. Louis Star; Palladium (St. Louis) 1903-1908; Broad Ax (Salt Lake City and Chicago), 1899-1910. The court cases are chronicled in a series of transcripts, as, for example, People v. City of Alton, Case File, cited earlier, Supreme Court of Illinois, Springfield. Although the lawsuit originally included the School Board of the City of Alton as defendants, they were later removed from the suit.
51. Alton Illinois, Board of Education, "Minutes, August 1859-December 1897"; Alton, Illinois, City Council "Proceedings 1896-1908." The public high school remained integrated. The resistance efforts of blacks are discussed in numerous sources, including the following newspapers: Illinois Record (Springfield) 1897-1899; the Alton Telegraph, 1897-1908; St. Louis Post-Dispatch; St. Louis Star; Palladium (St. Louis) 1903-1908; Broad Ax (Salt Lake City and Chicago), 1899-1910. The court cases are chronicled in a series of transcripts, as, for example, People v. City of Alton, Case File, cited earlier, Supreme Court of Illinois, Springfield. Although the lawsuit originally included the School Board of the City of Alton as defendants, they were later removed from the suit.
52. Alton Illinois, Board of Education, "Minutes, August 1859-December 1897"; Alton, Illinois, City Council "Proceedings 1896-1908." The public high school remained integrated. The resistance efforts of blacks are discussed in numerous sources, including the following newspapers: Illinois Record (Springfield) 1897-1899; the Alton Telegraph, 1897-1908; St. Louis Post-Dispatch; St. Louis Star; Palladium (St. Louis) 1903-1908; Broad Ax (Salt Lake City and Chicago), 1899-1910. The court cases are chronicled in a series of transcripts, as, for example, People v. City of Alton, Case File, cited earlier, Supreme Court of Illinois, Springfield. Although the lawsuit originally included the School Board of the City of Alton as defendants, they were later removed from the suit.
53. People v. City of Alton Case File, "Brief of John J. Brenholt," 2; "Brief of Louis Palmer,"7; Petition, 6; McCaul, The Black Struggle for Public Schooling, 127-42; Alton Evening Telegraph, September 21, 1897, p. 3, col. 3; October 22, 1897, p. 2, col. 3; December 4, 1897, p. 1, cols. 1-2; February 12, 1898, p. 5, col. 4.
54. People v. City of Alton Case File, "Brief of John J. Brenholt," 2; "Brief of Louis Palmer,"7; Petition, 6; McCaul, The Black Struggle for Public Schooling, 127-42; Alton Evening Telegraph, September 21, 1897, p. 3, col. 3; October 22, 1897, p. 2, col. 3; December 4, 1897, p. 1, cols. 1-2; February 12, 1898, p. 5, col. 4.
55. People v. City of Alton Case File, "Brief of John J. Brenholt," 2; "Brief of Louis Palmer,"7; Petition, 6; McCaul, The Black Struggle for Public Schooling, 127-42; Alton Evening Telegraph, September 21, 1897, p. 3, col. 3; October 22, 1897, p. 2, col. 3; December 4, 1897, p. 1, cols. 1-2; February 12, 1898, p. 5, col. 4.
56. People v. City of Alton Case File, "Brief of John J. Brenholt," 2; "Brief of Louis Palmer,"7; Petition, 6; McCaul, The Black Struggle for Public Schooling, 127-42; Alton Evening Telegraph, September 21, 1897, p. 3, col. 3; October 22, 1897, p. 2, col. 3; December 4, 1897, p. 1, cols. 1-2; February 12, 1898, p. 5, col. 4.
57. People v. City of Alton Case File, "Brief of John J. Brenholt," 2; "Brief of Louis Palmer,"7; Petition, 6; McCaul, The Black Struggle for Public Schooling, 127-42; Alton Evening Telegraph, September 21, 1897, p. 3, col. 3; October 22, 1897, p. 2, col. 3; December 4, 1897, p. 1, cols. 1-2; February 12, 1898, p. 5, col. 4.
58. The recent scholarship on African American community building and resistance in downstate Illinois is very impressive. On central Illinois, see Juliet E. K. Walker, Free Frank: A Black Pioneer on the Antebellum Frontier (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1983); Felix Armfield, "'Fire on the Praines': Illinois' First Race Riot, Spring Valley 1895," forthcoming in the Journal of Illinois History; Roberta Senechal, The Sociogenesis of a Race Riot: Springfield, Illinois, in 1908 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press 1990); Sundiata Cha-Jua, "'A Warlike Demonstration': Legalism, Violent Self-Help, and Electoral Politics in Decatur, Illinois, 1894-1898," Journal of Negro History (JNH) 83 (winter 1998): 52-72; Sundiata K. Cha-Jua, "'Join Hands and Hearts with Law and Order': The 1893 Lynching of Samuel J. Bush and the Response of Decatur's African American Community," IHJ 83, no. 3 (1990): 187-200. Those on southern Illinois are Elliott Rudwick, Race Riot at East St. Louis, July 2, 1917 (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press 1964); Christopher Hays, "The African American Struggle for Equality and Justice in Cairo, Illinois 1865-1900," IHJ 90, no. 4 (1997): 265-84; Joanne Wheeler, "Together in Egypt: A Pattern of Race Relations in Cairo, Illinois, 1865-1915," in Orville Vernon Burton and Robert C. McMath Jr., eds., Toward a New South? Studies in Post-Civil War Southern Communities (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1982), 103-34; Shirley J. Carlson (Portwood), "Family and Household in a Black Community in Southern Illinois," International Journal of Sociology of the Family 18 (autumn 1988); Johnetta Y. Jones, "Black Land Tenancy in Extreme Southern Illinois, 1820-1920," in Selected Papers in Illinois History, 1980 (Springfield: Illinois State Historical Society, 1982).
59. The recent scholarship on African American community building and resistance in downstate Illinois is very impressive. On central Illinois, see Juliet E. K. Walker, Free Frank: A Black Pioneer on the Antebellum Frontier (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1983); Felix Armfield, "'Fire on the Praines': Illinois' First Race Riot, Spring Valley 1895," forthcoming in the Journal of Illinois History; Roberta Senechal, The Sociogenesis of a Race Riot: Springfield, Illinois, in 1908 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press 1990); Sundiata Cha-Jua, "'A Warlike Demonstration': Legalism, Violent Self-Help, and Electoral Politics in Decatur, Illinois, 1894-1898," Journal of Negro History (JNH) 83 (winter 1998): 52-72; Sundiata K. Cha-Jua, "'Join Hands and Hearts with Law and Order': The 1893 Lynching of Samuel J. Bush and the Response of Decatur's African American Community," IHJ 83, no. 3 (1990): 187-200. Those on southern Illinois are Elliott Rudwick, Race Riot at East St. Louis, July 2, 1917 (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press 1964); Christopher Hays, "The African American Struggle for Equality and Justice in Cairo, Illinois 1865-1900," IHJ 90, no. 4 (1997): 265-84; Joanne Wheeler, "Together in Egypt: A Pattern of Race Relations in Cairo, Illinois, 1865-1915," in Orville Vernon Burton and Robert C. McMath Jr., eds., Toward a New South? Studies in Post-Civil War Southern Communities (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1982), 103-34; Shirley J. Carlson (Portwood), "Family and Household in a Black Community in Southern Illinois," International Journal of Sociology of the Family 18 (autumn 1988); Johnetta Y. Jones, "Black Land Tenancy in Extreme Southern Illinois, 1820-1920," in Selected Papers in Illinois History, 1980 (Springfield: Illinois State Historical Society, 1982).
60. The recent scholarship on African American community building and resistance in downstate Illinois is very impressive. On central Illinois, see Juliet E. K. Walker, Free Frank: A Black Pioneer on the Antebellum Frontier (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1983); Felix Armfield, "'Fire on the Praines': Illinois' First Race Riot, Spring Valley 1895," forthcoming in the Journal of Illinois History; Roberta Senechal, The Sociogenesis of a Race Riot: Springfield, Illinois, in 1908 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press 1990); Sundiata Cha-Jua, "'A Warlike Demonstration': Legalism, Violent Self-Help, and Electoral Politics in Decatur, Illinois, 1894-1898," Journal of Negro History (JNH) 83 (winter 1998): 52-72; Sundiata K. Cha-Jua, "'Join Hands and Hearts with Law and Order': The 1893 Lynching of Samuel J. Bush and the Response of Decatur's African American Community," IHJ 83, no. 3 (1990): 187-200. Those on southern Illinois are Elliott Rudwick, Race Riot at East St. Louis, July 2, 1917 (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press 1964); Christopher Hays, "The African American Struggle for Equality and Justice in Cairo, Illinois 1865-1900," IHJ 90, no. 4 (1997): 265-84; Joanne Wheeler, "Together in Egypt: A Pattern of Race Relations in Cairo, Illinois, 1865-1915," in Orville Vernon Burton and Robert C. McMath Jr., eds., Toward a New South? Studies in Post-Civil War Southern Communities (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1982), 103-34; Shirley J. Carlson (Portwood), "Family and Household in a Black Community in Southern Illinois," International Journal of Sociology of the Family 18 (autumn 1988); Johnetta Y. Jones, "Black Land Tenancy in Extreme Southern Illinois, 1820-1920," in Selected Papers in Illinois History, 1980 (Springfield: Illinois State Historical Society, 1982).
61. The recent scholarship on African American community building and resistance in downstate Illinois is very impressive. On central Illinois, see Juliet E. K. Walker, Free Frank: A Black Pioneer on the Antebellum Frontier (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1983); Felix Armfield, "'Fire on the Praines': Illinois' First Race Riot, Spring Valley 1895," forthcoming in the Journal of Illinois History; Roberta Senechal, The Sociogenesis of a Race Riot: Springfield, Illinois, in 1908 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press 1990); Sundiata Cha-Jua, "'A Warlike Demonstration': Legalism, Violent Self-Help, and Electoral Politics in Decatur, Illinois, 1894-1898," Journal of Negro History (JNH) 83 (winter 1998): 52-72; Sundiata K. Cha-Jua, "'Join Hands and Hearts with Law and Order': The 1893 Lynching of Samuel J. Bush and the Response of Decatur's African American Community," IHJ 83, no. 3 (1990): 187-200. Those on southern Illinois are Elliott Rudwick, Race Riot at East St. Louis, July 2, 1917 (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press 1964); Christopher Hays, "The African American Struggle for Equality and Justice in Cairo, Illinois 1865-1900," IHJ 90, no. 4 (1997): 265-84; Joanne Wheeler, "Together in Egypt: A Pattern of Race Relations in Cairo, Illinois, 1865-1915," in Orville Vernon Burton and Robert C. McMath Jr., eds., Toward a New South? Studies in Post-Civil War Southern Communities (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1982), 103-34; Shirley J. Carlson (Portwood), "Family and Household in a Black Community in Southern Illinois," International Journal of Sociology of the Family 18 (autumn 1988); Johnetta Y. Jones, "Black Land Tenancy in Extreme Southern Illinois, 1820-1920," in Selected Papers in Illinois History, 1980 (Springfield: Illinois State Historical Society, 1982).
62. The recent scholarship on African American community building and resistance in downstate Illinois is very impressive. On central Illinois, see Juliet E. K. Walker, Free Frank: A Black Pioneer on the Antebellum Frontier (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1983); Felix Armfield, "'Fire on the Praines': Illinois' First Race Riot, Spring Valley 1895," forthcoming in the Journal of Illinois History; Roberta Senechal, The Sociogenesis of a Race Riot: Springfield, Illinois, in 1908 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press 1990); Sundiata Cha-Jua, "'A Warlike Demonstration': Legalism, Violent Self-Help, and Electoral Politics in Decatur, Illinois, 1894-1898," Journal of Negro History (JNH) 83 (winter 1998): 52-72; Sundiata K. Cha-Jua, "'Join Hands and Hearts with Law and Order': The 1893 Lynching of Samuel J. Bush and the Response of Decatur's African American Community," IHJ 83, no. 3 (1990): 187-200. Those on southern Illinois are Elliott Rudwick, Race Riot at East St. Louis, July 2, 1917 (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press 1964); Christopher Hays, "The African American Struggle for Equality and Justice in Cairo, Illinois 1865-1900," IHJ 90, no. 4 (1997): 265-84; Joanne Wheeler, "Together in Egypt: A Pattern of Race Relations in Cairo, Illinois, 1865-1915," in Orville Vernon Burton and Robert C. McMath Jr., eds., Toward a New South? Studies in Post-Civil War Southern Communities (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1982), 103-34; Shirley J. Carlson (Portwood), "Family and Household in a Black Community in Southern Illinois," International Journal of Sociology of the Family 18 (autumn 1988); Johnetta Y. Jones, "Black Land Tenancy in Extreme Southern Illinois, 1820-1920," in Selected Papers in Illinois History, 1980 (Springfield: Illinois State Historical Society, 1982).
63. The recent scholarship on African American community building and resistance in downstate Illinois is very impressive. On central Illinois, see Juliet E. K. Walker, Free Frank: A Black Pioneer on the Antebellum Frontier (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1983); Felix Armfield, "'Fire on the Praines': Illinois' First Race Riot, Spring Valley 1895," forthcoming in the Journal of Illinois History; Roberta Senechal, The Sociogenesis of a Race Riot: Springfield, Illinois, in 1908 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press 1990); Sundiata Cha-Jua, "'A Warlike Demonstration': Legalism, Violent Self-Help, and Electoral Politics in Decatur, Illinois, 1894-1898," Journal of Negro History (JNH) 83 (winter 1998): 52-72; Sundiata K. Cha-Jua, "'Join Hands and Hearts with Law and Order': The 1893 Lynching of Samuel J. Bush and the Response of Decatur's African American Community," IHJ 83, no. 3 (1990): 187-200. Those on southern Illinois are Elliott Rudwick, Race Riot at East St. Louis, July 2, 1917 (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press 1964); Christopher Hays, "The African American Struggle for Equality and Justice in Cairo, Illinois 1865-1900," IHJ 90, no. 4 (1997): 265-84; Joanne Wheeler, "Together in Egypt: A Pattern of Race Relations in Cairo, Illinois, 1865-1915," in Orville Vernon Burton and Robert C. McMath Jr.,
64. The recent scholarship on African American community building and resistance in downstate Illinois is very impressive. On central Illinois, see Juliet E. K. Walker, Free Frank: A Black Pioneer on the Antebellum Frontier (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1983); Felix Armfield, "'Fire on the Praines': Illinois' First Race Riot, Spring Valley 1895," forthcoming in the Journal of Illinois History; Roberta Senechal, The Sociogenesis of a Race Riot: Springfield, Illinois, in 1908 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press 1990); Sundiata Cha-Jua, "'A Warlike Demonstration': Legalism, Violent Self-Help, and Electoral Politics in Decatur, Illinois, 1894-1898," Journal of Negro History (JNH) 83 (winter 1998): 52-72; Sundiata K. Cha-Jua, "'Join Hands and Hearts with Law and Order': The 1893 Lynching of Samuel J. Bush and the Response of Decatur's African American Community," IHJ 83, no. 3 (1990): 187-200. Those on southern Illinois are Elliott Rudwick, Race Riot at East St. Louis, July 2, 1917 (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press 1964); Christopher Hays, "The African American Struggle for Equality and Justice in Cairo, Illinois 1865-1900," IHJ 90, no. 4 (1997): 265-84; Joanne Wheeler, "Together in Egypt: A Pattern of Race Relations in Cairo, Illinois, 1865-1915," in Orville Vernon Burton and Robert C. McMath Jr., eds., Toward a New South? Studies in Post-Civil War Southern Communities (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1982), 103-34; Shirley J. Carlson (Portwood), "Family and Household in a Black Community in Southern Illinois," International Journal of Sociology of the Family 18 (autumn 1988); Johnetta Y. Jones, "Black Land Tenancy in Extreme Southern Illinois, 1820-1920," in Selected Papers in Illinois History, 1980 (Springfield: Illinois State Historical Society, 1982).
65. The recent scholarship on African American community building and resistance in downstate Illinois is very impressive. On central Illinois, see Juliet E. K. Walker, Free Frank: A Black Pioneer on the Antebellum Frontier (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1983); Felix Armfield, "'Fire on the Praines': Illinois' First Race Riot, Spring Valley 1895," forthcoming in the Journal of Illinois History; Roberta Senechal, The Sociogenesis of a Race Riot: Springfield, Illinois, in 1908 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press 1990); Sundiata Cha-Jua, "'A Warlike Demonstration': Legalism, Violent Self-Help, and Electoral Politics in Decatur, Illinois, 1894-1898," Journal of Negro History (JNH) 83 (winter 1998): 52-72; Sundiata K. Cha-Jua, "'Join Hands and Hearts with Law and Order': The 1893 Lynching of Samuel J. Bush and the Response of Decatur's African American Community," IHJ 83, no. 3 (1990): 187-200. Those on southern Illinois are Elliott Rudwick, Race Riot at East St. Louis, July 2, 1917 (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press 1964); Christopher Hays, "The African American Struggle for Equality and Justice in Cairo, Illinois 1865-1900," IHJ 90, no. 4 (1997): 265-84; Joanne Wheeler, "Together in Egypt: A Pattern of Race Relations in Cairo, Illinois, 1865-1915," in Orville Vernon Burton and Robert C. McMath Jr., eds., Toward a New South? Studies in Post-Civil War Southern Communities (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1982), 103-34; Shirley J. Carlson (Portwood), "Family and Household in a Black Community in Southern Illinois," International Journal of Sociology of the Family 18 (autumn 1988); Johnetta Y. Jones, "Black Land Tenancy in Extreme Southern Illinois, 1820-1920," in Selected Papers in Illinois History, 1980 (Springfield: Illinois State Historical Society, 1982).
66. The recent scholarship on African American community building and resistance in downstate Illinois is very impressive. On central Illinois, see Juliet E. K. Walker, Free Frank: A Black Pioneer on the Antebellum Frontier (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1983); Felix Armfield, "'Fire on the Praines': Illinois' First Race Riot, Spring Valley 1895," forthcoming in the Journal of Illinois History; Roberta Senechal, The Sociogenesis of a Race Riot: Springfield, Illinois, in 1908 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press 1990); Sundiata Cha-Jua, "'A Warlike Demonstration': Legalism, Violent Self-Help, and Electoral Politics in Decatur, Illinois, 1894-1898," Journal of Negro History (JNH) 83 (winter 1998): 52-72; Sundiata K. Cha-Jua, "'Join Hands and Hearts with Law and Order': The 1893 Lynching of Samuel J. Bush and the Response of Decatur's African American Community," IHJ 83, no. 3 (1990): 187-200. Those on southern Illinois are Elliott Rudwick, Race Riot at East St. Louis, July 2, 1917 (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press 1964); Christopher Hays, "The African American Struggle for Equality and Justice in Cairo, Illinois 1865-1900," IHJ 90, no. 4 (1997): 265-84; Joanne Wheeler, "Together in Egypt: A Pattern of Race Relations in Cairo, Illinois, 1865-1915," in Orville Vernon Burton and Robert C. McMath Jr., eds., Toward a New South? Studies in Post-Civil War Southern Communities (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1982), 103-34; Shirley J. Carlson (Portwood), "Family and Household in a Black Community in Southern Illinois," International Journal of Sociology of the Family 18 (autumn 1988); Johnetta Y. Jones, "Black Land Tenancy in Extreme Southern Illinois, 1820-1920," in Selected Papers in Illinois History, 1980 (Springfield: Illinois State Historical Society, 1982).
67. The recent scholarship on African American community building and resistance in downstate Illinois is very impressive. On central Illinois, see Juliet E. K. Walker, Free Frank: A Black Pioneer on the Antebellum Frontier (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1983); Felix Armfield, "'Fire on the Praines': Illinois' First Race Riot, Spring Valley 1895," forthcoming in the Journal of Illinois History; Roberta Senechal, The Sociogenesis of a Race Riot: Springfield, Illinois, in 1908 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press 1990); Sundiata Cha-Jua, "'A Warlike Demonstration': Legalism, Violent Self-Help, and Electoral Politics in Decatur, Illinois, 1894-1898," Journal of Negro History (JNH) 83 (winter 1998): 52-72; Sundiata K. Cha-Jua, "'Join Hands and Hearts with Law and Order': The 1893 Lynching of Samuel J. Bush and the Response of Decatur's African American Community," IHJ 83, no. 3 (1990): 187-200. Those on southern Illinois are Elliott Rudwick, Race Riot at East St. Louis, July 2, 1917 (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press 1964); Christopher Hays, "The African American Struggle for Equality and Justice in Cairo, Illinois 1865-1900," IHJ 90, no. 4 (1997): 265-84; Joanne Wheeler, "Together in Egypt: A Pattern of Race Relations in Cairo, Illinois, 1865-1915," in Orville Vernon Burton and Robert C. McMath Jr., eds., Toward a New South? Studies in Post-Civil War Southern Communities (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1982), 103-34; Shirley J. Carlson (Portwood), "Family and Household in a Black Community in Southern Illinois," International Journal of Sociology of the Family 18 (autumn 1988); Johnetta Y. Jones, "Black Land Tenancy in Extreme Southern Illinois, 1820-1920," in Selected Papers in Illinois History, 1980 (Springfield: Illinois State Historical Society, 1982).
68. Union Baptist Church, "Historical Sketch of the Union Baptist Church, Especially Prepared for the Centennial, June 20-27, 1937, Marking One Hundred Years of Christian Service." Harry B. Coats, one of the leaders in the Alton School Case, was the general chairman of the Centennial Committee. Wood River Colored Baptist Association, "Minutes of the Wood River Colored Baptist Association," 1860-1910; Alton City Directory, 1898-1910. The Alton Evening Telegraph, March 3, 1898, p. 3, col. 4, reports the results of the special school census. United States Census Bureau, Population Schedules, Madison County, Illinois, 1850, 1860, 1880, 1900, 1910; United States Census Bureau, The Negro Population in the United States, 1790-1915 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1918), 96-7, 480-81, gives the 1900 black population of Alton as 896. Thus, what appears as a slight decline in the black population between 1898 and 1910 may be a result of two different methods of collecting the data. Jack S. Blocker Jr., "Patterns of African-American Migration in Illinois, 1860-1930" (paper presented at the Second Conference on "African Americans in Illinois History," Southern Illinois University Edwardsville, April 1998); James Grossman, Land of Hope: Chicago, Black Southerners, and the Great Migration (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989).
69. Union Baptist Church, "Historical Sketch of the Union Baptist Church, Especially Prepared for the Centennial, June 20-27, 1937, Marking One Hundred Years of Christian Service." Harry B. Coats, one of the leaders in the Alton School Case, was the general chairman of the Centennial Committee. Wood River Colored Baptist Association, "Minutes of the Wood River Colored Baptist Association," 1860-1910; Alton City Directory, 1898-1910. The Alton Evening Telegraph, March 3, 1898, p. 3, col. 4, reports the results of the special school census. United States Census Bureau, Population Schedules, Madison County, Illinois, 1850, 1860, 1880, 1900, 1910; United States Census Bureau, The Negro Population in the United States, 1790-1915 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1918), 96-7, 480-81, gives the 1900 black population of Alton as 896. Thus, what appears as a slight decline in the black population between 1898 and 1910 may be a result of two different methods of collecting the data. Jack S. Blocker Jr., "Patterns of African-American Migration in Illinois, 1860-1930" (paper presented at the Second Conference on "African Americans in Illinois History," Southern Illinois University Edwardsville, April 1998); James Grossman, Land of Hope: Chicago, Black Southerners, and the Great Migration (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989).
70. Union Baptist Church, "Historical Sketch of the Union Baptist Church, Especially Prepared for the Centennial, June 20-27, 1937, Marking One Hundred Years of Christian Service." Harry B. Coats, one of the leaders in the Alton School Case, was the general chairman of the Centennial Committee. Wood River Colored Baptist Association, "Minutes of the Wood River Colored Baptist Association," 1860-1910; Alton City Directory, 1898-1910. The Alton Evening Telegraph, March 3, 1898, p. 3, col. 4, reports the results of the special school census. United States Census Bureau, Population Schedules, Madison County, Illinois, 1850, 1860, 1880, 1900, 1910; United States Census Bureau, The Negro Population in the United States, 1790-1915 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1918), 96-7, 480-81, gives the 1900 black population of Alton as 896. Thus, what appears as a slight decline in the black population between 1898 and 1910 may be a result of two different methods of collecting the data. Jack S. Blocker Jr., "Patterns of African-American Migration in Illinois, 1860-1930" (paper presented at the Second Conference on "African Americans in Illinois History," Southern Illinois University Edwardsville, April 1998); James Grossman, Land of Hope: Chicago, Black Southerners, and the Great Migration (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989).
71. Union Baptist Church, "Historical Sketch of the Union Baptist Church, Especially Prepared for the Centennial, June 20-27, 1937, Marking One Hundred Years of Christian Service." Harry B. Coats, one of the leaders in the Alton School Case, was the general chairman of the Centennial Committee. Wood River Colored Baptist Association, "Minutes of the Wood River Colored Baptist Association," 1860-1910; Alton City Directory, 1898-1910. The Alton Evening Telegraph, March 3, 1898, p. 3, col. 4, reports the results of the special school census. United States Census Bureau, Population Schedules, Madison County, Illinois, 1850, 1860, 1880, 1900, 1910; United States Census Bureau, The Negro Population in the United States, 1790-1915 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1918), 96-7, 480-81, gives the 1900 black population of Alton as 896. Thus, what appears as a slight decline in the black population between 1898 and 1910 may be a result of two different methods of collecting the data. Jack S. Blocker Jr., "Patterns of African-American Migration in Illinois, 1860-1930" (paper presented at the Second Conference on "African Americans in Illinois History," Southern Illinois University Edwardsville, April 1998); James Grossman, Land of Hope: Chicago, Black Southerners, and the Great Migration (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989).
72. Union Baptist Church, "Historical Sketch of the Union Baptist Church, Especially Prepared for the Centennial, June 20-27, 1937, Marking One Hundred Years of Christian Service." Harry B. Coats, one of the leaders in the Alton School Case, was the general chairman of the Centennial Committee. Wood River Colored Baptist Association, "Minutes of the Wood River Colored Baptist Association," 1860-1910; Alton City Directory, 1898-1910. The Alton Evening Telegraph, March 3, 1898, p. 3, col. 4, reports the results of the special school census. United States Census Bureau, Population Schedules, Madison County, Illinois, 1850, 1860, 1880, 1900, 1910; United States Census Bureau, The Negro Population in the United States, 1790-1915 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1918), 96-7, 480-81, gives the 1900 black population of Alton as 896. Thus, what appears as a slight decline in the black population between 1898 and 1910 may be a result of two different methods of collecting the data. Jack S. Blocker Jr., "Patterns of African-American Migration in Illinois, 1860-1930" (paper presented at the Second Conference on "African Americans in Illinois History," Southern Illinois University Edwardsville, April 1998); James Grossman, Land of Hope: Chicago, Black Southerners, and the Great Migration (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989).
73. Union Baptist Church, "Historical Sketch of the Union Baptist Church, Especially Prepared for the Centennial, June 20-27, 1937, Marking One Hundred Years of Christian Service." Harry B. Coats, one of the leaders in the Alton School Case, was the general chairman of the Centennial Committee. Wood River Colored Baptist Association, "Minutes of the Wood River Colored Baptist Association," 1860-1910; Alton City Directory, 1898-1910. The Alton Evening Telegraph, March 3, 1898, p. 3, col. 4, reports the results of the special school census. United States Census Bureau, Population Schedules, Madison County, Illinois, 1850, 1860, 1880, 1900, 1910; United States Census Bureau, The Negro Population in the United States, 1790-1915 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1918), 96-7, 480-81, gives the 1900 black population of Alton as 896. Thus, what appears as a slight decline in the black population between 1898 and 1910 may be a result of two different methods of collecting the data. Jack S. Blocker Jr., "Patterns of African-American Migration in Illinois, 1860-1930" (paper presented at the Second Conference on "African Americans in Illinois History," Southern Illinois University Edwardsville, April 1998); James Grossman, Land of Hope: Chicago, Black Southerners, and the Great Migration (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989).
74. Union Baptist Church, "Historical Sketch of the Union Baptist Church, Especially Prepared for the Centennial, June 20-27, 1937, Marking One Hundred Years of Christian Service." Harry B. Coats, one of the leaders in the Alton School Case, was the general chairman of the Centennial Committee. Wood River Colored Baptist Association, "Minutes of the Wood River Colored Baptist Association," 1860-1910; Alton City Directory, 1898-1910. The Alton Evening Telegraph, March 3, 1898, p. 3, col. 4, reports the results of the special school census. United States Census Bureau, Population Schedules, Madison County, Illinois, 1850, 1860, 1880, 1900, 1910; United States Census Bureau, The Negro Population in the United States, 1790-1915 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1918), 96-7, 480-81, gives the 1900 black population of Alton as 896. Thus, what appears as a slight decline in the black population between 1898 and 1910 may be a result of two different methods of collecting the data. Jack S. Blocker Jr., "Patterns of African-American Migration in Illinois, 1860-1930" (paper presented at the Second Conference on "African Americans in Illinois History," Southern Illinois University Edwardsville, April 1998); James Grossman, Land of Hope: Chicago, Black Southerners, and the Great Migration (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989).
75. Union Baptist Church, "Historical Sketch of the Union Baptist Church, Especially Prepared for the Centennial, June 20-27, 1937, Marking One Hundred Years of Christian Service." Harry B. Coats, one of the leaders in the Alton School Case, was the general chairman of the Centennial Committee. Wood River Colored Baptist Association, "Minutes of the Wood River Colored Baptist Association," 1860-1910; Alton City Directory, 1898-1910. The Alton Evening Telegraph, March 3, 1898, p. 3, col. 4, reports the results of the special school census. United States Census Bureau, Population Schedules, Madison County, Illinois, 1850, 1860, 1880, 1900, 1910; United States Census Bureau, The Negro Population in the United States, 1790-1915 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1918), 96-7, 480-81, gives the 1900 black population of Alton as 896. Thus, what appears as a slight decline in the black population between 1898 and 1910 may be a result of two different methods of collecting the data. Jack S. Blocker Jr., "Patterns of African-American Migration in Illinois, 1860-1930" (paper presented at the Second Conference on "African Americans in Illinois History," Southern Illinois University Edwardsville, April 1998); James Grossman, Land of Hope: Chicago, Black Southerners, and the Great Migration (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989).
76. Population Schedules, Madison County, Illinois, 1850, 1860, 1880, 1900, 1910; Alton City Directory, 1858-1910. African American newspapers frequently discussed the holdings of blacks, including those in Alton. See, for example, State Capitol (Springfield), 1891-1892; Illinois Record (Springfield), 1897-1899; Forum (Springfield), 1903-1908.
77. Population Schedules, Madison County, Illinois, 1850, 1860, 1880, 1900, 1910; Alton City Directory, 1858-1910. African American newspapers frequently discussed the holdings of blacks, including those in Alton. See, for example, State Capitol (Springfield), 1891-1892; Illinois Record (Springfield), 1897-1899; Forum (Springfield), 1903-1908.
78. Population Schedules, Madison County, Illinois, 1850, 1860, 1880, 1900, 1910; Alton City Directory, 1858-1910. African American newspapers frequently discussed the holdings of blacks, including those in Alton. See, for example, State Capitol (Springfield), 1891-1892; Illinois Record (Springfield), 1897-1899; Forum (Springfield), 1903-1908.
79. Population Schedules, Madison County, Illinois, 1850, 1860, 1880, 1900, 1910; Alton City Directory, 1858-1910. African American newspapers frequently discussed the holdings of blacks, including those in Alton. See, for example, State Capitol (Springfield), 1891-1892; Illinois Record (Springfield), 1897-1899; Forum (Springfield), 1903-1908.
80. Population Schedules, Madison County, Illinois, 1850, 1860, 1880, 1900, 1910; Alton City Directory, 1858-1910. African American newspapers frequently discussed the holdings of blacks, including those in Alton. See, for example, State Capitol (Springfield), 1891-1892; Illinois Record (Springfield), 1897-1899; Forum (Springfield), 1903-1908.
81. Tera Hunter, To 'Joy My Freedom: Southern Black Women's Lives and Labors after the Civil War (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1997); Allan Spear, Black Chicago: The Making of a Negro Ghetto, 1890-1930 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1967); Kenneth L. Kusmer, A Ghetto Takes Shape: Black Cleveland, 1870-1930 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1976).
82. Tera Hunter, To 'Joy My Freedom: Southern Black Women's Lives and Labors after the Civil War (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1997); Allan Spear, Black Chicago: The Making of a Negro Ghetto, 1890-1930 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1967); Kenneth L. Kusmer, A Ghetto Takes Shape: Black Cleveland, 1870-1930 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1976).
83. Tera Hunter, To 'Joy My Freedom: Southern Black Women's Lives and Labors after the Civil War (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1997); Allan Spear, Black Chicago: The Making of a Negro Ghetto, 1890-1930 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1967); Kenneth L. Kusmer, A Ghetto Takes Shape: Black Cleveland, 1870-1930 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1976).
84. Union Baptist, "Historical Sketch"; Wood River Colored Baptist Association, "Minutes," 1860-1910; Alton City Directories for 1890-1910; Elizabeth Lindsay Davis, The Story of the Illinois Federation of Colored Women's Clubs, 1900-1922 (Chicago, 1922), lists no women's clubs in Alton that were affiliated with that organization; Palladium (St. Louis), May 23, 1903, p. 1, col. 4.
85. Union Baptist, "Historical Sketch"; Wood River Colored Baptist Association, "Minutes," 1860-1910; Alton City Directories for 1890-1910; Elizabeth Lindsay Davis, The Story of the Illinois Federation of Colored Women's Clubs, 1900-1922 (Chicago, 1922), lists no women's clubs in Alton that were affiliated with that organization; Palladium (St. Louis), May 23, 1903, p. 1, col. 4.
86. Union Baptist, "Historical Sketch"; Wood River Colored Baptist Association, "Minutes," 1860-1910; Alton City Directories for 1890-1910; Elizabeth Lindsay Davis, The Story of the Illinois Federation of Colored Women's Clubs, 1900-1922 (Chicago, 1922), lists no women's clubs in Alton that were affiliated with that organization; Palladium (St. Louis), May 23, 1903, p. 1, col. 4.
87. Union Baptist, "Historical Sketch"; Wood River Colored Baptist Association, "Minutes," 1860-1910; Alton City Directories for 1890-1910; Elizabeth Lindsay Davis, The Story of the Illinois Federation of Colored Women's Clubs, 1900-1922 (Chicago, 1922), lists no women's clubs in Alton that were affiliated with that organization; Palladium (St. Louis), May 23, 1903, p. 1, col. 4.
88. Union Baptist, "Historical Sketch"; Wood River Colored Baptist Association, "Minutes," 1860-1910; Alton City Directories for 1890-1910; Elizabeth Lindsay Davis, The Story of the Illinois Federation of Colored Women's Clubs, 1900-1922 (Chicago, 1922), lists no women's clubs in Alton that were affiliated with that organization; Palladium (St. Louis), May 23, 1903, p. 1, col. 4.
89. Willard B. Gatewood, Aristocrats of Color: The Black Elite, 1880-1920 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990) argues that the black elite often separated themselves from other blacks, preferring to socialize among themselves and with whites. Clearly, Alton does not fit this pattern as virtually all blacks were apt to have social relationships with each other. Meier and Rudwick, "Early Boycotts of Segregated Schools," address the issue of community unity among blacks in Alton: "Equally noteworthy was the unity Bibb and his associates were able to forge and maintain within the Negro community for all these years" (p. 396). They note that by 1908, black community support was waning (pp. 400-401).
90. Willard B. Gatewood, Aristocrats of Color: The Black Elite, 1880-1920 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990) argues that the black elite often separated themselves from other blacks, preferring to socialize among themselves and with whites. Clearly, Alton does not fit this pattern as virtually all blacks were apt to have social relationships with each other. Meier and Rudwick, "Early Boycotts of Segregated Schools," address the issue of community unity among blacks in Alton: "Equally noteworthy was the unity Bibb and his associates were able to forge and maintain within the Negro community for all these years" (p. 396). They note that by 1908, black community support was waning (pp. 400-401).
91. Alton City Directory, 1858-1910; Population Schedules, Madison County, Illinois, Alton, 1850-1910; Alton Evening Telegraph, 1850-1910; State Capital (Springfield), 1891-99; Illinois Record (Springfield), 1897-1899.
92. Alton City Directory, 1858-1910; Population Schedules, Madison County, Illinois, Alton, 1850-1910; Alton Evening Telegraph, 1850-1910; State Capital (Springfield), 1891-99; Illinois Record (Springfield), 1897-1899.
93. Alton City Directory, 1858-1910; Population Schedules, Madison County, Illinois, Alton, 1850-1910; Alton Evening Telegraph, 1850-1910; State Capital (Springfield), 1891-99; Illinois Record (Springfield), 1897-1899.
94. Alton City Directory, 1858-1910; Population Schedules, Madison County, Illinois, Alton, 1850-1910; Alton Evening Telegraph, 1850-1910; State Capital (Springfield), 1891-99; Illinois Record (Springfield), 1897-1899.
95. Alton City Directory, 1858-1910; Population Schedules, Madison County, Illinois, Alton, 1850-1910; Alton Evening Telegraph, 1850-1910; State Capital (Springfield), 1891-99; Illinois Record (Springfield), 1897-1899.
96. Meier and Rudwick, "Early Boycotts of Segregated Schools," 396.
97. Alton City Directory, 1893-1894, 7; Population Schedules, Madison County, Illinois, 1900, Alton, 73A; Illinois Record (Springfield), October 8, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; February 18, 1899, p. 3, col. 1; March 4, 1899, p. 3, cols. 1-2; March 11, 1899, p. 3, cols. 1-2; April 1, 1899, p. 3, col. 1; April 15, 1899, p. 3, col. 1.
98. Alton City Directory, 1893-1894, 7; Population Schedules, Madison County, Illinois, 1900, Alton, 73A; Illinois Record (Springfield), October 8, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; February 18, 1899, p. 3, col. 1; March 4, 1899, p. 3, cols. 1-2; March 11, 1899, p. 3, cols. 1-2; April 1, 1899, p. 3, col. 1; April 15, 1899, p. 3, col. 1.
99. Alton City Directory, 1893-1894, 7; Population Schedules, Madison County, Illinois, 1900, Alton, 73A; Illinois Record (Springfield), October 8, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; February 18, 1899, p. 3, col. 1; March 4, 1899, p. 3, cols. 1-2; March 11, 1899, p. 3, cols. 1-2; April 1, 1899, p. 3, col. 1; April 15, 1899, p. 3, col. 1.
100. Illinois Record (Springfield), May 21, 1898, p. 3, col. 1 ; September 17, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; Alton City Directory, 1899-1900, 183-84; Alton City Directory, 1909-1902, 190; Alton City Directory, 1902-1903, 20; Population Schedules, Madison County, Illinois, 1900, Alton, 50A. Katherine Dunham, A Touch of Innocence: Memoirs of Childhood (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994. Originally published, 1959) indicates that Annette Poindexter [Dunham] became her stepmother years after the Alton School Case. Dunham's memoir contains considerable discussion of Annette Poindexter Dunham's life in the post-Alton School Case era.
101. Illinois Record (Springfield), May 21, 1898, p. 3, col. 1 ; September 17, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; Alton City Directory, 1899-1900, 183-84; Alton City Directory, 1909-1902, 190; Alton City Directory, 1902-1903, 20; Population Schedules, Madison County, Illinois, 1900, Alton, 50A. Katherine Dunham, A Touch of Innocence: Memoirs of Childhood (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994. Originally published, 1959) indicates that Annette Poindexter [Dunham] became her stepmother years after the Alton School Case. Dunham's memoir contains considerable discussion of Annette Poindexter Dunham's life in the post-Alton School Case era.
102. Illinois Record (Springfield), May 21, 1898, p. 3, col. 1 ; September 17, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; Alton City Directory, 1899-1900, 183-84; Alton City Directory, 1909-1902, 190; Alton City Directory, 1902-1903, 20; Population Schedules, Madison County, Illinois, 1900, Alton, 50A. Katherine Dunham, A Touch of Innocence: Memoirs of Childhood (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994. Originally published, 1959) indicates that Annette Poindexter [Dunham] became her stepmother years after the Alton School Case. Dunham's memoir contains considerable discussion of Annette Poindexter Dunham's life in the post-Alton School Case era.
103. Illinois Record (Springfield), May 21, 1898, p. 3, col. 1 ; September 17, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; Alton City Directory, 1899-1900, 183-84; Alton City Directory, 1909-1902, 190; Alton City Directory, 1902-1903, 20; Population Schedules, Madison County, Illinois, 1900, Alton, 50A. Katherine Dunham, A Touch of Innocence: Memoirs of Childhood (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994. Originally published, 1959) indicates that Annette Poindexter [Dunham] became her stepmother years after the Alton School Case. Dunham's memoir contains considerable discussion of Annette Poindexter Dunham's life in the post-Alton School Case era.
104. Illinois Record (Springfield), May 21, 1898, p. 3, col. 1 ; September 17, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; Alton City Directory, 1899-1900, 183-84; Alton City Directory, 1909-1902, 190; Alton City Directory, 1902-1903, 20; Population Schedules, Madison County, Illinois, 1900, Alton, 50A. Katherine Dunham, A Touch of Innocence: Memoirs of Childhood (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994. Originally published, 1959) indicates that Annette Poindexter [Dunham] became her stepmother years after the Alton School Case. Dunham's memoir contains considerable discussion of Annette Poindexter Dunham's life in the post-Alton School Case era.
105. Illinois Record (Springfield), May 21, 1898, p. 3, col. 1 ; September 17, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; Alton City Directory, 1899-1900, 183-84; Alton City Directory, 1909-1902, 190; Alton City Directory, 1902-1903, 20; Population Schedules, Madison County, Illinois, 1900, Alton, 50A. Katherine Dunham, A Touch of Innocence: Memoirs of Childhood (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994. Originally published, 1959) indicates that Annette Poindexter [Dunham] became her stepmother years after the Alton School Case. Dunham's memoir contains considerable discussion of Annette Poindexter Dunham's life in the post-Alton School Case era.
106. Illinois Record (Springfield), April 23, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; May 14, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; June 25, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; August 6, 1898, p. 3, col. 2; October 8, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; November 5, 1898, p. 3, col. 2; December 3, 1898, p. 3, col. 2 and p. 3, col. 3; December 10, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; December 17, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; January 28, 1899, p. 3, col. 1; February 11, 1899, p. 3, cols. 1-2; February 18, 1899, p. 3, col. 1; February 18, 1899, p. 3, cols. 1-2; February 25, p. 3, col. 1 and p. 3, col. 2; March 11, 1899, p. 3, col. 1; March 25, 1899, p. 3, col. 2; April 1, 1899, p. 3, cols. 1-2; April 8,1899, p. 3, col. 1; Alton City Directories, 1890-1910; Population Schedules, Madison County, Illinois, 1900-1910; People v. City of Alton, Transcript.
107. Illinois Record (Springfield), April 23, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; May 14, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; June 25, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; August 6, 1898, p. 3, col. 2; October 8, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; November 5, 1898, p. 3, col. 2; December 3, 1898, p. 3, col. 2 and p. 3, col. 3; December 10, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; December 17, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; January 28, 1899, p. 3, col. 1; February 11, 1899, p. 3, cols. 1-2; February 18, 1899, p. 3, col. 1; February 18, 1899, p. 3, cols. 1-2; February 25, p. 3, col. 1 and p. 3, col. 2; March 11, 1899, p. 3, col. 1; March 25, 1899, p. 3, col. 2; April 1, 1899, p. 3, cols. 1-2; April 8,1899, p. 3, col. 1; Alton City Directories, 1890-1910; Population Schedules, Madison County, Illinois, 1900-1910; People v. City of Alton, Transcript.
108. Illinois Record (Springfield), April 23, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; May 14, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; June 25, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; August 6, 1898, p. 3, col. 2; October 8, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; November 5, 1898, p. 3, col. 2; December 3, 1898, p. 3, col. 2 and p. 3, col. 3; December 10, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; December 17, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; January 28, 1899, p. 3, col. 1; February 11, 1899, p. 3, cols. 1-2; February 18, 1899, p. 3, col. 1; February 18, 1899, p. 3, cols. 1-2; February 25, p. 3, col. 1 and p. 3, col. 2; March 11, 1899, p. 3, col. 1; March 25, 1899, p. 3, col. 2; April 1, 1899, p. 3, cols. 1-2; April 8,1899, p. 3, col. 1; Alton City Directories, 1890-1910; Population Schedules, Madison County, Illinois, 1900-1910; People v. City of Alton, Transcript.
109. Illinois Record (Springfield), April 23, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; May 14, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; June 25, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; August 6, 1898, p. 3, col. 2; October 8, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; November 5, 1898, p. 3, col. 2; December 3, 1898, p. 3, col. 2 and p. 3, col. 3; December 10, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; December 17, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; January 28, 1899, p. 3, col. 1; February 11, 1899, p. 3, cols. 1-2; February 18, 1899, p. 3, col. 1; February 18, 1899, p. 3, cols. 1-2; February 25, p. 3, col. 1 and p. 3, col. 2; March 11, 1899, p. 3, col. 1; March 25, 1899, p. 3, col. 2; April 1, 1899, p. 3, cols. 1-2; April 8,1899, p. 3, col. 1; Alton City Directories, 1890-1910; Population Schedules, Madison County, Illinois, 1900-1910; People v. City of Alton, Transcript.
110. James Henry Magee, The Night of Affliction and Morning of Recovery: An Autobiography (1873; reprint, Miami, FL: Mnemoyne, 1969), 143-45; James Henry Magee, High Thoughts and Aims Reach High and Noble Things (Springfield, IL, n.d.), 5-7; Union Baptist Church, "Historical Sketch," 9-11.
111. James Henry Magee, The Night of Affliction and Morning of Recovery: An Autobiography (1873; reprint, Miami, FL: Mnemoyne, 1969), 143-45; James Henry Magee, High Thoughts and Aims Reach High and Noble Things (Springfield, IL, n.d.), 5-7; Union Baptist Church, "Historical Sketch," 9-11.
112. James Henry Magee, The Night of Affliction and Morning of Recovery: An Autobiography (1873; reprint, Miami, FL: Mnemoyne, 1969), 143-45; James Henry Magee, High Thoughts and Aims Reach High and Noble Things (Springfield, IL, n.d.), 5-7; Union Baptist Church, "Historical Sketch," 9-11.
113. Alton City Directory, 1899-1900, 58, 90, 131, 163; Alton City Directory, 1902-1903, 31, 52, 55, 63; Alton City Directory, 1906-1907, 72; Alton City Directory, 1908-1909, 73; People v. City of Alton, 26-27; State Capital (Springfield), August 20, 1892, p. 1, col. 5 and p. 4, col. 4; September 17, 1892, p. 1, col. 4; October 29, 1892, p. 1, cols. 6-7; December 3, 1892, p. 1, col. 3; Illinois Record (Springfield), February 26, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; April 2, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; July 23, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; July 2, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; July 9, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; January 7, 1899, p. 3, col. 1; August 20, 1892. Population Schedules, Madison County, Illinois, 1900; People v. City of Alton Case File, transcript.
114. Alton City Directory, 1899-1900, 58, 90, 131, 163; Alton City Directory, 1902-1903, 31, 52, 55, 63; Alton City Directory, 1906-1907, 72; Alton City Directory, 1908-1909, 73; People v. City of Alton, 26-27; State Capital (Springfield), August 20, 1892, p. 1, col. 5 and p. 4, col. 4; September 17, 1892, p. 1, col. 4; October 29, 1892, p. 1, cols. 6-7; December 3, 1892, p. 1, col. 3; Illinois Record (Springfield), February 26, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; April 2, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; July 23, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; July 2, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; July 9, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; January 7, 1899, p. 3, col. 1; August 20, 1892. Population Schedules, Madison County, Illinois, 1900; People v. City of Alton Case File, transcript.
115. Alton City Directory, 1899-1900, 58, 90, 131, 163; Alton City Directory, 1902-1903, 31, 52, 55, 63; Alton City Directory, 1906-1907, 72; Alton City Directory, 1908-1909, 73; People v. City of Alton, 26-27; State Capital (Springfield), August 20, 1892, p. 1, col. 5 and p. 4, col. 4; September 17, 1892, p. 1, col. 4; October 29, 1892, p. 1, cols. 6-7; December 3, 1892, p. 1, col. 3; Illinois Record (Springfield), February 26, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; April 2, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; July 23, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; July 2, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; July 9, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; January 7, 1899, p. 3, col. 1; August 20, 1892. Population Schedules, Madison County, Illinois, 1900; People v. City of Alton Case File, transcript.
116. Alton City Directory, 1899-1900, 58, 90, 131, 163; Alton City Directory, 1902-1903, 31, 52, 55, 63; Alton City Directory, 1906-1907, 72; Alton City Directory, 1908-1909, 73; People v. City of Alton, 26-27; State Capital (Springfield), August 20, 1892, p. 1, col. 5 and p. 4, col. 4; September 17, 1892, p. 1, col. 4; October 29, 1892, p. 1, cols. 6-7; December 3, 1892, p. 1, col. 3; Illinois Record (Springfield), February 26, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; April 2, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; July 23, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; July 2, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; July 9, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; January 7, 1899, p. 3, col. 1; August 20, 1892. Population Schedules, Madison County, Illinois, 1900; People v. City of Alton Case File, transcript.
117. Alton City Directory, 1899-1900, 58, 90, 131, 163; Alton City Directory, 1902-1903, 31, 52, 55, 63; Alton City Directory, 1906-1907, 72; Alton City Directory, 1908-1909, 73; People v. City of Alton, 26-27; State Capital (Springfield), August 20, 1892, p. 1, col. 5 and p. 4, col. 4; September 17, 1892, p. 1, col. 4; October 29, 1892, p. 1, cols. 6-7; December 3, 1892, p. 1, col. 3; Illinois Record (Springfield), February 26, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; April 2, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; July 23, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; July 2, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; July 9, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; January 7, 1899, p. 3, col. 1; August 20, 1892. Population Schedules, Madison County, Illinois, 1900; People v. City of Alton Case File, transcript.
118. Alton City Directory, 1899-1900, 58, 90, 131, 163; Alton City Directory, 1902-1903, 31, 52, 55, 63; Alton City Directory, 1906-1907, 72; Alton City Directory, 1908-1909, 73; People v. City of Alton, 26-27; State Capital (Springfield), August 20, 1892, p. 1, col. 5 and p. 4, col. 4; September 17, 1892, p. 1, col. 4; October 29, 1892, p. 1, cols. 6-7; December 3, 1892, p. 1, col. 3; Illinois Record (Springfield), February 26, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; April 2, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; July 23, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; July 2, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; July 9, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; January 7, 1899, p. 3, col. 1; August 20, 1892. Population Schedules, Madison County, Illinois, 1900; People v. City of Alton Case File, transcript.
119. Alton City Directory, 1899-1900, 58, 90, 131, 163; Alton City Directory, 1902-1903, 31, 52, 55, 63; Alton City Directory, 1906-1907, 72; Alton City Directory, 1908-1909, 73; People v. City of Alton, 26-27; State Capital (Springfield), August 20, 1892, p. 1, col. 5 and p. 4, col. 4; September 17, 1892, p. 1, col. 4; October 29, 1892, p. 1, cols. 6-7; December 3, 1892, p. 1, col. 3; Illinois Record (Springfield), February 26, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; April 2, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; July 23, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; July 2, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; July 9, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; January 7, 1899, p. 3, col. 1; August 20, 1892. Population Schedules, Madison County, Illinois, 1900; People v. City of Alton Case File, transcript.
120. Alton City Directory, 1899-1900, 58, 90, 131, 163; Alton City Directory, 1902-1903, 31, 52, 55, 63; Alton City Directory, 1906-1907, 72; Alton City Directory, 1908-1909, 73; People v. City of Alton, 26-27; State Capital (Springfield), August 20, 1892, p. 1, col. 5 and p. 4, col. 4; September 17, 1892, p. 1, col. 4; October 29, 1892, p. 1, cols. 6-7; December 3, 1892, p. 1, col. 3; Illinois Record (Springfield), February 26, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; April 2, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; July 23, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; July 2, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; July 9, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; January 7, 1899, p. 3, col. 1; August 20, 1892. Population Schedules, Madison County, Illinois, 1900; People v. City of Alton Case File, transcript.
121. Alton City Directory, 1899-1900, 58, 90, 131, 163; Alton City Directory, 1902-1903, 31, 52, 55, 63; Alton City Directory, 1906-1907, 72; Alton City Directory, 1908-1909, 73; People v. City of Alton, 26-27; State Capital (Springfield), August 20, 1892, p. 1, col. 5 and p. 4, col. 4; September 17, 1892, p. 1, col. 4; October 29, 1892, p. 1, cols. 6-7; December 3, 1892, p. 1, col. 3; Illinois Record (Springfield), February 26, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; April 2, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; July 23, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; July 2, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; July 9, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; January 7, 1899, p. 3, col. 1; August 20, 1892. Population Schedules, Madison County, Illinois, 1900; People v. City of Alton Case File, transcript.
122. Palladium (St. Louis), March 7, 1903, p. 1, col. 4; May 23, 1903, p. 1, col. 4; Wood River Colored Baptist Association, "Minutes," September 3-4, 1908.
123. Palladium (St. Louis), March 7, 1903, p. 1, col. 4; May 23, 1903, p. 1, col. 4; Wood River Colored Baptist Association, "Minutes," September 3-4, 1908.
124. Alton Weekly Telegraph, June 7, 1861, p. 4, col. 6 , advertisement for Kelley's "City Baths"; Alton Evening Telegraph, January 20, 1912, p. 9, cols. 5-7; Alton City Directory, 1858, 85, 127; Alton City Directory, 1895-1896, front cover, advertisement for Kelley's barber shop.
125. Alton Weekly Telegraph, June 7, 1861, p. 4, col. 6 , advertisement for Kelley's "City Baths"; Alton Evening Telegraph, January 20, 1912, p. 9, cols. 5-7; Alton City Directory, 1858, 85, 127; Alton City Directory, 1895-1896, front cover, advertisement for Kelley's barber shop.
126. Alton Weekly Telegraph, June 7, 1861, p. 4, col. 6 , advertisement for Kelley's "City Baths"; Alton Evening Telegraph, January 20, 1912, p. 9, cols. 5-7; Alton City Directory, 1858, 85, 127; Alton City Directory, 1895-1896, front cover, advertisement for Kelley's barber shop.
127. Alton Weekly Telegraph, June 7, 1861, p. 4, col. 6 , advertisement for Kelley's "City Baths"; Alton Evening Telegraph, January 20, 1912, p. 9, cols. 5-7; Alton City Directory, 1858, 85, 127; Alton City Directory, 1895-1896, front cover, advertisement for Kelley's barber shop.
128. Alton Evening Telegraph, September 23, 1897, p. 5, col. 3.
129. Ibid., p. 7, col. 3.
130. Illinois Record (Springfield), November 6, 1897, p. 2, cols. 4-5; May 21, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; November 12, 1898, p. 3, col. 2. Some entries erroneously refer to Isaac H. Kelley as "J. H. Kelley." William Henry Grimshaw, History of Freemasonry among Colored in North America (New York: Broadway, 1903), 220.
131. Illinois Record (Springfield), November 6, 1897, p. 2, cols. 4-5; May 21, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; November 12, 1898, p. 3, col. 2. Some entries erroneously refer to Isaac H. Kelley as "J. H. Kelley." William Henry Grimshaw, History of Freemasonry among Colored in North America (New York: Broadway, 1903), 220.
132. Illinois Record (Springfield), November 6, 1897, p. 2, cols. 4-5; May 21, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; November 12, 1898, p. 3, col. 2. Some entries erroneously refer to Isaac H. Kelley as "J. H. Kelley." William Henry Grimshaw, History of Freemasonry among Colored in North America (New York: Broadway, 1903), 220.
133. Illinois Record, March 4, 1899, p. 3, cols. 1-2.
134. People v. City of Alton Case File, transcript, 91-2; Population Schedules, Madison County, Illinois, 1900, Alton, 85B; Alton City Directory, 1895-1896, 24; Alton City Directory, 1899-1900, 35; Alton City Directory, 1902-1903, 19; Alton City Directory, 1905-1906, 22; Alton City Directory, 1908-1909, 22.
135. People v. City of Alton Case File, transcript, 91-2; Population Schedules, Madison County, Illinois, 1900, Alton, 85B; Alton City Directory, 1895-1896, 24; Alton City Directory, 1899-1900, 35; Alton City Directory, 1902-1903, 19; Alton City Directory, 1905-1906, 22; Alton City Directory, 1908-1909, 22.
136. People v. City of Alton Case File, transcript, 91-2; Population Schedules, Madison County, Illinois, 1900, Alton, 85B; Alton City Directory, 1895-1896, 24; Alton City Directory, 1899-1900, 35; Alton City Directory, 1902-1903, 19; Alton City Directory, 1905-1906, 22; Alton City Directory, 1908-1909, 22.
137. People v. City of Alton Case File, transcript, 91-2; Population Schedules, Madison County, Illinois, 1900, Alton, 85B; Alton City Directory, 1895-1896, 24; Alton City Directory, 1899-1900, 35; Alton City Directory, 1902-1903, 19; Alton City Directory, 1905-1906, 22; Alton City Directory, 1908-1909, 22.
138. People v. City of Alton Case File, transcript, 91-2; Population Schedules, Madison County, Illinois, 1900, Alton, 85B; Alton City Directory, 1895-1896, 24; Alton City Directory, 1899-1900, 35; Alton City Directory, 1902-1903, 19; Alton City Directory, 1905-1906, 22; Alton City Directory, 1908-1909, 22.
139. People v. City of Alton Case File, transcript, 91-2; Population Schedules, Madison County, Illinois, 1900, Alton, 85B; Alton City Directory, 1895-1896, 24; Alton City Directory, 1899-1900, 35; Alton City Directory, 1902-1903, 19; Alton City Directory, 1905-1906, 22; Alton City Directory, 1908-1909, 22.
140. People v. City of Alton Case File, transcript, 91-2; Population Schedules, Madison County, Illinois, 1900, Alton, 85B; Alton City Directory, 1895-1896, 24; Alton City Directory, 1899-1900, 35; Alton City Directory, 1902-1903, 19; Alton City Directory, 1905-1906, 22; Alton City Directory, 1908-1909, 22.
141. Population Schedules, Madison County. Illinois, 1900, Alton, 138B; Alton City Directory, 1891-1892, 52; Alton City Directory, 1899-1900, 35; Alton City Directory, 1902-1903, 19, 34; Alton City Directory, 1905-1906, 22; Alton City Directory, 1906-1907, 22; Alton City Directory, 1908-1909, 22; Alton, Illinois, Board of Education, "Minutes, January 1898-January 1909," May 3, 1898, 7; May 2, 1899, 27; May 7, 1901, 75-6; numerous additional references to Florence Barbour and Frances Barbour.
142. Population Schedules, Madison County. Illinois, 1900, Alton, 138B; Alton City Directory, 1891-1892, 52; Alton City Directory, 1899-1900, 35; Alton City Directory, 1902-1903, 19, 34; Alton City Directory, 1905-1906, 22; Alton City Directory, 1906-1907, 22; Alton City Directory, 1908-1909, 22; Alton, Illinois, Board of Education, "Minutes, January 1898-January 1909," May 3, 1898, 7; May 2, 1899, 27; May 7, 1901, 75-6; numerous additional references to Florence Barbour and Frances Barbour.
143. Population Schedules, Madison County. Illinois, 1900, Alton, 138B; Alton City Directory, 1891-1892, 52; Alton City Directory, 1899-1900, 35; Alton City Directory, 1902-1903, 19, 34; Alton City Directory, 1905-1906, 22; Alton City Directory, 1906-1907, 22; Alton City Directory, 1908-1909, 22; Alton, Illinois, Board of Education, "Minutes, January 1898-January 1909," May 3, 1898, 7; May 2, 1899, 27; May 7, 1901, 75-6; numerous additional references to Florence Barbour and Frances Barbour.
144. Population Schedules, Madison County. Illinois, 1900, Alton, 138B; Alton City Directory, 1891-1892, 52; Alton City Directory, 1899-1900, 35; Alton City Directory, 1902-1903, 19, 34; Alton City Directory, 1905-1906, 22; Alton City Directory, 1906-1907, 22; Alton City Directory, 1908-1909, 22; Alton, Illinois, Board of Education, "Minutes, January 1898-January 1909," May 3, 1898, 7; May 2, 1899, 27; May 7, 1901, 75-6; numerous additional references to Florence Barbour and Frances Barbour.
145. Population Schedules, Madison County. Illinois, 1900, Alton, 138B; Alton City Directory, 1891-1892, 52; Alton City Directory, 1899-1900, 35; Alton City Directory, 1902-1903, 19, 34; Alton City Directory, 1905-1906, 22; Alton City Directory, 1906-1907, 22; Alton City Directory, 1908-1909, 22; Alton, Illinois, Board of Education, "Minutes, January 1898-January 1909," May 3, 1898, 7; May 2, 1899, 27; May 7, 1901, 75-6; numerous additional references to Florence Barbour and Frances Barbour.
146. Population Schedules, Madison County. Illinois, 1900, Alton, 138B; Alton City Directory, 1891-1892, 52; Alton City Directory, 1899-1900, 35; Alton City Directory, 1902-1903, 19, 34; Alton City Directory, 1905-1906, 22; Alton City Directory, 1906-1907, 22; Alton City Directory, 1908-1909, 22; Alton, Illinois, Board of Education, "Minutes, January 1898-January 1909," May 3, 1898, 7; May 2, 1899, 27; May 7, 1901, 75-6; numerous additional references to Florence Barbour and Frances Barbour.
147. Population Schedules, Madison County. Illinois, 1900, Alton, 138B; Alton City Directory, 1891-1892, 52; Alton City Directory, 1899-1900, 35; Alton City Directory, 1902-1903, 19, 34; Alton City Directory, 1905-1906, 22; Alton City Directory, 1906-1907, 22; Alton City Directory, 1908-1909, 22; Alton, Illinois, Board of Education, "Minutes, January 1898-January 1909," May 3, 1898, 7; May 2, 1899, 27; May 7, 1901, 75-6; numerous additional references to Florence Barbour and Frances Barbour.
148. Population Schedules, Madison County. Illinois, 1900, Alton, 138B; Alton City Directory, 1891-1892, 52; Alton City Directory, 1899-1900, 35; Alton City Directory, 1902-1903, 19, 34; Alton City Directory, 1905-1906, 22; Alton City Directory, 1906-1907, 22; Alton City Directory, 1908-1909, 22; Alton, Illinois, Board of Education, "Minutes, January 1898-January 1909," May 3, 1898, 7; May 2, 1899, 27; May 7, 1901, 75-6; numerous additional references to Florence Barbour and Frances Barbour.
149. People v. City of Alton Case File, "Testimony of Florence Barber [sic]" 91.
150. Union Baptist Church, "Historical Sketch," 23 ; Illinois Record (Springfield), April 2, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; April 23, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; May 7, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; December 10, 1898, p. 2, cols. 2-3; December 10, 1898, p. 3, col. 2; December 24,1898, p. 3, cols. 1 -2; March 25, 1899, p. 3, col. 1; Forum (Springfield), March 28, 1908, p. 7, col. 1; May 2, 1908, p. 2, cols. 3-4; September 12, 1908, p. 1, cols. 1-2.
151. Union Baptist Church, "Historical Sketch," 23 ; Illinois Record (Springfield), April 2, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; April 23, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; May 7, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; December 10, 1898, p. 2, cols. 2-3; December 10, 1898, p. 3, col. 2; December 24,1898, p. 3, cols. 1 -2; March 25, 1899, p. 3, col. 1; Forum (Springfield), March 28, 1908, p. 7, col. 1; May 2, 1908, p. 2, cols. 3-4; September 12, 1908, p. 1, cols. 1-2.
152. Union Baptist Church, "Historical Sketch," 23 ; Illinois Record (Springfield), April 2, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; April 23, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; May 7, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; December 10, 1898, p. 2, cols. 2-3; December 10, 1898, p. 3, col. 2; December 24,1898, p. 3, cols. 1 -2; March 25, 1899, p. 3, col. 1; Forum (Springfield), March 28, 1908, p. 7, col. 1; May 2, 1908, p. 2, cols. 3-4; September 12, 1908, p. 1, cols. 1-2.
153. Illinois Record (Springfield), July 16, 1898, p. 3, cols. 1-2.
154. Ida B. Wells spoke before a Chicago audience in February, 1902, for example. Brood Ax (Chicago), March 1, 1902, p. 1, col. 2. Porterand Hall were frequently on the lecture circuit on behalf of the School Case. For example, Illinois Record (Springfield), May 21, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; June 11, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; February 25, 1899, p. 3, col. 1.
155. Ida B. Wells spoke before a Chicago audience in February, 1902, for example. Brood Ax (Chicago), March 1, 1902, p. 1, col. 2. Porterand Hall were frequently on the lecture circuit on behalf of the School Case. For example, Illinois Record (Springfield), May 21, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; June 11, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; February 25, 1899, p. 3, col. 1.
156. Hunter, To 'Joy My Freedom, 169-85; White, Too Heavy a Load, 68-73.
157. Hunter, To 'Joy My Freedom, 169-85; White, Too Heavy a Load, 68-73.
158. Illinois Record (Springfield), June 25, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; July 2, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; July 23, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; Alton City Directory, 1893-1894, 7, has an advertisement for the Spread Eagle steamer.
159. Illinois Record (Springfield), June 25, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; July 2, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; July 23, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; Alton City Directory, 1893-1894, 7, has an advertisement for the Spread Eagle steamer.
160. Social and political activism of black women is discussed in a number of new works. See, for example, Wanda A. Hendricks, Gender, Race, and Politics in the Midwest: Black Club Women in Illinois (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1998); Deborah Gray White, Too Heavy a Load: Black Women in Defense of Themselves, 1894-1994 (New York; Norton, 1999); Stephanie J. Shaw, What a Woman Ought to Be and to Do: Black Professional Women Workers during the Jim Crow Era (Chicago; University of Chicago Press, 1996); Anne Meis Knupfer, Toward a Tenderer Humanity and a Nobler Womanhood: African American Women's Clubs in Turn-of-the-Century Chicago (New York: New York University Press, 1996); Rosalyn Terborg-Penn, African American Women in the Struggle for the Vote, 1850-1920 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1998); Glenda Elizabeth Gilmore, Women and the Politics of White Supremacy in North Carolina, 1896-1920 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996).
161. Social and political activism of black women is discussed in a number of new works. See, for example, Wanda A. Hendricks, Gender, Race, and Politics in the Midwest: Black Club Women in Illinois (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1998); Deborah Gray White, Too Heavy a Load: Black Women in Defense of Themselves, 1894-1994 (New York; Norton, 1999); Stephanie J. Shaw, What a Woman Ought to Be and to Do: Black Professional Women Workers during the Jim Crow Era (Chicago; University of Chicago Press, 1996); Anne Meis Knupfer, Toward a Tenderer Humanity and a Nobler Womanhood: African American Women's Clubs in Turn-of-the-Century Chicago (New York: New York University Press, 1996); Rosalyn Terborg-Penn, African American Women in the Struggle for the Vote, 1850-1920 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1998); Glenda Elizabeth Gilmore, Women and the Politics of White Supremacy in North Carolina, 1896-1920 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996).
162. Social and political activism of black women is discussed in a number of new works. See, for example, Wanda A. Hendricks, Gender, Race, and Politics in the Midwest: Black Club Women in Illinois (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1998); Deborah Gray White, Too Heavy a Load: Black Women in Defense of Themselves, 1894-1994 (New York; Norton, 1999); Stephanie J. Shaw, What a Woman Ought to Be and to Do: Black Professional Women Workers during the Jim Crow Era (Chicago; University of Chicago Press, 1996); Anne Meis Knupfer, Toward a Tenderer Humanity and a Nobler Womanhood: African American Women's Clubs in Turn-of-the-Century Chicago (New York: New York University Press, 1996); Rosalyn Terborg-Penn, African American Women in the Struggle for the Vote, 1850-1920 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1998); Glenda Elizabeth Gilmore, Women and the Politics of White Supremacy in North Carolina, 1896-1920 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996).
163. Social and political activism of black women is discussed in a number of new works. See, for example, Wanda A. Hendricks, Gender, Race, and Politics in
164. Social and political activism of black women is discussed in a number of new works. See, for example, Wanda A. Hendricks, Gender, Race, and Politics in the Midwest: Black Club Women in Illinois (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1998); Deborah Gray White, Too Heavy a Load: Black Women in Defense of Themselves, 1894-1994 (New York; Norton, 1999); Stephanie J. Shaw, What a Woman Ought to Be and to Do: Black Professional Women Workers during the Jim Crow Era (Chicago; University of Chicago Press, 1996); Anne Meis Knupfer, Toward a Tenderer Humanity and a Nobler Womanhood: African American Women's Clubs in Turn-of-the-Century Chicago (New York: New York University Press, 1996); Rosalyn Terborg-Penn, African American Women in the Struggle for the Vote, 1850-1920 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1998); Glenda Elizabeth Gilmore, Women and the Politics of White Supremacy in North Carolina, 1896-1920 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996).
165. Social and political activism of black women is discussed in a number of new works. See, for example, Wanda A. Hendricks, Gender, Race, and Politics in the Midwest: Black Club Women in Illinois (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1998); Deborah Gray White, Too Heavy a Load: Black Women in Defense of Themselves, 1894-1994 (New York; Norton, 1999); Stephanie J. Shaw, What a Woman Ought to Be and to Do: Black Professional Women Workers during the Jim Crow Era (Chicago; University of Chicago Press, 1996); Anne Meis Knupfer, Toward a Tenderer Humanity and a Nobler Womanhood: African American Women's Clubs in Turn-of-the-Century Chicago (New York: New York University Press, 1996); Rosalyn Terborg-Penn, African American Women in the Struggle for the Vote, 1850-1920 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1998); Glenda Elizabeth Gilmore, Women and the Politics of White Supremacy in North Carolina, 1896-1920 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996).
166. Illinois Record (Springfield), March 12, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; March 19, 1898, p. 3, cols. 1-2; May 21, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; June 4, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; June 11, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; June 18, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; June 25, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; July 23, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; July 30, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; August 6, 1898, p. 3, col. 2; December 10, 1898, p. 3, cols. 1-2; August 6, 1898, p. 3, col. 2; February 11, 1899, p. 3, col. 1, February 18, 1899, p. 3, col. 2. The column was written by Eugene Drew of the Citizens Committee.
167. People v. City of Alton, Case File. It is impossible to indicate the number of women who testified as some of the transcripts are unavailable. Lilah Giles, Harriet Pitts, and Louisa Miller were black women who testified for the plaintiffs in one trial. Florence Barbour testified for the defense.
168. Illinois Record (Springfield), December 10, 1898, p. 2, cols. 2-3; Emma Lou Thombrough, T. Thomas Fortune: Militant Journalist (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1971); Emma Lou Thornbrough, "The National Afro-American League, 1888-1908," Journal of Southern History 27 (November 1961): 494-512; Sundiata K. Cha-Jua, "Founded by Chance/Sustained by Courage: Black Power, Class, and Dependency in Brooklyn, Illinois, 1830-1915" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Missouri-Columbia, 1993, 274-86.
169. Illinois Record (Springfield), December 10, 1898, p. 2, cols. 2-3; Emma Lou Thombrough, T. Thomas Fortune: Militant Journalist (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1971); Emma Lou Thornbrough, "The National Afro-American League, 1888-1908," Journal of Southern History 27 (November 1961): 494-512; Sundiata K. Cha-Jua, "Founded by Chance/Sustained by Courage: Black Power, Class, and Dependency in Brooklyn, Illinois, 1830-1915" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Missouri-Columbia, 1993, 274-86.
170. Illinois Record (Springfield), December 10, 1898, p. 2, cols. 2-3; Emma Lou Thombrough, T. Thomas Fortune: Militant Journalist (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1971); Emma Lou Thornbrough, "The National Afro-American League, 1888-1908," Journal of Southern History 27 (November 1961): 494-512; Sundiata K. Cha-Jua, "Founded by Chance/Sustained by Courage: Black Power, Class, and Dependency in Brooklyn, Illinois, 1830-1915" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Missouri-Columbia, 1993, 274-86.
171. Illinois Record (Springfield), December 10, 1898, p. 2, cols. 2-3; Emma Lou Thombrough, T. Thomas Fortune: Militant Journalist (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1971); Emma Lou Thornbrough, "The National Afro-American League, 1888-1908," Journal of Southern History 27 (November 1961): 494-512; Sundiata K. Cha-Jua, "Founded by Chance/Sustained by Courage: Black Power, Class, and Dependency in Brooklyn, Illinois, 1830-1915" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Missouri-Columbia, 1993, 274-86.
172. Illinois Record (Springfield), December 4, 1897, 1.
173. Ibid., October 1,1898, 1, 3.
174. Cha-Jua, "Founded by Chance," 283-84; Illinois Record (Springfield), January 22,1898, p. 3, col. 2; March 26, 1898, p. 3, col. 1.
175. Cha-Jua, "Founded by Chance," 283-84; Illinois Record (Springfield), January 22,1898, p. 3, col. 2; March 26, 1898, p. 3, col. 1.
176. Illinois Record (Springfield), April 16, 1898, p. 3, col. 1.
177. Ibid., October 5, 1897, p. 1, col. 6; November 6, 1897, p. 1, col. 6 and p. 3, col. 1; November 13, 1897, p. 1, cols. 1-2; January 8, 1898, p. 1, col. 5 and p. 3, col. 3; April 16, 1898, p. 3, col. 2; December 10, 1898, p. 2, cols. 2-3 and p. 3, col. 1; May 21, 1898, p. 2, col. 2; Edwardsville Intelligencer, October 5, 1897, 1.
178. Ibid., October 5, 1897, p. 1, col. 6; November 6, 1897, p. 1, col. 6 and p. 3, col. 1; November 13, 1897, p. 1, cols. 1-2; January 8, 1898, p. 1, col. 5 and p. 3, col. 3; April 16, 1898, p. 3, col. 2; December 10, 1898, p. 2, cols. 2-3 and p. 3, col. 1; May 21, 1898, p. 2, col. 2; Edwardsville Intelligencer, October 5, 1897, 1.
179. Illinois Record (Springfield), December 3, 1898, p. 2, col. 3. Drew complained of the failure to collect adequate funds in the Illinois Record on April 16, 1898, p. 3, col. 2; December 10, 1898, p. 3, col. 1.
180. Illinois Record (Springfield), December 3, 1898, p. 2, col. 3. Drew complained of the failure to collect adequate funds in the Illinois Record on April 16, 1898, p. 3, col. 2; December 10, 1898, p. 3, col. 1.
181. Illinois Record (Springfield), December 10, 1898, p. 2, cols. 2-3. An earlier article in the paper on May 21, 1898, p. 2, col. 2, also raised questions about the Chicago committee's failure to send the money they had collected to the Alton School Committee. See also Illinois Record, May 21, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; July 9, 1898, p. 3, col. 1-3; July 30, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; December 3, 1898, p. 3, col. 2.
182. Illinois Record (Springfield), December 10, 1898, p. 2, cols. 2-3. An earlier article in the paper on May 21, 1898, p. 2, col. 2, also raised questions about the Chicago committee's failure to send the money they had collected to the Alton School Committee. See also Illinois Record, May 21, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; July 9, 1898, p. 3, col. 1-3; July 30, 1898, p. 3, col. 1; December 3, 1898, p. 3, col. 2.
183. Alton Evening Telegraph, November 20, 1897, 5; Alton Weekly Telegraph, November 254, 1897, 5; Illinois Record (Springfield), November 27, 1897; December 18, 1897, 3; April 30, 1898, 1, 4; September 3, 1898, 2; September 10, 1898, 2; October 1, 1898, 1-3; December 10, 1898, 2.
184. Alton Evening Telegraph, November 20, 1897, 5; Alton Weekly Telegraph, November 254, 1897, 5; Illinois Record (Springfield), November 27, 1897; December 18, 1897, 3; April 30, 1898, 1, 4; September 3, 1898, 2; September 10, 1898, 2; October 1, 1898, 1-3; December 10, 1898, 2.
185. Alton Evening Telegraph, November 20, 1897, 5; Alton Weekly Telegraph, November 254, 1897, 5; Illinois Record (Springfield), November 27, 1897; December 18, 1897, 3; April 30, 1898, 1, 4; September 3, 1898, 2; September 10, 1898, 2; October 1, 1898, 1-3; December 10, 1898, 2.
186. Illinois Record (Springfield), October 1, 1898, p. 1, col. 1.
187. Ibid., October 1, 1898, p. 1, cols. 1-2, p. 3, cols. 3-4; November 27, 1897.
188. Alton Weekly Telegraph, November 25, 1897, 5.
189. Testimony in the trials indicated that Mayor Brueggemann had ordered police officers to keep black children out of the white schools. See, for example, People v. City of Alton Case File, 1900, Transcript, 27-30, 48-51, 55-6, 60-3, 69-73. Furthermore, on September 14, 1897, the Alton City Council approved the Mayor's appointment of four special policemen "to be assigned to duty at the Alton Public Schools and the vicinity." City Council, "Proceedings, 1896-1908," September 14, 1897, 357. The St. Louis Post-Dispatch, September 24, 1897, p. 1, col. 2, quoted Mayor Brueggemann as indicating that "we [the city council and mayor] put policemen at the schools Thursday."
190. Testimony in the trials indicated that Mayor Brueggemann had ordered police officers to keep black children out of the white schools. See, for example, People v. City of Alton Case File, 1900, Transcript, 27-30, 48-51, 55-6, 60-3, 69-73. Furthermore, on September 14, 1897, the Alton City Council approved the Mayor's appointment of four special policemen "to be assigned to duty at the Alton Public Schools and the vicinity." City Council, "Proceedings, 1896-1908," September 14, 1897, 357. The St. Louis Post-Dispatch, September 24, 1897, p. 1, col. 2, quoted Mayor Brueggemann as indicating that "we [the city council and mayor] put policemen at the schools Thursday."
191. Testimony in the trials indicated that Mayor Brueggemann had ordered police officers to keep black children out of the white schools. See, for example, People v. City of Alton Case File, 1900, Transcript, 27-30, 48-51, 55-6, 60-3, 69-73. Furthermore, on September 14, 1897, the Alton City Council approved the Mayor's appointment of four special policemen "to be assigned to duty at the Alton Public Schools and the vicinity." City Council, "Proceedings, 1896-1908," September 14, 1897, 357. The St. Louis Post-Dispatch, September 24, 1897, p. 1, col. 2, quoted Mayor Brueggemann as indicating that "we [the city council and mayor] put policemen at the schools Thursday."
192. Alton, Illinois, City Council, "Proceedings of the City Council, 1896-1909."
193. Broad Ax (Chicago), June 20, 1908, p. 2, col. 4; Forum (Springfield), May 2, 1908, p. 1, cols. 1-2; May 9, 1908, p. 1, cols. 2-3; February 22, 1908, p. 8, col. 1; St. Louis Post-Dispatch, September 14, 1908, p. 1, col. 7; September 20, 1908, p. 2, col. 2; September 29, 1908, p. 2, col. 7; Alton Evening Telegraph, August 19, 1908, 1; August 26, 1908, 1; September 1, 1908, 1; September 2, 1908, 1; Septembers, 1908, 1; September 9, 1908, 1; September 10, 1908, 1; September 14, 1908, 1; September 15, 1908, 1; September 18, 1908, 1; September 19, 1908, 1; September 25, 1908, 1; September 29, 1908, 1.
194. Broad Ax (Chicago), June 20, 1908, p. 2, col. 4; Forum (Springfield), May 2, 1908, p. 1, cols. 1-2; May 9, 1908, p. 1, cols. 2-3; February 22, 1908, p. 8, col. 1; St. Louis Post-Dispatch, September 14, 1908, p. 1, col. 7; September 20, 1908, p. 2, col. 2; September 29, 1908, p. 2, col. 7; Alton Evening Telegraph, August 19, 1908, 1; August 26, 1908, 1; September 1, 1908, 1; September 2, 1908, 1; Septembers, 1908, 1; September 9, 1908, 1; September 10, 1908, 1; September 14, 1908, 1; September 15, 1908, 1; September 18, 1908, 1; September 19, 1908, 1; September 25, 1908, 1; September 29, 1908, 1.
195. Broad Ax (Chicago), June 20, 1908, p. 2, col. 4; Forum (Springfield), May 2, 1908, p. 1, cols. 1-2; May 9, 1908, p. 1, cols. 2-3; February 22, 1908, p. 8, col. 1; St. Louis Post-Dispatch, September 14, 1908, p. 1, col. 7; September 20, 1908, p. 2, col. 2; September 29, 1908, p. 2, col. 7; Alton Evening Telegraph, August 19, 1908, 1; August 26, 1908, 1; September 1, 1908, 1; September 2, 1908, 1; Septembers, 1908, 1; September 9, 1908, 1; September 10, 1908, 1; September 14, 1908, 1; September 15, 1908, 1; September 18, 1908, 1; September 19, 1908, 1; September 25, 1908, 1; September 29, 1908, 1.
196. Broad Ax (Chicago), June 20, 1908, p. 2, col. 4; Forum (Springfield), May 2, 1908, p. 1, cols. 1-2; May 9, 1908, p. 1, cols. 2-3; February 22, 1908, p. 8, col. 1; St. Louis Post-Dispatch, September 14, 1908, p. 1, col. 7; September 20, 1908, p. 2, col. 2; September 29, 1908, p. 2, col. 7; Alton Evening Telegraph, August 19, 1908, 1; August 26, 1908, 1; September 1, 1908, 1; September 2, 1908, 1; Septembers, 1908, 1; September 9, 1908, 1; September 10, 1908, 1; September 14, 1908, 1; September 15, 1908, 1; September 18, 1908, 1; September 19, 1908, 1; September 25, 1908, 1; September 29, 1908, 1.
197. Alfreda M. Duster, ed. Crusade for Justice: The Autobiography of Ida B. Wells (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970), 309-10; Armfield, "Fires on the Prairie"; Cha-Jua, "Join Hands and Hearts with Law and Order," and "A Warlike Demonstration"; Senechal, The Sociogenesis of a Race Riot; Linda O. McMurry, To Keep the Waters Troubled: The Life of Ida B. Wells (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1998), 283-84.
198. Alfreda M. Duster, ed. Crusade for Justice: The Autobiography of Ida B. Wells (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970), 309-10; Armfield, "Fires on the Prairie"; Cha-Jua, "Join Hands and Hearts with Law and Order," and "A Warlike Demonstration"; Senechal, The Sociogenesis of a Race Riot; Linda O. McMurry, To Keep the Waters Troubled: The Life of Ida B. Wells (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1998), 283-84.
199. Alfreda M. Duster, ed. Crusade for Justice: The Autobiography of Ida B. Wells (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970), 309-10; Armfield, "Fires on the Prairie"; Cha-Jua, "Join Hands and Hearts with Law and Order," and "A Warlike Demonstration"; Senechal, The Sociogenesis of a Race Riot; Linda O. McMurry, To Keep the Waters Troubled: The Life of Ida B. Wells (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1998), 283-84.
200. Alfreda M. Duster, ed. Crusade for Justice: The Autobiography of Ida B. Wells (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970), 309-10; Armfield, "Fires on the Prairie"; Cha-Jua, "Join Hands and Hearts with Law and Order," and "A Warlike Demonstration"; Senechal, The Sociogenesis of a Race Riot; Linda O. McMurry, To Keep the Waters Troubled: The Life of Ida B. Wells (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1998), 283-84.
201. Alfreda M. Duster, ed. Crusade for Justice: The Autobiography of Ida B. Wells (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970), 309-10; Armfield, "Fires on the Prairie"; Cha-Jua, "Join Hands and Hearts with Law and Order," and "A Warlike Demonstration"; Senechal, The Sociogenesis of a Race Riot; Linda O. McMurry, To Keep the Waters Troubled: The Life of Ida B. Wells (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1998), 283-84.
202. Alfreda M. Duster, ed. Crusade for Justice: The Autobiography of Ida B. Wells (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970), 309-10; Armfield, "Fires on the Prairie"; Cha-Jua, "Join Hands and Hearts with Law and Order," and "A Warlike Demonstration"; Senechal, The Sociogenesis of a Race Riot; Linda O. McMurry, To Keep the Waters Troubled: The Life of Ida B. Wells (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1998), 283-84.
203. Meier and Rudwick, 399-401.
204. Alton Evening Telegraph, August 19, 1908, p. 1, cols. 6-7.
205. Ibid., September 18, 1908, p. 1, col. 2.