Folk, faith and fatherland: Defining the Polish nation in 1883

Nationalities Papers

Volumn 28, Issue 3, 2000, Pages 397-416

  Dabrowski, Patrice M ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

NATIONAL IDENTITY; NINETEENTH CENTURY; RELIGION;

POLAND;

EID: 0033753175     PISSN: 00905992     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/713687474     Document Type: Article

References (102)

1. Viscount [Edgar Vincent] D'Abernon, The Eighteenth Decisive Battle of the World: Warsaw, 1920 (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1931), p. 11.
2. For more on other monuments erected in Sobieski's honor in 1883, see Patrice M. Dabrowski, "Reinventing Poland: Commemorations and the Shaping of the Modern Nation, 1879-1914" (Ph.D. dissertation, Harvard University, 1999), pp. 109-192.
3. J. L[ouis], "Pierwszy obchód zwyciȩstwa pod Wiedniem w Krakowie," Czas, 28 February 1883.
4. For a fuller treatment of the 1883 celebration, see Dabrowski, "Reinventing Poland," pp. 109-192.
5. I agree with John-Paul Himka that the nationally neutral term Ruthenian permits us "to make a distinction between the ethnic group as such and the alternative constructions of its nationality." (John-Paul Himka, Religion and Nationality in Western Ukraine: The Greek Catholic Church and the Ruthenian National Movement in Galicia, 1867-1900 [Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1999], p. 8). While Himka presents two alternative identities - the pan-Russian and the pan-Ukrainian - I focus here on manifestations of what one might term a pan-Polish identity that was intended to embrace the Ruthenians as well.
6. Wieslaw Bieńkowski, "Rok 1883 w Krakowie (uroczystość 200-lecia odsieczy Wiednia)," Rocznik Krakowski, Vol. 51, 1987, p. 109. As shall be seen, the degree of independence of the peasants in attendance may be debated, however.
7. While sources on peasant impressions are generally limited to the popular press, one peasant-turned-university-professor noted the importance of this trip for his father, who reminisced about the anniversary celebration with pleasure for years. (Stanisław Pigoń, Z Komborni w świat: Wspomnienia młodości [Kraków: Spółdzielnia wydawnicza "Wieś," 1946], p. 98).
8. Adam Galos, "Obchody rocznicy odsieczy wiedeńskiej w Galicji w 1883 r.," Acta Universitatis Wratislaviensis, No. 1108, Historia 75 (Wrocław, 1990), pp. 135, 139.
9. This term of folk identity, used by Słomka (Jan Słomka, From Serfdom to Self-Government: Memoirs of a Polish Village Mayor 1842-1927, translated by William John Rose [London: Minerva, 1941]) and others, should not be confused with the regional identity of Mazurians -that is, of residents of Mazuria, far to the north in the formerly Polish territories. Apparently the term was also used by the Ruthenians of Volhynia in reference to the Polish-speaking population of the Commonwealth (Janusz Ekes, "Mazurzy," in Jan Dziȩgielewski et al., eds, Encyklopedia historii Polski: Dzieje polityczne [Warsaw: "Morex" & "Egross," 1994], Vol. I. p. 422).
10. This term of folk identity, used by Słomka (Jan Słomka, From Serfdom to Self-Government: Memoirs of a Polish Village Mayor 1842-1927, translated by William John Rose [London: Minerva, 1941]) and others, should not be confused with the regional identity of Mazurians - that is, of residents of Mazuria, far to the north in the formerly Polish territories. Apparently the term was also used by the Ruthenians of Volhynia in reference to the Polish-speaking population of the Commonwealth (Janusz Ekes, "Mazurzy," in Jan Dziȩgielewski et al., eds, Encyklopedia historii Polski: Dzieje polityczne [Warsaw: "Morex" & "Egross," 1994], Vol. I. p. 422).
11. The literature on the subject of the transformation of peasants into Poles during the nineteenth century is vast. A particularly good anthology of peasants' own voices is Helena Brodowska, Chlopi o sobie i Polsce: Rozwój świadomości spoleczno-narodowej (Warsaw: Ludowa Spóldzielnia Wydawnicza, 1984); other valuable works include: Tadeusz Krawczak, "Ksztaltowanie świadomości narodowej chłopow polskich w Galicji w latach 1864-1914," Przegla̧d Humanistyczny, Vol. 11, 1978, pp. 135-150; Józef Ryszard Szaflik, "Czynniki kształtujace świadomość narodowa̧ chłopa polskiego w końcu XIX i w pocza̧tkach XX wieku," Przegla̧d Humanistyczny, Vol. 26, No. 12, 1982, pp. 1-15 and Vol. 27, No. 4, 1983, pp. 43-82; idem, O rza̧d chlopskich dusz (Warsaw: Ludowa Spółdzielnia Wydawnicza, 1976). In English, see the recent dissertation by Keely Stauter-Halsted, "From Serf to Citizen: Peasant Political Organizations in Galician Poland 1848-1895" (Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Michigan, 1993), soon to be published by Cornell University Press.
12. The literature on the subject of the transformation of peasants into Poles during the nineteenth century is vast. A particularly good anthology of peasants' own voices is Helena Brodowska, Chlopi o sobie i Polsce: Rozwój świadomości spoleczno-narodowej (Warsaw: Ludowa Spóldzielnia Wydawnicza, 1984); other valuable works include: Tadeusz Krawczak, "Ksztaltowanie świadomości narodowej chłopow polskich w Galicji w latach 1864-1914," Przegla̧d Humanistyczny, Vol. 11, 1978, pp. 135-150; Józef Ryszard Szaflik, "Czynniki kształtujace świadomość narodowa̧ chłopa polskiego w końcu XIX i w pocza̧tkach XX wieku," Przegla̧d Humanistyczny, Vol. 26, No. 12, 1982, pp. 1-15 and Vol. 27, No. 4, 1983, pp. 43-82; idem, O rza̧d chlopskich dusz (Warsaw: Ludowa Spółdzielnia Wydawnicza, 1976). In English, see the recent dissertation by Keely Stauter-Halsted, "From Serf to Citizen: Peasant Political Organizations in Galician Poland 1848-1895" (Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Michigan, 1993), soon to be published by Cornell University Press.
13. The literature on the subject of the transformation of peasants into Poles during the nineteenth century is vast. A particularly good anthology of peasants' own voices is Helena Brodowska, Chlopi o sobie i Polsce: Rozwój świadomości spoleczno-narodowej (Warsaw: Ludowa Spóldzielnia Wydawnicza, 1984); other valuable works include: Tadeusz Krawczak, "Ksztaltowanie świadomości narodowej chłopow polskich w Galicji w latach 1864-1914," Przegla̧d Humanistyczny, Vol. 11, 1978, pp. 135-150; Józef Ryszard Szaflik, "Czynniki kształtujace świadomość narodowa̧ chłopa polskiego w końcu XIX i w pocza̧tkach XX wieku," Przegla̧d Humanistyczny, Vol. 26, No. 12, 1982, pp. 1-15 and Vol. 27, No. 4, 1983, pp. 43-82; idem, O rza̧d chlopskich dusz (Warsaw: Ludowa Spółdzielnia Wydawnicza, 1976). In English, see the recent dissertation by Keely Stauter-Halsted, "From Serf to Citizen: Peasant Political Organizations in Galician Poland 1848-1895" (Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Michigan, 1993), soon to be published by Cornell University Press.
14. The literature on the subject of the transformation of peasants into Poles during the nineteenth century is vast. A particularly good anthology of peasants' own voices is Helena Brodowska, Chlopi o sobie i Polsce: Rozwój świadomości spoleczno-narodowej (Warsaw: Ludowa Spóldzielnia Wydawnicza, 1984); other valuable works include: Tadeusz Krawczak, "Ksztaltowanie świadomości narodowej chłopow polskich w Galicji w latach 1864-1914," Przegla̧d Humanistyczny, Vol. 11, 1978, pp. 135-150; Józef Ryszard Szaflik, "Czynniki kształtujace świadomość narodowa̧ chłopa polskiego w końcu XIX i w pocza̧tkach XX wieku," Przegla̧d Humanistyczny, Vol. 26, No. 12, 1982, pp. 1-15 and Vol. 27, No. 4, 1983, pp. 43-82; idem, O rza̧d chlopskich dusz (Warsaw: Ludowa Spółdzielnia Wydawnicza, 1976). In English, see the recent dissertation by Keely Stauter-Halsted, "From Serf to Citizen: Peasant Political Organizations in Galician Poland 1848-1895" (Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Michigan, 1993), soon to be published by Cornell University Press.
15. The literature on the subject of the transformation of peasants into Poles during the nineteenth century is vast. A particularly good anthology of peasants' own voices is Helena Brodowska, Chlopi o sobie i Polsce: Rozwój świadomości spoleczno-narodowej (Warsaw: Ludowa Spóldzielnia Wydawnicza, 1984); other valuable works include: Tadeusz Krawczak, "Ksztaltowanie świadomości narodowej chłopow polskich w Galicji w latach 1864-1914," Przegla̧d Humanistyczny, Vol. 11, 1978, pp. 135-150; Józef Ryszard Szaflik, "Czynniki kształtujace świadomość narodowa̧ chłopa polskiego w końcu XIX i w pocza̧tkach XX wieku," Przegla̧d Humanistyczny, Vol. 26, No. 12, 1982, pp. 1-15 and Vol. 27, No. 4, 1983, pp. 43-82; idem, O rza̧d chlopskich dusz (Warsaw: Ludowa Spółdzielnia Wydawnicza, 1976). In English, see the recent dissertation by Keely Stauter-Halsted, "From Serf to Citizen: Peasant Political Organizations in Galician Poland 1848-1895" (Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Michigan, 1993), soon to be published by Cornell University Press.
16. The literature on the subject of the transformation of peasants into Poles during the nineteenth century is vast. A particularly good anthology of peasants' own voices is Helena Brodowska, Chlopi o sobie i Polsce: Rozwój świadomości spoleczno-narodowej (Warsaw: Ludowa Spóldzielnia Wydawnicza, 1984); other valuable works include: Tadeusz Krawczak, "Ksztaltowanie świadomości narodowej chłopow polskich w Galicji w latach 1864-1914," Przegla̧d Humanistyczny, Vol. 11, 1978, pp. 135-150; Józef Ryszard Szaflik, "Czynniki kształtujace świadomość narodowa̧ chłopa polskiego w końcu XIX i w pocza̧tkach XX wieku," Przegla̧d Humanistyczny, Vol. 26, No. 12, 1982, pp. 1-15 and Vol. 27, No. 4, 1983, pp. 43-82; idem, O rza̧d chlopskich dusz (Warsaw: Ludowa Spółdzielnia Wydawnicza, 1976). In English, see the recent dissertation by Keely Stauter-Halsted, "From Serf to Citizen: Peasant Political Organizations in Galician Poland 1848-1895" (Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Michigan, 1993), soon to be published by Cornell University Press.
17. The abortive 1846 insurrection, which sparked the massacre of noble landlords by peasants instead of uniting the two groups, demonstrated that shared language and past were not enough to bridge the social divide.
18. Activists less enamored of Rome also often ended up availing themselves of the religious connection when trying to engage the peasantry. Even socialists were not immune to religious terminology, as shown by Andrzej Chwalba. Sacrum i rewolucja: Socjaliści polscy wobec praktyk i symboli religijnych (1870-1918) (Warsaw: Universitas, 1992). The argument for linking Polishness and Catholicism was bolstered by other similarities, such as shared territorial base and linguistic foundation.
19. Two other events were also coordinated to occur within the same week as the Sobieski anniversary: the twenty-fifth jubilee of painter Jan Matejko (13 September) as well as the first congress of Polish writers and artists (14-15 September). These are discussed in Dabrowski. "Reinventing Poland," pp. 168-169, 178-189.
20. The church festivities actually began on 2 September, with a novena of preparation for the coronation.
21. Between the partitions of Poland and 1839, the Uniates of Russia's Western Provinces had been forced to convert (or, as the Russians maintained, return) to Russian Orthodoxy: in this way, they joined the Ruthenian masses who had never been part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth as well as those who had never converted to the Uniate faith while under Polish rule.
22. The next two paragraphs are based on Himka, Religion and Nationality, esp. pp. 57-64. 73-78; any distortion or oversimplification of this line scholarship is my fault alone.
23. Ibid., p. 60; Theodore R. Weeks, "The 'End' of the Uniate Church in Russia: the Vozsoedinenie of 1875," Jahrbucher für Geschichte Osteuropas, Vol. 44, 1996, p. 32; Tadeusz Krawczak, ed., "Zanim wróciła Polska": Martyrologium ludności unickiej na Podlasiu w latach 1866-1905 w świetle wspomnierí (Warsaw: Neriton, 1994), pp. 7-8.
24. Ibid., p. 60; Theodore R. Weeks, "The 'End' of the Uniate Church in Russia: the Vozsoedinenie of 1875," Jahrbucher für Geschichte Osteuropas, Vol. 44, 1996, p. 32; Tadeusz Krawczak, ed., "Zanim wróciła Polska": Martyrologium ludności unickiej na Podlasiu w latach 1866-1905 w świetle wspomnierí (Warsaw: Neriton, 1994), pp. 7-8.
25. Ibid., p. 60; Theodore R. Weeks, "The 'End' of the Uniate Church in Russia: the Vozsoedinenie of 1875," Jahrbucher für Geschichte Osteuropas, Vol. 44, 1996, p. 32; Tadeusz Krawczak, ed., "Zanim wróciła Polska": Martyrologium ludności unickiej na Podlasiu w latach 1866-1905 w świetle wspomnierí (Warsaw: Neriton, 1994), pp. 7-8.
26. While Poles have traditionally assumed that the forced conversion was pan of a master plan (see, for example. Leon Wasilewski, Chełmszcyzna i sprawa jej oderwania [Kraków: nakł. wydawn. "Życie": New York: The Polish Book Importing Co., 1911]). Theodore Weeks has argued that Gromeka, the governor of Siedlce province, "essentially presented a skeptical and cautious St. Petersburg with a fait accompli." (Weeks, " The 'End' of the Uniate Church," p. 33.)
27. While Poles have traditionally assumed that the forced conversion was pan of a master plan (see, for example. Leon Wasilewski, Chełmszcyzna i sprawa jej oderwania [Kraków: nakł. wydawn. "Życie": New York: The Polish Book Importing Co., 1911]). Theodore Weeks has argued that Gromeka, the governor of Siedlce province, "essentially presented a skeptical and cautious St. Petersburg with a fait accompli." (Weeks, " The 'End' of the Uniate Church," p. 33.)
28. Józef Szujski, "Przed rocznica̧ Odsieczy Wiedeńskiej," Czas, 26 May 1882; Wilhelm Feldman, Dzieje polskiej myśli politycznej 1864-1914 (2nd edition) (Warsaw: Instytut Badania Najnowszej Historji Polski, 1933), p. 240; on the importance of Rome, see the confiscated leaflet "Żale Unitów Polskich i ich nadzieje pomocy z Rzymu" (Archiwum Głowne Akt Dawnych, Oddział II, Prok. Warsz. Izb. Sa̧d. 854, fols. 3-4).
29. Józef Szujski, "Przed rocznica̧ Odsieczy Wiedeńskiej," Czas, 26 May 1882; Wilhelm Feldman, Dzieje polskiej myśli politycznej 1864-1914 (2nd edition) (Warsaw: Instytut Badania Najnowszej Historji Polski, 1933), p. 240; on the importance of Rome, see the confiscated leaflet "Żale Unitów Polskich i ich nadzieje pomocy z Rzymu" (Archiwum Głowne Akt Dawnych, Oddział II, Prok. Warsz. Izb. Sa̧d. 854, fols. 3-4).
30. Again, this is chronicled in Himka. Religion and Nationality.
31. A number of toasts, for example, were recorded at the various banquets for the distinguished clergymen which seemed to demonstrate much good will on both sides. ("Kronika miejscowa i zagraniczna," Czas, 7 September 1883; "Kronika miejscowa i zagraniczna," Czas, 11 September 1883.)
32. A number of toasts, for example, were recorded at the various banquets for the distinguished clergymen which seemed to demonstrate much good will on both sides. ("Kronika miejscowa i zagraniczna," Czas, 7 September 1883; "Kronika miejscowa i zagraniczna," Czas, 11 September 1883.)
33. Bieńkowski, "Rok 1883," p. 108. They were the Uniate bishop of Przemyśl, Ioann Stupnytsky; the Armenian archbishop of Lemberg, Izaak Mikolaj Issakowicz; and Adam Stanisław Krasiński.
34. Wieniec, Vol. 9, No. 18, 30 August 1883, p. 137; Bieńkowski, "Rok 1883," p. 109; "Kronika," Nowa Reforma, 11 September 1883.
35. Wieniec, Vol. 9, No. 18, 30 August 1883, p. 137; Bieńkowski, "Rok 1883," p. 109; "Kronika," Nowa Reforma, 11 September 1883.
36. Wieniec, Vol. 9, No. 18, 30 August 1883, p. 137; Bieńkowski, "Rok 1883," p. 109; "Kronika," Nowa Reforma, 11 September 1883.
37. Zoll's words, as noted in "Posiedzenie tutejszej komisyi jubileuszowej Sobieskiego wspólnie z przybylymi delegatami Iwowskimi," Czas, 26 June 1883.
38. From a speech given at the Ruthenian Boarding-School (Internat Ruski) run by the Resurrectionists in Lemberg, reported in "Kronika miejscowa i zagraniczna," Czas, 13 March 1883.
39. This was likewise noted in the pamphlet Pamia̧tka pielgrzymki ludowej do Krakowa urza̧dzonej staraniem Redakcyi pism ludowych "Wieńca" i "Pszczólki" w wrześniu 1883 na uroczystość koronacyi cudownego obrazu N.P. Maryi na Piaskach i na uroczystość obchodu dwuchsetnej rocznicy zwyciȩstwa króla polskiego Jana III. pod Wiedniem (Lwów: z drukarni Towarzystwa imienia Szewczenki, 1883), p. 5.
40. These include the shape of Sigismund I's crown and the lily motif from the crown of Boleslas the Brave. (Polkowski, "Kronika dni wrześniowych," pp. 68-69).
41. Ibid., p. 68.
42. According to statements made by Fryderyk Zoll, taken from the minutes of the meetings of the Sobieski anniversary committee (Komisya jubileuszu Sobieskiego), 22 June 1883 and 15 November 1882, Archiwum Państwowe w Krakowie (hereafter APKr), IT 1023/14.
43. From Pszczółka, Vol. 9, No. 18, 5 September 1883, p. 139. Mention of the censorship is made in "Kronika paryska, dokończenie," Nowa Reforma, 2 September 1883.
44. From Pszczółka, Vol. 9, No. 18, 5 September 1883, p. 139. Mention of the censorship is made in "Kronika paryska, dokończenie," Nowa Reforma, 2 September 1883.
45. Stanisław Tarnowski, "Obchód wiedeńskiej rocznicy," Przegla̧d Polski, Vol. 18, October 1883, pp. 8-9.
46. Peasants were bedded in the monasteries, on straw, wherever possible; others ended up sleeping out-of-doors, which cannot have been pleasant, given the rain. (Pamia̧tka pielgrzymki ludowej, pp. 19-20.)
47. "5236 włościan," Pszczólka, Vol. 9, No. 17, 23 August 1883, p. 129.
48. "Kronika," Nowa Reforma, 11 September 1883.
49. Pamia̧tka pielgrzymki ludowej, p. 21.
50. "Kronika miejscowa i zagraniczna," Czas, 15 August 1883.
51. Bieńkowski, "Obchody 200-lecia," p. 159. As the city had no power plant, special arrangements had been made for this impressive showing through a Budapest firm. Steam engines were lent for the occasion by city councilor and factory owner Ludwik Zieleniewski, landowner and local brewer Jan Götz, and landowner Pinkas Attesländer. (Celina Ba̧k-Koczarska, "Rada Miejska organizatorem obchodu 200-lecia Odsieczy Wiednia w Krakowie," Zeszyty Naukowe Muzeum Historycznego Miasta Krakowa: Krzysztofory, Vol. 9, 1982, p. 46; Grażyna Lichończak, "Pomnik króla Jana III Sobieskiego w Ogrodzie Strzeleckim w Krakowie," Krzysztofory, Vol. 9, 1982, p. 57.)
52. Bieńkowski, "Obchody 200-lecia," p. 159. As the city had no power plant, special arrangements had been made for this impressive showing through a Budapest firm. Steam engines were lent for the occasion by city councilor and factory owner Ludwik Zieleniewski, landowner and local brewer Jan Götz, and landowner Pinkas Attesländer. (Celina Ba̧k-Koczarska, "Rada Miejska organizatorem obchodu 200-lecia Odsieczy Wiednia w Krakowie," Zeszyty Naukowe Muzeum Historycznego Miasta Krakowa: Krzysztofory, Vol. 9, 1982, p. 46; Grażyna Lichończak, "Pomnik króla Jana III Sobieskiego w Ogrodzie Strzeleckim w Krakowie," Krzysztofory, Vol. 9, 1982, p. 57.)
53. Bieńkowski, "Obchody 200-lecia," p. 159. As the city had no power plant, special arrangements had been made for this impressive showing through a Budapest firm. Steam engines were lent for the occasion by city councilor and factory owner Ludwik Zieleniewski, landowner and local brewer Jan Götz, and landowner Pinkas Attesländer. (Celina Ba̧k-Koczarska, "Rada Miejska organizatorem obchodu 200-lecia Odsieczy Wiednia w Krakowie," Zeszyty Naukowe Muzeum Historycznego Miasta Krakowa: Krzysztofory, Vol. 9, 1982, p. 46; Grażyna Lichończak, "Pomnik króla Jana III Sobieskiego w Ogrodzie Strzeleckim w Krakowie," Krzysztofory, Vol. 9, 1982, p. 57.)
54. The upper classes made much of the proper demeanor of the waterlogged peasants, who uncomplainingly withstood the elements, even though most of them had spent the nights out of doors as well. Tarnowski touted the peasants' "innate instinctual gravity" and "desire to behave itself seriously." (Tarnowski. "Obchód wiedeńskiej rocznicy," pp. 11-12.)
55. "Kronika," Nowa Reforma, 11 September 1883.
56. Tarnowski, "Obchód wiedeńskiej rocznicy," pp. 10-11, 13. This image of the peasantry is discussed in the first chapter of a stimulating book by Franciszek Ziejka, W krȩgu mitów polskich (Kraków: Wydawnictwo Literackie, 1977).
57. Tarnowski, "Obchód wiedeńskiej rocznicy," pp. 10-11, 13. This image of the peasantry is discussed in the first chapter of a stimulating book by Franciszek Ziejka, W krȩgu mitów polskich (Kraków: Wydawnictwo Literackie, 1977).
58. Pamia̧tka pielgrzymki ludowej, pp. 27-28.
59. A number of committee members came from liberal democratic, literary-artistic, and intelligent, not conservative circles, more associated with the opposition paper Nowa Reforma than with the conservative Czas. Many of these activists would serve on commemoration committees for years to come. The leadership of the citizens' committee included Kazimierz Bartoszewicz, Walery Gadomski, Wincenty Eminowicz, Kornecki, Juliusz Kossak, hr. Mieroszowski, Adam Miłaszewski, Father Ignacy Polkowski, Tadeusz Romanowicz, and [Ignacy] Żołtowski. ("Kronika," Nowa Reforma, 9 August 1883.)
60. "Jubileusz Sobieskiego," Nowa Reforma, 23 August 1883.
61. Bieńkowski, "Rok 1883," p. 110.
62. "Kronika," Nowa Reforma, 11 September 1883.
63. The organizers were initially divided as to whether they should coordinate their actions with Stojatowski. (Report from the meeting of the previous day, reported in "Jubileusz Sobieskiego," Nowa Reforma, 15 August 1883.)
64. "Kronika," Nowa Reforma, 12 September 1883.
65. A speech prepared for a Ruthenian has been preserved in the papers of Kazimierz Bartoszewicz (Archiwum Państwowe w Łodzi, Archiwum Bartoszewiczów, 1737, fol. 1). Whether it was actually used by any of the visitors cannot be determined, although its existence raises additional questions as to the "independence" of the participating peasants.
66. The plans for the peasant celebration were given in the report on the committee meeting of the previous day, presented in "Jubileusz Sobieskiego," Nowa Reforma, 24 August 1883.
67. Among the speakers at the folk gathering was Władysław Kołodziejczyk, a peasant from Mogiła; Jakób Kot, a Ruthenian from Olesko, where Sobieski was born; Michał Ostrowski, a Ruthenian merchant from Ruda; and Ruthenian villager Hrehory Skoblik (vel Skabłyk) of Daszowa in the province of Stryj. ("Obchód uroczysty jubileuszu Sobieskiego w Krakowie," Nowa Reforma, 12 September 1883.) The texts of their speeches are in Czas, 13 September 1883.
68. Among the speakers at the folk gathering was Władysław Kołodziejczyk, a peasant from Mogiła; Jakób Kot, a Ruthenian from Olesko, where Sobieski was born; Michał Ostrowski, a Ruthenian merchant from Ruda; and Ruthenian villager Hrehory Skoblik (vel Skabłyk) of Daszowa in the province of Stryj. ("Obchód uroczysty jubileuszu Sobieskiego w Krakowie," Nowa Reforma, 12 September 1883.) The texts of their speeches are in Czas, 13 September 1883.
69. These quotations are taken from the letter of Paweł Popiel to the Cracow mayor, published in "Ostatnie wiadomości," Czas, 22 August 1883. The original letter, dated 18 August 1883, is in APKr. IT 1023/14.
70. See the petition for a subsidy of 2000 crowns [n.d., but assuredly between 7 and 10 August] in APKr, IT 1023/14. The committee also asked Mayor Weigel to approach the military authorities lor permission to use the Blonia (the city common, land leased at the time to the military). (Per 10 August 1883 letter to the mayor of Cracow in the name of the committee, signed by Father Polkowski. APKr. IT 1023/14.)
71. Minutes of the committee meeting, 23 August 1883, APKr. IT 1023/14. This last item still infuriated some conservatives, who both objected to the representation of only one class while suspecting that the villager's speech was inspired by the democrats. (See, for example, Tarnowski, "Obchód wiedeńskiej rocznicy," p. 20.)
72. Reportedly they had not been given advance notice of the citizens' committee's plans. (See the note of the society's board [Zarza̧d Towarzystwa] in "Uroczystość Sobieskiego," Czas, 26 August 1883.)
73. "Jubileusz Sobieskiego," Nowa Reforma, 31 August 1883.
74. Pelczar, Kazanie 1883, p. 3.
75. A. Nowolecki, Uroczystości ku uczczeniu pamiȩci Jana III w dzielnicach polskich i za granica̧; Na pamia̧tkȩ 200-letnicj rocznicy odsieczy Wiednia 1683 r. (Kraków: staraniem "Wydawnictwa Czytelni Ludowej," 1883), p. 3; Odsiecz wiedeńska 1683: Wystawa jubileuszowa w Zamku Królewskim na Wawelu w trzechsetlecie bitwy, Vol. 1 (Kraków: Państwowe zbiory sztuki na Wawelu. 1990), p. 17.
76. A. Nowolecki, Uroczystości ku uczczeniu pamiȩci Jana III w dzielnicach polskich i za granica̧; Na pamia̧tkȩ 200-letnicj rocznicy odsieczy Wiednia 1683 r. (Kraków: staraniem "Wydawnictwa Czytelni Ludowej," 1883), p. 3; Odsiecz wiedeńska 1683: Wystawa jubileuszowa w Zamku Królewskim na Wawelu w trzechsetlecie bitwy, Vol. 1 (Kraków: Państwowe zbiory sztuki na Wawelu. 1990), p. 17.
77. That Poles continued to be perceived as a threat is demonstrated by the work of Witold Rodkiewicz, "Russian Nationality Policy in the Western Provinces of the Empire During the Reign of Nicholas II, 1894-1905" (Ph.D. dissertation, Harvard University, 1996), published as Russian Nationality Policy in the Western Provinces of the Empire (1863-1905) (Lublin: Scientific Society of Lublin, 1998).
78. That Poles continued to be perceived as a threat is demonstrated by the work of Witold Rodkiewicz, "Russian Nationality Policy in the Western Provinces of the Empire During the Reign of Nicholas II, 1894-1905" (Ph.D. dissertation, Harvard University, 1996), published as Russian Nationality Policy in the Western Provinces of the Empire (1863-1905) (Lublin: Scientific Society of Lublin, 1998).
79. Stefan Buszczyński, writing under the pseudonym "Servant of liberty and faith" (Sługa wolności i wiary) on the anniversary of the Siege of Vienna, claimed that Austria was more Slavic than Russia (he argued that blood of the Jagiellons [one of Poland's ruling dynasties] flowed in Habsburg veins). He also saw the Poles' "union with the southern Slavs, under protective hegemony" of the Habsburgs as a "blessing for all Europe" that would correct the balance of power "and guarantee universal peace." (Rachunek polskiego sumienia: Rozmyślanie w niewoli; w 200-letnia̧ rocznicȩ zwyciȩztwa pod Wiednem [Kraków: nakładem ksiȩgarni K, Bartoszewicza, 1883], pp. 75, 83, 27, 82-84.)
80. From a speech by Dr. E. Czerkawski in Lemberg on 11 September, cited in "Obchód jubileuszowy we Lwowie," Nowa Reforma, 14 September 1883. Leopoldians were particularly interested in raising the international profile of the celebration. (See Dabrowski, "Reinventing Poland," p. 174.)
81. From a speech by Dr. E. Czerkawski in Lemberg on 11 September, cited in "Obchód jubileuszowy we Lwowie," Nowa Reforma, 14 September 1883. Leopoldians were particularly interested in raising the international profile of the celebration. (See Dabrowski, "Reinventing Poland," p. 174.)
82. Even the governor of Illinois recognized the Poles as defenders of human rights and freedom during the 1883 celebration, the first time Poles assembled in a visible demonstration of unity on the streets of America (Chicago). One of the main organizers of the Chicago festivities was Karol Chłapowski, husband of actress Helena Modrzejewska. (Halina Florkowska-Frančié, "Emigracyjne obchody dwóchsetnej rocznicy wiktorii wiedeńskiej," Przegla̧d Polonistyczny, Vol. 10, 1984, p. 72: Adam Galos, "Obchody rocznicy wiedeńskiej w XIX w.." Śla̧ski Kwartalnik Historyczny Sobótka, Vol. 35, 1980, p. 437.)
83. Even the governor of Illinois recognized the Poles as defenders of human rights and freedom during the 1883 celebration, the first time Poles assembled in a visible demonstration of unity on the streets of America (Chicago). One of the main organizers of the Chicago festivities was Karol Chłapowski, husband of actress Helena Modrzejewska. (Halina Florkowska-Frančié, "Emigracyjne obchody dwóchsetnej rocznicy wiktorii wiedeńskiej," Przegla̧d Polonistyczny, Vol. 10, 1984, p. 72: Adam Galos, "Obchody rocznicy wiedeńskiej w XIX w.." Śla̧ski Kwartalnik Historyczny Sobótka, Vol. 35, 1980, p. 437.)
84. These facts were noted by a Ruthenian villager, Hrehory Skoblik of Daszowa, speaking to the peasants, as reported in "Uroczysty obchód jubileuszu Sobieskiego w Krakowie." Nowa Reforma, 13 September 1883.
85. This information comes from a Gazeta Narodowa report on the committee meetings of 10 and 21 April, mentioned in "Komitet jubileuszowy dla Komitetu jubileuszowego dla uczczenia 200-letniej rocznicy Wiednia," Nowa Reforma, 1 May 1883.
86. Words of Director Maciołowski, cited in Nowa Reforma, 13 September 1883.
87. "Obchód uroczysty jubileuszu Sobieskiego w Krakowie," Nowa Reforma, 12 September 1883.
88. From the speech of Jan Czesak, a villager from Szczurowa, at the farewell to the village delegates. ("Kronika," Nowa Reforma, 15 September 1883.)
89. See note 49.
90. Cited in "Uroczysty obchód jubileuszu Sobieskiego w Krakowie," Nowa Reforma, 14 September 1883.
91. That the Polish nation prior to the partitions had been a political, not an ethnic, nation has been convincingly shown by Andrzej Walicki, Philosophy and Romantic Nationalism: The Case of Poland (Oxford: Clarendon Press; New York: Oxford University Press, 1982).
92. The Ukrainian paper Dilo said the jubilee had the character of a Polish national manifestation (per Nowolecki, Uroczystości, p. 51); Prolom and Slovo were also opposed. For other views of the siege, see the "Ukrainophile" Stefan Kachala's book on 1683, reviewed in Reforma, 23 June 1882.
93. The Ukrainian paper Dilo said the jubilee had the character of a Polish national manifestation (per Nowolecki, Uroczystości, p. 51); Prolom and Slovo were also opposed. For other views of the siege, see the "Ukrainophile" Stefan Kachala's book on 1683, reviewed in Reforma, 23 June 1882.
94. Such figures as Platon Kostecki and Father Jan Guszalewicz wrote poems ("Kronika," Nowa Reforma, 12 September 1883), as did J. Szaraniewicz ("Jubileusz Sobieskiego," Nowa Reforma, 31 August 1883).
95. Such figures as Platon Kostecki and Father Jan Guszalewicz wrote poems ("Kronika," Nowa Reforma, 12 September 1883), as did J. Szaraniewicz ("Jubileusz Sobieskiego," Nowa Reforma, 31 August 1883).
96. "Obchód Sobieskiego: Lwów, 12 czerwea," Nowa Reforma, 15 June 1883.
97. Galos, "Obchody rocznicy odsieczy," p. 142; more on him in Adam Galos. "Władze pruskie wobec obchodów rocznicy wiedeńskiej w 1883 r.." Śla̧ski Kwartalnik Historyczny Sobótka, Vol. 36, 1981, pp. 273-274.
98. Galos, "Obchody rocznicy odsieczy," p. 142; more on him in Adam Galos. "Władze pruskie wobec obchodów rocznicy wiedeńskiej w 1883 r.." Śla̧ski Kwartalnik Historyczny Sobótka, Vol. 36, 1981, pp. 273-274.
99. Indeed, the organizers of the 1883 anniversary, seeking to gain as many volunteers for a certain aspect of the festivities, resorted to playing on the Poles' patriotism: they suggested that Poles ought to desire a successful celebration in 1883 at least as much as during the emperor's visit in 1880. ("Jubileusz Sobieskiego," Nomi Reforma, 4 September 1883.)
100. "Przegla̧d polityczny," Przegla̧d Polski, Vol. 18, October 1883, p. 158.
101. Bobrzyński in Czas (cited by Tarnowski, "Obchód wiedeńskiej rocznicy," p. 34).
102. Bobrzyński in Czas (cited by Tarnowski, "Obchód wiedeńskiej rocznicy," p. 34).