The 1996 'muslim holidays' affair: Religious competition and state mediation in contemporary Mozambique

Journal of Southern African Studies

Volumn 26, Issue 3, 2000, Pages 409-427

  Morier Genoud, Eric ^a  

^a BINGHAMTON UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CHURCH ROLE; ISLAMISM; RELIGION; STATE ROLE;

MOZAMBIQUE;

EID: 0033753080     PISSN: 03057070     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/713683586     Document Type: Article

References (166)

1. See the Mail and Guardian (Johannesburg), 5-11 July 1996, p. 16; Africa Confidential (London), 37, 15 (19 July 1996), pp. 6-7; Catholic World News (Rome), 30 April 1996; Marchés Tropicaux (Paris), 14 June 1996, pp. 1222-1223.
2. See the Mail and Guardian (Johannesburg), 5-11 July 1996, p. 16; Africa Confidential (London), 37, 15 (19 July 1996), pp. 6-7; Catholic World News (Rome), 30 April 1996; Marchés Tropicaux (Paris), 14 June 1996, pp. 1222-1223.
3. See the Mail and Guardian (Johannesburg), 5-11 July 1996, p. 16; Africa Confidential (London), 37, 15 (19 July 1996), pp. 6-7; Catholic World News (Rome), 30 April 1996; Marchés Tropicaux (Paris), 14 June 1996, pp. 1222-1223.
4. See the Mail and Guardian (Johannesburg), 5-11 July 1996, p. 16; Africa Confidential (London), 37, 15 (19 July 1996), pp. 6-7; Catholic World News (Rome), 30 April 1996; Marchés Tropicaux (Paris), 14 June 1996, pp. 1222-1223.
5. S. Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order (Touchstone, New York, 1996). For a critique, see S. Chan, 'Too Neat and Under-thought a World Order: Huntington and Civilisations', Millennium, 26, 1 (1997), pp. 137-140, and S. Brower, P. Gifford and S. Rose, Exporting the American Gospel: Global Christian Fundamentalism (London, Routledge, 1996), p. 9.
6. S. Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order (Touchstone, New York, 1996). For a critique, see S. Chan, 'Too Neat and Under-thought a World Order: Huntington and Civilisations', Millennium, 26, 1 (1997), pp. 137-140, and S. Brower, P. Gifford and S. Rose, Exporting the American Gospel: Global Christian Fundamentalism (London, Routledge, 1996), p. 9.
7. S. Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order (Touchstone, New York, 1996). For a critique, see S. Chan, 'Too Neat and Under-thought a World Order: Huntington and Civilisations', Millennium, 26, 1 (1997), pp. 137-140, and S. Brower, P. Gifford and S. Rose, Exporting the American Gospel: Global Christian Fundamentalism (London, Routledge, 1996), p. 9.
8. On Protestant aggressiveness, see Brower et al., Exporting the American Gospel, and, for Southern Africa more specifically, P. Gifford, The New Crusaders. Christianity and the New Right in Southern Africa (London, Pluto Press, 1988). On the renewed militancy of the Catholic Church, see A. Riccardi, 'Le primat de l'évangélisation', in G. Kepel (ed), Les Politiques de Dieu (Paris, Seuil, 1993), pp. 99-117.
9. On Protestant aggressiveness, see Brower et al., Exporting the American Gospel, and, for Southern Africa more specifically, P. Gifford, The New Crusaders. Christianity and the New Right in Southern Africa (London, Pluto Press, 1988). On the renewed militancy of the Catholic Church, see A. Riccardi, 'Le primat de l'évangélisation', in G. Kepel (ed), Les Politiques de Dieu (Paris, Seuil, 1993), pp. 99-117.
10. On Protestant aggressiveness, see Brower et al., Exporting the American Gospel, and, for Southern Africa more specifically, P. Gifford, The New Crusaders. Christianity and the New Right in Southern Africa (London, Pluto Press, 1988). On the renewed militancy of the Catholic Church, see A. Riccardi, 'Le primat de l'évangélisation', in G. Kepel (ed), Les Politiques de Dieu (Paris, Seuil, 1993), pp. 99-117.
11. This defect is found in much if not most of the literature on Islam and more particularly on Islamic fundamentalism. See for example, J.S. Trimingham, The Influence of Islam upon Africa, 2nd edn (Longman, London, 1980), ch 6; J.L. Esposito, The Islamic Threat. Myth or Reality? (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1992); and L. Davidson, Islamic Fundamentalism (Westport, Greenwood Press, 1998).
12. This defect is found in much if not most of the literature on Islam and more particularly on Islamic fundamentalism. See for example, J.S. Trimingham, The Influence of Islam upon Africa, 2nd edn (Longman, London, 1980), ch 6; J.L. Esposito, The Islamic Threat. Myth or Reality? (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1992); and L. Davidson, Islamic Fundamentalism (Westport, Greenwood Press, 1998).
13. This defect is found in much if not most of the literature on Islam and more particularly on Islamic fundamentalism. See for example, J.S. Trimingham, The Influence of Islam upon Africa, 2nd edn (Longman, London, 1980), ch 6; J.L. Esposito, The Islamic Threat. Myth or Reality? (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1992); and L. Davidson, Islamic Fundamentalism (Westport, Greenwood Press, 1998).
14. Among others, see G. Kepel, The Revenge of God. The Resurgence of Islam, Christianity and Judaism in the Modern World (University Park, Pennsylvania State University Press, 1994); R. Antoun and M. Hegland (eds), Religious Resurgence. Contemporary Cases in Islam, Christianity, and Judaism (Syracuse, Syracuse University Press, 1987); and N. R. Keddie, 'The New Religious Politics: Where, When and Why do 'Fundamentalisms' Appear?', Comparative Studies in Society and History, 40, 4 (October 1998), pp. 696-723.
15. Among others, see G. Kepel, The Revenge of God. The Resurgence of Islam, Christianity and Judaism in the Modern World (University Park, Pennsylvania State University Press, 1994); R. Antoun and M. Hegland (eds), Religious Resurgence. Contemporary Cases in Islam, Christianity, and Judaism (Syracuse, Syracuse University Press, 1987); and N. R. Keddie, 'The New Religious Politics: Where, When and Why do 'Fundamentalisms' Appear?', Comparative Studies in Society and History, 40, 4 (October 1998), pp. 696-723.
16. Among others, see G. Kepel, The Revenge of God. The Resurgence of Islam, Christianity and Judaism in the Modern World (University Park, Pennsylvania State University Press, 1994); R. Antoun and M. Hegland (eds), Religious Resurgence. Contemporary Cases in Islam, Christianity, and Judaism (Syracuse, Syracuse University Press, 1987); and N. R. Keddie, 'The New Religious Politics: Where, When and Why do 'Fundamentalisms' Appear?', Comparative Studies in Society and History, 40, 4 (October 1998), pp. 696-723.
17. L. Iannaccone, 'Religious Markets and the Economics of Religion', Social Compass, 39, 1 (1992), pp. 123-131; M. Chaves, P. Schraeder and M. Sprindys, 'State Regulation of Religion and Muslim Vitality in the Industrialized West', Journal of Politics, 56, 4 (November 1994), pp. 1087-1097; M. Zeghal 'État et marché des biens religieux. Les voies égyptienne et tunisienne'. Critique Internationale, 5 (1999), pp. 75-95. For a critique of this approach, see R. Robertson, 'The Economization of religion? Reflections on the Promise and Limitations of the Economic Approach', Social Compass, 39, 1 (1992), pp. 147-157. It should be said here that this literature draws from insights made by Peter Berger more than twenty years ago in The Sacred Canopy. Elements of a Sociological Theory of Religion (New York, Doubleday Anchor Book, 1969). Although a Marxist, Berger did not mention or consider religious tensions and conflict either.
18. L. Iannaccone, 'Religious Markets and the Economics of Religion', Social Compass, 39, 1 (1992), pp. 123-131; M. Chaves, P. Schraeder and M. Sprindys, 'State Regulation of Religion and Muslim Vitality in the Industrialized West', Journal of Politics, 56, 4 (November 1994), pp. 1087-1097; M. Zeghal 'État et marché des biens religieux. Les voies égyptienne et tunisienne'. Critique Internationale, 5 (1999), pp. 75-95. For a critique of this approach, see R. Robertson, 'The Economization of religion? Reflections on the Promise and Limitations of the Economic Approach', Social Compass, 39, 1 (1992), pp. 147-157. It should be said here that this literature draws from insights made by Peter Berger more than twenty years ago in The Sacred Canopy. Elements of a Sociological Theory of Religion (New York, Doubleday Anchor Book, 1969). Although a Marxist, Berger did not mention or consider religious tensions and conflict either.
19. L. Iannaccone, 'Religious Markets and the Economics of Religion', Social Compass, 39, 1 (1992), pp. 123-131; M. Chaves, P. Schraeder and M. Sprindys, 'State Regulation of Religion and Muslim Vitality in the Industrialized West', Journal of Politics, 56, 4 (November 1994), pp. 1087-1097; M. Zeghal 'État et marché des biens religieux. Les voies égyptienne et tunisienne'. Critique Internationale, 5 (1999), pp. 75-95. For a critique of this approach, see R. Robertson, 'The Economization of religion? Reflections on the Promise and Limitations of the Economic Approach', Social Compass, 39, 1 (1992), pp. 147-157. It should be said here that this literature draws from insights made by Peter Berger more than twenty years ago in The Sacred Canopy. Elements of a Sociological Theory of Religion (New York, Doubleday Anchor Book, 1969). Although a Marxist, Berger did not mention or consider religious tensions and conflict either.
20. L. Iannaccone, 'Religious Markets and the Economics of Religion', Social Compass, 39, 1 (1992), pp. 123-131; M. Chaves, P. Schraeder and M. Sprindys, 'State Regulation of Religion and Muslim Vitality in the Industrialized West', Journal of Politics, 56, 4 (November 1994), pp. 1087-1097; M. Zeghal 'État et marché des biens religieux. Les voies égyptienne et tunisienne'. Critique Internationale, 5 (1999), pp. 75-95. For a critique of this approach, see R. Robertson, 'The Economization of religion? Reflections on the Promise and Limitations of the Economic Approach', Social Compass, 39, 1 (1992), pp. 147-157. It should be said here that this literature draws from insights made by Peter Berger more than twenty years ago in The Sacred Canopy. Elements of a Sociological Theory of Religion (New York, Doubleday Anchor Book, 1969). Although a Marxist, Berger did not mention or consider religious tensions and conflict either.
21. L. Iannaccone, 'Religious Markets and the Economics of Religion', Social Compass, 39, 1 (1992), pp. 123-131; M. Chaves, P. Schraeder and M. Sprindys, 'State Regulation of Religion and Muslim Vitality in the Industrialized West', Journal of Politics, 56, 4 (November 1994), pp. 1087-1097; M. Zeghal 'État et marché des biens religieux. Les voies égyptienne et tunisienne'. Critique Internationale, 5 (1999), pp. 75-95. For a critique of this approach, see R. Robertson, 'The Economization of religion? Reflections on the Promise and Limitations of the Economic Approach', Social Compass, 39, 1 (1992), pp. 147-157. It should be said here that this literature draws from insights made by Peter Berger more than twenty years ago in The Sacred Canopy. Elements of a Sociological Theory of Religion (New York, Doubleday Anchor Book, 1969). Although a Marxist, Berger did not mention or consider religious tensions and conflict either.
22. On the history of this public holiday, see mediaFAX (Maputo), 971 (15 March 1996), pp. 3-4 and mediaFAX, 978 (26 March 1996), p. 1.
23. On the history of this public holiday, see mediaFAX (Maputo), 971 (15 March 1996), pp. 3-4 and mediaFAX, 978 (26 March 1996), p. 1.
24. The Holy Friday law project was to be discussed in the following parliamentary session,but never was. See Noticias (Maputo), 5 March 1996 and 21 May 1996.
25. See the judges' decision and argumentation in mediaFAX, 1172 (30 December 1996), pp. 5-6.
26. See mediaFAX, 1659 (9 December 1998), and Metical (Maputo), 369 (9 December 1998).
27. See mediaFAX, 1659 (9 December 1998), and Metical (Maputo), 369 (9 December 1998).
28. Copies of the letters in possession of the author. The Episcopal Conference's letter is reproduced in Rumo Novo (Beira), 16 (August 1996), while various Catholic declarations can be found in Noticias, 6 and 7 March 1996.
29. Copies of the letters in possession of the author. The Episcopal Conference's letter is reproduced in Rumo Novo (Beira), 16 (August 1996), while various Catholic declarations can be found in Noticias, 6 and 7 March 1996.
30. Imparcial (Maputo), 10 April 1996.
31. Among others, see Cardinal dos Santos' declarations to Noticias, 6 March 1996, p. 56, and the editorial of Vida Nova (Nampula), 4 (April 1996), p. 2.
32. Among others, see Cardinal dos Santos' declarations to Noticias, 6 March 1996, p. 56, and the editorial of Vida Nova (Nampula), 4 (April 1996), p. 2.
33. See CCM secretary-general's declarations to Savana (Maputo), 8 March 1996, pp. 2-3, and to mediaFAX, 968 (12 March 1996), p. 1.
34. See CCM secretary-general's declarations to Savana (Maputo), 8 March 1996, pp. 2-3, and to mediaFAX, 968 (12 March 1996), p. 1.
35. Copies in possession of the author.
36. Two Muslim voices opposed the law. One came from the Association Anjuman Annuaril Islamo. There is good reason to believe that its position had more to do with politics within the Muslim community than with opposition to the law per se. The other voice came from PIMO, a political party that claims to represent Muslims (see below) and which argued that the law was not enough. For Annuaril, see A Voz do Annuaril (Maputo), 12, 29 March 1996; for PIMO, see Savana, 8 March 1996, pp. 14-15.
37. Two Muslim voices opposed the law. One came from the Association Anjuman Annuaril Islamo. There is good reason to believe that its position had more to do with politics within the Muslim community than with opposition to the law per se. The other voice came from PIMO, a political party that claims to represent Muslims (see below) and which argued that the law was not enough. For Annuaril, see A Voz do Annuaril (Maputo), 12, 29 March 1996; for PIMO, see Savana, 8 March 1996, pp. 14-15.
38. Some Hindu and Zionist statements can be found in mediaFAX, 970 (14 March 1996), p. 3; mediaFAX, 976 (22 March 1996). p. 1; and Savana, 8 March 1996, p. 3.
39. Some Hindu and Zionist statements can be found in mediaFAX, 970 (14 March 1996), p. 3; mediaFAX, 976 (22 March 1996). p. 1; and Savana, 8 March 1996, p. 3.
40. Some Hindu and Zionist statements can be found in mediaFAX, 970 (14 March 1996), p. 3; mediaFAX, 976 (22 March 1996). p. 1; and Savana, 8 March 1996, p. 3.
41. José Chicuara Massinga (deputy for the Uniäo Democrática and president of the PANADE party), interview, Maputo, 10 November 1994.
42. See for example the declarations made in Noticias, 5 March 1996.
43. In 1991, the National Directorate of Statistics estimated that 24.1% of the population was Muslim, 21.5% Catholic and 19.7% Protestant. For a critique of these estimates, see Africa Confidential, 37, 15 (19 July 1996), p. 7.
44. Some of the census results are simply not credible. For example, animism would have almost disappeared, dropping from 50 per cent in 1975 to 2.1 per cent today. Similarly, people without religion would now reach 23.1 per cent. The methodology used seems at best disputable. The question used was vague ('what is your religion or belief?') and it was addressed to anyone down to five-year-old children!
45. E. Alpers, 'Islam in the Service of Colonialism? Portuguese Strategy During the Armed Liberation Struggle in Mozambique', Lusotopie 1999 (Paris, Karthala, 1999), pp. 165-184; M. Cahen, 'Le colonialisme tardif et la diversification religieuse au Mozambique (1959-1974)', Lusotopie 1998 (Paris, Karthala, 1998), pp. 377-395; Fernando A. Monteiro, O Isläo, o Poder e a Guerra (Moçambique 1964-1974) (Porto, Universidade Portucalense, 1993).
46. E. Alpers, 'Islam in the Service of Colonialism? Portuguese Strategy During the Armed Liberation Struggle in Mozambique', Lusotopie 1999 (Paris, Karthala, 1999), pp. 165-184; M. Cahen, 'Le colonialisme tardif et la diversification religieuse au Mozambique (1959-1974)', Lusotopie 1998 (Paris, Karthala, 1998), pp. 377-395; Fernando A. Monteiro, O Isläo, o Poder e a Guerra (Moçambique 1964-1974) (Porto, Universidade Portucalense, 1993).
47. E. Alpers, 'Islam in the Service of Colonialism? Portuguese Strategy During the Armed Liberation Struggle in Mozambique', Lusotopie 1999 (Paris, Karthala, 1999), pp. 165-184; M. Cahen, 'Le colonialisme tardif et la diversification religieuse au Mozambique (1959-1974)', Lusotopie 1998 (Paris, Karthala, 1998), pp. 377-395; Fernando A. Monteiro, O Isläo, o Poder e a Guerra (Moçambique 1964-1974) (Porto, Universidade Portucalense, 1993).
48. Edward Alpers and Fernando Monteiro emphasise ideological commitments (socialism and unity) and various mistakes as an explanation for Frelimo's failure to counter the Portuguese strategy and to gain Muslim support. My impression is that ethnic and religious divisions (the two often overlapped) also played an important role. Frelimo's followers were overwhelmingly animists and Christians, from Maconde, Nyanja or Chewa ethnic background, whereas Mozambique's Muslim population is predominantly Macua and Yao. Moreover, if Frelimo's leaders were more diverse ethnically, they were almost all of Christian origin, and the few Muslims present were from the south of the country and from religious schools (Anafism, Ismailiism and Wahhabism) disconnected from the Islamic majority. See Alpers, 'Islam in the Service of Colonialism', p. 178; Monteiro, O Isläo, o Poder e a Guerra, pp. 249, 297-298, 302, and A. Isaacman, Mozambique. From Colonialism to Revolution. 1900-1982 (Boulder, Westview Press, 1983), p. 102.
49. Edward Alpers and Fernando Monteiro emphasise ideological commitments (socialism and unity) and various mistakes as an explanation for Frelimo's failure to counter the Portuguese strategy and to gain Muslim support. My impression is that ethnic and religious divisions (the two often overlapped) also played an important role. Frelimo's followers were overwhelmingly animists and Christians, from Maconde, Nyanja or Chewa ethnic background, whereas Mozambique's Muslim population is predominantly Macua and Yao. Moreover, if Frelimo's leaders were more diverse ethnically, they were almost all of Christian origin, and the few Muslims present were from the south of the country and from religious schools (Anafism, Ismailiism and Wahhabism) disconnected from the Islamic majority. See Alpers, 'Islam in the Service of Colonialism', p. 178; Monteiro, O Isläo, o Poder e a Guerra, pp. 249, 297-298, 302, and A. Isaacman, Mozambique. From Colonialism to Revolution. 1900-1982 (Boulder, Westview Press, 1983), p. 102.
50. Edward Alpers and Fernando Monteiro emphasise ideological commitments (socialism and unity) and various mistakes as an explanation for Frelimo's failure to counter the Portuguese strategy and to gain Muslim support. My impression is that ethnic and religious divisions (the two often overlapped) also played an important role. Frelimo's followers were overwhelmingly animists and Christians, from Maconde, Nyanja or Chewa ethnic background, whereas Mozambique's Muslim population is predominantly Macua and Yao. Moreover, if Frelimo's leaders were more diverse ethnically, they were almost all of Christian origin, and the few Muslims present were from the south of the country and from religious schools (Anafism, Ismailiism and Wahhabism) disconnected from the Islamic majority. See Alpers, 'Islam in the Service of Colonialism', p. 178; Monteiro, O Isläo, o Poder e a Guerra, pp. 249, 297-298, 302, and A. Isaacman, Mozambique. From Colonialism to Revolution. 1900-1982 (Boulder, Westview Press, 1983), p. 102.
51. I borrow the expression from F. Constantin and C. Coulon, 'Minorités musulmanes et pouvoir politique en Afrique orientale', Annuaire des Pays de l'Océan Indien, 6 (1979), p. 32. For details of this period, see E. Morier-Genoud, Of God and Caesar. The Relation between Christian Churches and the State in Post-Colonial Mozambique, 1974-1981', Le Fait Missionnaire, 3 (September 1996), ch 4.
52. I borrow the expression from F. Constantin and C. Coulon, 'Minorités musulmanes et pouvoir politique en Afrique orientale', Annuaire des Pays de l'Océan Indien, 6 (1979), p. 32. For details of this period, see E. Morier-Genoud, Of God and Caesar. The Relation between Christian Churches and the State in Post-Colonial Mozambique, 1974-1981', Le Fait Missionnaire, 3 (September 1996), ch 4.
53. In a report to the Minister of Justice at the end of 1984, the director of the Department of Religious Affairs highlighted this problem and went as far as saying that as long as these Frelimo elements continued in the leadership of Muslim organisations, Frelimo would not succeed in co-opting Islam. By 1989, the same director reported only limited success. Ministry of Justice (MJ), Department of Religious Affairs (DAR): 61/DAR/MJ/84, Director of DAR to Minister of Justice, 5 November 1984; MJ/DAR: 4/DAR/MJ/89, 'Situaçäo no seio da Comunidade Muçulmana', 24 April 1989. On Frelimo's Muslim leaders, see footnote 23.
54. Alpers, 'Islam in the Service of Colonialism?'.
55. Renamo's envoy to Arab countries in 1978 and the movement's head of religious affairs thereafter was Issufo Momade, a Muslim. José Augusto (director of Renamo's department of foreign affairs, Europe and USA), interview, Maputo, 13 May 1994; T. Muianga, 'Respondendo à Albino Magaia', Savana, 29 December 1995; A. Vines, Renamo: Terrorism in Mozambique (London, James Currey, 1991), pp. 67-68; W. Finnegan, A Complicated War. The Harrowing of Mozambique (Berkeley, University of California Press, 1992), pp. 33-34.
56. Renamo's envoy to Arab countries in 1978 and the movement's head of religious affairs thereafter was Issufo Momade, a Muslim. José Augusto (director of Renamo's department of foreign affairs, Europe and USA), interview, Maputo, 13 May 1994; T. Muianga, 'Respondendo à Albino Magaia', Savana, 29 December 1995; A. Vines, Renamo: Terrorism in Mozambique (London, James Currey, 1991), pp. 67-68; W. Finnegan, A Complicated War. The Harrowing of Mozambique (Berkeley, University of California Press, 1992), pp. 33-34.
57. Renamo's envoy to Arab countries in 1978 and the movement's head of religious affairs thereafter was Issufo Momade, a Muslim. José Augusto (director of Renamo's department of foreign affairs, Europe and USA), interview, Maputo, 13 May 1994; T. Muianga, 'Respondendo à Albino Magaia', Savana, 29 December 1995; A. Vines, Renamo: Terrorism in Mozambique (London, James Currey, 1991), pp. 67-68; W. Finnegan, A Complicated War. The Harrowing of Mozambique (Berkeley, University of California Press, 1992), pp. 33-34.
58. K.B. Wilson, 'Cults of Violence and Counter-violence in Mozambique', Journal of Southern African Studies, 18, 3 (September 1992), p. 540; Vines, Renamo, p. 110; Finnegan, A Complicated War, p. 63.
59. K.B. Wilson, 'Cults of Violence and Counter-violence in Mozambique', Journal of Southern African Studies, 18, 3 (September 1992), p. 540; Vines, Renamo, p. 110; Finnegan, A Complicated War, p. 63.
60. K.B. Wilson, 'Cults of Violence and Counter-violence in Mozambique', Journal of Southern African Studies, 18, 3 (September 1992), p. 540; Vines, Renamo, p. 110; Finnegan, A Complicated War, p. 63.
61. Imparcial, 489 (8 May 1996), pp. 1-2; Demos (Maputo), 27 March 1996, pp. 8-9.
62. Imparcial, 489 (8 May 1996), pp. 1-2; Demos (Maputo), 27 March 1996, pp. 8-9.
63. Quoted in mediaFAX, 963 (5 March 1996), p. 1.
64. Mozambique started making overtures to Muslim states and international organisations in 1983. For example, in 1984, a representative of the World Muslim League (WML) came to Maputo and it seems that the desire for collaboration and cooperation was significant and mutual. But, as mentioned earlier, Frelimo had problems relating to local Muslim communities and organisations and this prevented it from receiving any significant support for many years. For example, while Zimbabwe and Malawi received generous aid from international Muslim organisations, Mozambique only received $2 million in 1988. See footnote 25; MJ/DAR: 'Aetas de Conversaçöes [with WML representatives]', 30 April 1984; MJ/DAR: 671/DAR/MJ/84, 20 August 1984, Director of DAR to WML; and MJ/DAR: 4/DAR/MJ/89 'Situaçäo no seio da Comunidade Muçulmana', 24 April 1989.
65. See, for example, Noticias, 29 August 1996, p. 7.
66. See Bilal (Maputo), 29 March 1996, p. 11; mediaFAX, 976, 22 March 1996, p. 2. On the brotherhoods, see Á. de Carvalho, 'Notas para a historia das confrarias islämicas na Ilha de Moçambique', Arquivo (Maputo), 4 (1988), pp. 59-66.
67. See Bilal (Maputo), 29 March 1996, p. 11; mediaFAX, 976, 22 March 1996, p. 2. On the brotherhoods, see Á. de Carvalho, 'Notas para a historia das confrarias islämicas na Ilha de Moçambique', Arquivo (Maputo), 4 (1988), pp. 59-66.
68. See Bilal (Maputo), 29 March 1996, p. 11; mediaFAX, 976, 22 March 1996, p. 2. On the brotherhoods, see Á. de Carvalho, 'Notas para a historia das confrarias islämicas na Ilha de Moçambique', Arquivo (Maputo), 4 (1988), pp. 59-66.
69. Dhlakama's most explicit statement on this issue can be found in Marchés Tropicaux, 31 May 1996, p. 1119.
70. A. Meldrum, 'Mozambique fears growth of Islam', Mail and Guardian, 5-11 July 1996, p. 16.
71. Yussuf Adam, personal communication; Notmoc, 37 (8 March 1995); Notmoc, 75 (31 March 1996).
72. Yussuf Adam, personal communication; Notmoc, 37 (8 March 1995); Notmoc, 75 (31 March 1996).
73. Yussuf Adam, personal communication; Notmoc, 37 (8 March 1995); Notmoc, 75 (31 March 1996).
74. E. Morier-Genoud, 'The Politics of Church and Religion in the First Multiparty Election of Mozambique', Internet Journal of African Studies, 1 (April 1996).
75. Africa Confidential, 37, 15 (19 July 1996), p. 7; Imparcial, 8 May 1996, pp. 1-2.
76. Africa Confidential, 37, 15 (19 July 1996), p. 7; Imparcial, 8 May 1996, pp. 1-2.
77. T. Henriksen, Mozambique: a History (Rex Collings, London, 1978), pp. 29-34, and N. Hafkin, 'Trade, Society and Politics in Northern Mozambique, 1753-1913' (PhD thesis, Boston University, 1973).
78. T. Henriksen, Mozambique: a History (Rex Collings, London, 1978), pp. 29-34, and N. Hafkin, 'Trade, Society and Politics in Northern Mozambique, 1753-1913' (PhD thesis, Boston University, 1973).
79. For Islam, see Hafkin, Trade, Society and Politics, ch 2; E. Alpers, 'East Central Africa', in N. Levtzion and R. Pouwell (eds), History of Islam in Africa (Athens, Ohio University Press, 1999); and E. Alpers, 'Towards a History of the Expansion of Islam in East Africa: the Matrilineal People of the Southern Interior', in T. Ranger and I. Kimambo (eds), The Historical Study of African Religion (Berkeley, University of California Press, 1972), pp. 172-201.
80. For Islam, see Hafkin, Trade, Society and Politics, ch 2; E. Alpers, 'East Central Africa', in N. Levtzion and R. Pouwell (eds), History of Islam in Africa (Athens, Ohio University Press, 1999); and E. Alpers, 'Towards a History of the Expansion of Islam in East Africa: the Matrilineal People of the Southern Interior', in T. Ranger and I. Kimambo (eds), The Historical Study of African Religion (Berkeley, University of California Press, 1972), pp. 172-201.
81. For Islam, see Hafkin, Trade, Society and Politics, ch 2; E. Alpers, 'East Central Africa', in N. Levtzion and R. Pouwell (eds), History of Islam in Africa (Athens, Ohio University Press, 1999); and E. Alpers, 'Towards a History of the Expansion of Islam in East Africa: the Matrilineal People of the Southern Interior', in T. Ranger and I. Kimambo (eds), The Historical Study of African Religion (Berkeley, University of California Press, 1972), pp. 172-201.
82. For Protestantism, see P. Harries, 'Christianity in Black and White. The Establishment of Protestant Churches in Southern Mozambique', Lusotopie 1998 (Paris, Karthala, 1998), pp. 317-333, and A. Helgesson, Church, State and People in Mozambique. A historical study with special emphasis on Methodist developments in the Inhambane region (Uppsala, Studia Missionalia Upsaliensia LIV, 1994). A good overview of Catholicism can be found in J. Duffy, Portuguese Africa (Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1959), ch 5.
83. For Protestantism, see P. Harries, 'Christianity in Black and White. The Establishment of Protestant Churches in Southern Mozambique', Lusotopie 1998 (Paris, Karthala, 1998), pp. 317-333, and A. Helgesson, Church, State and People in Mozambique. A historical study with special emphasis on Methodist developments in the Inhambane region (Uppsala, Studia Missionalia Upsaliensia LIV, 1994). A good overview of Catholicism can be found in J. Duffy, Portuguese Africa (Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1959), ch 5.
84. For Protestantism, see P. Harries, 'Christianity in Black and White. The Establishment of Protestant Churches in Southern Mozambique', Lusotopie 1998 (Paris, Karthala, 1998), pp. 317-333, and A. Helgesson, Church, State and People in Mozambique. A historical study with special emphasis on Methodist developments in the Inhambane region (Uppsala, Studia Missionalia Upsaliensia LIV, 1994). A good overview of Catholicism can be found in J. Duffy, Portuguese Africa (Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1959), ch 5.
85. Yves Léonard, Salazarisme et Fascisme (Paris, Editions Chandeigne, 1996).
86. M. da Braga Cruz, 'O Estado Novo e a Igreja Católica', in F. Rosas (ed), Portugal e o Estado Novo (Lisbon, Editorial Presenca, 1992), pp. 201-221.
87. Helgesson, Church, State and People in Mozambique, and T. Cruz e Silva, 'Igrejas protestantes no Sul de Moçambique e nacionalismo: o caso da 'Missäo Suiça' (1940-1974)', Estudos Moçambicanos (Maputo), 10 (1992), pp. 19-39.
88. Helgesson, Church, State and People in Mozambique, and T. Cruz e Silva, 'Igrejas protestantes no Sul de Moçambique e nacionalismo: o caso da 'Missäo Suiça' (1940-1974)', Estudos Moçambicanos (Maputo), 10 (1992), pp. 19-39.
89. This policy could not, however, prevent the existence of some Muslim nucleuses in the centre and south of the country and a few Evangelical missions in central Mozambique. On the latter, see P. Thompson, Life Out of Death. A Miracle of Church Growth in the Face of Opposition (London, Hodder and Stoughton, 1989), and L. Schultz, Moçambique Milestones (Kansas City, Nazarene Publishing House, 1982), ch 6.
90. This policy could not, however, prevent the existence of some Muslim nucleuses in the centre and south of the country and a few Evangelical missions in central Mozambique. On the latter, see P. Thompson, Life Out of Death. A Miracle of Church Growth in the Face of Opposition (London, Hodder and Stoughton, 1989), and L. Schultz, Moçambique Milestones (Kansas City, Nazarene Publishing House, 1982), ch 6.
91. See Cahen, 'Le colonialisme tardif et la diversification religieuse', and Alpers, 'Islam in the Service of Colonialism?'.
92. See Cahen, 'Le colonialisme tardif et la diversification religieuse', and Alpers, 'Islam in the Service of Colonialism?'.
93. On Frelimo's post-colonial religious policy, see Morier-Genoud, Of God and Caesar'.
94. See the examples of the Nazarene and Presbyterian Churches in, respectively, F. Howie, The Mozambique Story (Kansas City, Nazarene Publishing House, 1993), ch 3, and C. Biber, Cent ans au Mozambique. Le parcours d'une minorité. Reportage sur l'histoire de l'église presbytérienne du Mozambique, 2nd edn (Lausanne, Edition du Soc, 1992).
95. See the examples of the Nazarene and Presbyterian Churches in, respectively, F. Howie, The Mozambique Story (Kansas City, Nazarene Publishing House, 1993), ch 3, and C. Biber, Cent ans au Mozambique. Le parcours d'une minorité. Reportage sur l'histoire de l'église presbytérienne du Mozambique, 2nd edn (Lausanne, Edition du Soc, 1992).
96. For the Lutheran Church, see E. Bachmann and M. Bachmann, Lutheran Churches in the World. A Handbook (Minneapolis, Augsburg Fortress, 1989), pp. 76-77. For the Africa Muslim Agency, see Crescente (Maputo), 14 April 1995, p. 7, and MJ/DAR: 65/DAR/MJ/85 (director of DAR to director of the Africa and Middle East section of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs), 26 January 1985.
97. For the Lutheran Church, see E. Bachmann and M. Bachmann, Lutheran Churches in the World. A Handbook (Minneapolis, Augsburg Fortress, 1989), pp. 76-77. For the Africa Muslim Agency, see Crescente (Maputo), 14 April 1995, p. 7, and MJ/DAR: 65/DAR/MJ/85 (director of DAR to director of the Africa and Middle East section of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs), 26 January 1985.
98. Evangelical institutions are often accused of practising 'rice bowl Christianity', i.e. conditioning their aid on conversion. In Mozambique, two different mainline Protestant pastors told us about their encounters in the late 1980s with evangelicals (including World Vision) who preached while giving humanitarian aid. For similar accusations in the Latin America context and a balanced discussion of World Vision's case, see D. Stoll, Is Latin America Turning Protestant? The Politics of Evangelical Growth (Berkeley, University of California Press, 1990), ch 9.
99. The Baptist Convention Church (Convençäo Baptista, a Church linked to the American Southern and First Baptists) was quite explicit in this strategy. It called it 'refugee ministries'. Most bluntly, a 1992 issue of the American Southern Baptists' magazine stated about Mozambique: 'The Brocks stress they do not need war and suffering to evangelise. But the country may never again see such a concentration of people searching for answers.' Mr Brock himself declared 'when the war is over, our opportunity is over'. The Commission (Richmond, VA), December 1992, p. 40.
100. S. Askin, 'Mission to Renamo: The Militarisation of the Religious Right', Journal of Theology for Southern Africa, 69 (December 1989), pp. 106-116, and S. Askin, 'Mission to Renamo: The Militarization of the Religious Right', Issue, XVIII, 2 (1990), pp. 29-38 (the two papers are different despite the similar title). Note that Askin's argument that these Churches or individuals were simply manipulated by politicians is contradicted by the fact that some of these institutions worked on both the government and Renamo's side and by the fact that some of them are still working in Mozambique today. In other words, manipulation went the other way too. A case in point is Open Doors'. Sarel Jordan (Open Doors International), personal communication by e-mail, 17 June 1999.
101. S. Askin, 'Mission to Renamo: The Militarisation of the Religious Right', Journal of Theology for Southern Africa, 69 (December 1989), pp. 106-116, and S. Askin, 'Mission to Renamo: The Militarization of the Religious Right', Issue, XVIII, 2 (1990), pp. 29-38 (the two papers are different despite the similar title). Note that Askin's argument that these Churches or individuals were simply manipulated by politicians is contradicted by the fact that some of these institutions worked on both the government and Renamo's side and by the fact that some of them are still working in Mozambique today. In other words, manipulation went the other way too. A case in point is Open Doors'. Sarel Jordan (Open Doors International), personal communication by e-mail, 17 June 1999.
102. S. Askin, 'Mission to Renamo: The Militarisation of the Religious Right', Journal of Theology for Southern Africa, 69 (December 1989), pp. 106-116, and S. Askin, 'Mission to Renamo: The Militarization of the Religious Right', Issue, XVIII, 2 (1990), pp. 29-38 (the two papers are different despite the similar title). Note that Askin's argument that these Churches or individuals were simply manipulated by politicians is contradicted by the fact that some of these institutions worked on both the government and Renamo's side and by the fact that some of them are still working in Mozambique today. In other words, manipulation went the other way too. A case in point is Open Doors'. Sarel Jordan (Open Doors International), personal communication by e-mail, 17 June 1999.
103. The Muslim World League Journal, 25, 2 (June 1997), p. 15; Domingo, 9 July 1995; and Noticias, 24 September 1987.
104. The Muslim World League Journal, 25, 2 (June 1997), p. 15; Domingo, 9 July 1995; and Noticias, 24 September 1987.
105. The Muslim World League Journal, 25, 2 (June 1997), p. 15; Domingo, 9 July 1995; and Noticias, 24 September 1987.
106. Considering the number of Christian Churches in Mozambique and the scattered nature of data, it is impossible to give a global figure for Mozambican Christians studying abroad. But most Churches sent at least one pastor or priest to a regional seminary (e.g. in Kenya for the Nazarenes and in South Africa for Open Doors) or to the Church home country's religious university (e.g. in Italy for the Catholics and in the USA for the Methodists).
107. All Africa News Agency, 28 September 1998. For more details on the University, see Rumo Novo, 15 (April 1996), pp. 4-14, and the university's internet homepage at: http://www.sdnp.org.mz/entidadc/catolica/default.htm.
108. All Africa News Agency, 28 September 1998. For more details on the University, see Rumo Novo, 15 (April 1996), pp. 4-14, and the university's internet homepage at: http://www.sdnp.org.mz/entidadc/catolica/default.htm.
109. Among the new organisations or movements are Campus Crusade for Christ, Good News Ministries International, Love Southern Africa, Jesus Alive!, Korean Evangelical Mission Fellowship, OMS International, Friends Reaching Out Ministries and Operation Mobilisation.
110. Catholic statistics indicate a restoration of the level of personnel and population percentage of 1978 (if not yet of the pre-independence golden era). Individual Protestant Churches all talk of tremendous increases in membership - the Baptists claim to have tripled the number of their believers between 1989 and 1998, the Presbyterians to have now more believers in the north than in their historical base in the south, and the Nazarene to have grown 40 per cent in 1995 alone. Although there are no figures for Islam, the expansion of this faith in the south is agreed upon, while the global figures from the 1997 census do not indicate any significant increase as we have seen above. For Catholic figures, see F. Foy (ed), Catholic Almanac 1978; Catholic Almanac 1998 (Huntington, IN, Our Sunday Visitor Publishing Division, 1977 and 1997), pp. 433 and 354. For Protestants' figures: Together, A Newsletter for Nazarene in Higher Education, 4, 4 (November 1996), p. 2; Baptist statistics reported by e-mail to the author by Sandra Higgins (International Mission Board), 3 March 1999; interview with Simiäo Chamangu (President of the Presbyterian Synod Council), Maputo, 10 May 1996.
111. Catholic statistics indicate a restoration of the level of personnel and population percentage of 1978 (if not yet of the pre-independence golden era). Individual Protestant Churches all talk of tremendous increases in membership - the Baptists claim to have tripled the number of their believers between 1989 and 1998, the Presbyterians to have now more believers in the north than in their historical base in the south, and the Nazarene to have grown 40 per cent in 1995 alone. Although there are no figures for Islam, the expansion of this faith in the south is agreed upon, while the global figures from the 1997 census do not indicate any significant increase as we have seen above. For Catholic figures, see F. Foy (ed), Catholic Almanac 1978; Catholic Almanac 1998 (Huntington, IN, Our Sunday Visitor Publishing Division, 1977 and 1997), pp. 433 and 354. For Protestants' figures: Together, A Newsletter for Nazarene in Higher Education, 4, 4 (November 1996), p. 2; Baptist statistics reported by e-mail to the author by Sandra Higgins (International Mission Board), 3 March 1999; interview with Simiäo Chamangu (President of the Presbyterian Synod Council), Maputo, 10 May 1996.
112. Catholic statistics indicate a restoration of the level of personnel and population percentage of 1978 (if not yet of the pre-independence golden era). Individual Protestant Churches all talk of tremendous increases in membership - the Baptists claim to have tripled the number of their believers between 1989 and 1998, the Presbyterians to have now more believers in the north than in their historical base in the south, and the Nazarene to have grown 40 per cent in 1995 alone. Although there are no figures for Islam, the expansion of this faith in the south is agreed upon, while the global figures from the 1997 census do not indicate any significant increase as we have seen above. For Catholic figures, see F. Foy (ed), Catholic Almanac 1978; Catholic Almanac 1998 (Huntington, IN, Our Sunday Visitor Publishing Division, 1977 and 1997), pp. 433 and 354. For Protestants' figures: Together, A Newsletter for Nazarene in Higher Education, 4, 4 (November 1996), p. 2; Baptist statistics reported by e-mail to the author by Sandra Higgins (International Mission Board), 3 March 1999; interview with Simiäo Chamangu (President of the Presbyterian Synod Council), Maputo, 10 May 1996.
113. For a case of controversy (attacks and counter-attacks) over fundamentalism, see Savana, 6 January 1995, pp. 1-4; for some accusations of false teaching in Islam, see Noticias, 25 April 1991, and for accusations against neo-Pentecostals, see the controversy around the Igreja Universal do Reino de Deus.
114. For a case of controversy (attacks and counter-attacks) over fundamentalism, see Savana, 6 January 1995, pp. 1-4; for some accusations of false teaching in Islam, see Noticias, 25 April 1991, and for accusations against neo-Pentecostals, see the controversy around the Igreja Universal do Reino de Deus.
115. For a case of controversy (attacks and counter-attacks) over fundamentalism, see Savana, 6 January 1995, pp. 1-4; for some accusations of false teaching in Islam, see Noticias, 25 April 1991, and for accusations against neo-Pentecostals, see the controversy around the Igreja Universal do Reino de Deus.
116. P. Gifford, 'Some Recent Developments in African Christianity', African Affairs, 93, 373 (October 1994), pp. 513-534.
117. Although the United States government does not officially support Churches, in Mozambique USAID works with, and finances, American evangelical NGOs such as World Vision and the Adventist Development and Relief Agency. See USAID Fiscal Year 1997 Congressional Presentation at http://www.info.usaid.gov/pubs/cp97/ countries/mz.htm.
118. See following paragraphs and references.
119. Noticias, 25 April 1991; 15 May 1991; and 21 October 1993.
120. Noticias, 25 April 1991; 15 May 1991; and 21 October 1993.
121. Noticias, 25 April 1991; 15 May 1991; and 21 October 1993.
122. Personal communication from a consultant of the Christian Council of Mozambique, Lisbon, December 1997; Pierre Jeannet (Département Missionnaire des Églises de la Suisse Romande), interview, Lausanne, 10 November 1993; Elias Nacaca and Silvino Jossenc (Igreja Evangélica de Cristo de Moçambique), interview, Cuamba, 5 March 1994.
123. Indian Ocean Newsletter (Paris), 695 (25 November 1995), p. 3. On the collaboration between Muslims and the Catholic Church more generally, see J. Damiäo, 'O Islamismo em Moçambique à Luz do Sínodo Africano (Experiências Pastorais)', Rumo Novo, 9 (April 1994), pp. 36-51.
124. Indian Ocean Newsletter (Paris), 695 (25 November 1995), p. 3. On the collaboration between Muslims and the Catholic Church more generally, see J. Damiäo, 'O Islamismo em Moçambique à Luz do Sínodo Africano (Experiências Pastorais)', Rumo Novo, 9 (April 1994), pp. 36-51.
125. On fundamentalism, see Savana, 6 January 1995, pp. 1-4. On IURD, see Savana, 7 October 1994; mediaFAX, 721, 23 March 1995.
126. On fundamentalism, see Savana, 6 January 1995, pp. 1-4. On IURD, see Savana, 7 October 1994; mediaFAX, 721, 23 March 1995.
127. On fundamentalism, see Savana, 6 January 1995, pp. 1-4. On IURD, see Savana, 7 October 1994; mediaFAX, 721, 23 March 1995.
128. Secularism has a Christian origin and it is therefore usually biased against non-Christian faiths and believers. Constitutionally, this was the case in Mozambique after independence. In practice, however, Frelimo favoured accommodation. This was notably the case with family law, a classic and crucial bone of contention between Muslims and the secular state in Africa. For a discussion at the continental level, see Lamin Sanneh, The Crown and the Turban. Muslim and West Africa Pluralism (Boulder, Westview Press, 1997), part 4. For Mozambique, see S. Arnfred, 'Reflection on Family Forms and Gender Policy in Mozambique' (unpublished paper, 1990), and B. Isaacman and J. Stephen, Mozambique: Women, the Law and Agrarian Reform (Addis Ababa, United Nations Economic Commission for Africa, 1989), ch 4.
129. Secularism has a Christian origin and it is therefore usually biased against non-Christian faiths and believers. Constitutionally, this was the case in Mozambique after independence. In practice, however, Frelimo favoured accommodation. This was notably the case with family law, a classic and crucial bone of contention between Muslims and the secular state in Africa. For a discussion at the continental level, see Lamin Sanneh, The Crown and the Turban. Muslim and West Africa Pluralism (Boulder, Westview Press, 1997), part 4. For Mozambique, see S. Arnfred, 'Reflection on Family Forms and Gender Policy in Mozambique' (unpublished paper, 1990), and B. Isaacman and J. Stephen, Mozambique: Women, the Law and Agrarian Reform (Addis Ababa, United Nations Economic Commission for Africa, 1989), ch 4.
130. Secularism has a Christian origin and it is therefore usually biased against non-Christian faiths and believers. Constitutionally, this was the case in Mozambique after independence. In practice, however, Frelimo favoured accommodation. This was notably the case with family law, a classic and crucial bone of contention between Muslims and the secular state in Africa. For a discussion at the continental level, see Lamin Sanneh, The Crown and the Turban. Muslim and West Africa Pluralism (Boulder, Westview Press, 1997), part 4. For Mozambique, see S. Arnfred, 'Reflection on Family Forms and Gender Policy in Mozambique' (unpublished paper, 1990), and B. Isaacman and J. Stephen, Mozambique: Women, the Law and Agrarian Reform (Addis Ababa, United Nations Economic Commission for Africa, 1989), ch 4.
131. For an overview of the period, see Morier-Genoud, 'Of God and Caesar', ch 4.
132. See, for example, A. Vines and K. Wilson, 'Churches and the Peace Process in Mozambique', in Paul Gifford (ed), The Christian Churches and the Democratisation of Africa (Leiden, E.J. Brill, 1995), p. 133, and Helgesson, Church, State and People in Mozambique, ch 1. An exception is J. Luiza, 'A Igreja das Palhotas. Génese da Igreja em Moçambique, entre o Colonialismo e a Independência', Cadernos de Estudos Africanos (Lisbon), 4 (September 1989), p. 71.
133. See, for example, A. Vines and K. Wilson, 'Churches and the Peace Process in Mozambique', in Paul Gifford (ed), The Christian Churches and the Democratisation of Africa (Leiden, E.J. Brill, 1995), p. 133, and Helgesson, Church, State and People in Mozambique, ch 1. An exception is J. Luiza, 'A Igreja das Palhotas. Génese da Igreja em Moçambique, entre o Colonialismo e a Independência', Cadernos de Estudos Africanos (Lisbon), 4 (September 1989), p. 71.
134. See, for example, A. Vines and K. Wilson, 'Churches and the Peace Process in Mozambique', in Paul Gifford (ed), The Christian Churches and the Democratisation of Africa (Leiden, E.J. Brill, 1995), p. 133, and Helgesson, Church, State and People in Mozambique, ch 1. An exception is J. Luiza, 'A Igreja das Palhotas. Génese da Igreja em Moçambique, entre o Colonialismo e a Independência', Cadernos de Estudos Africanos (Lisbon), 4 (September 1989), p. 71.
135. See the minutes of the meeting in Frelimo, 'Consolidemos aquilo que nos une'. Reuniäo da Direcçäo do Partido e do Estado com os representantes das confissōes religiosas, 14 à 17 de Dezembro 1982 (Instituto Nacional do Livro e do Disco, Maputo, 1983).
136. MJ/DAR: 41/DAR/MJ/84 'Possibilidade de restituiçāo dos imoveis de certas seitas religiosas ocupadas ou encerradas sem nenhuma base legal' (director of DAR to Governor of Gaza), 27 January 1984, and MJ/DAR: 'Balanço das actividades do DAR desde a sua criaçāo', 4 July 1984.
137. MJ/DAR: 'Relatório das actividades do DAR no ano de 1984', 15 January 1985; MJ/DAR: 'Relatório das actividades de 1985', 3 December 1985.
138. MJ/DAR: 'Relatório das actividades do DAR no ano de 1984', 15 January 1985; MJ/DAR: 'Relatório das actividades de 1985', 3 December 1985.
139. There existed after 1975 a Service of Religious and Associational Affairs (SAAR) on the basis of which the Department of Religious Affairs was developed. But SAAR existed little more than on paper, with no full-time employees and no offices in the provinces. MJ/DAR: 006/SAARA/MJ/1983 'Relatório restrito dos serviçes' (SAAR to Minister of Justice), 6 January 1983; MJ/DAR: 200/DAR/MJ/84, Director of DAR to Government, 20 March 1984; and Manuel Alferes (former SAAR director), interview, Maputo, 24 June 1996.
140. On Frelimo's gradual change of policy, see E. Morier-Genoud, 'Y a-t-il un spécificité protestante au Mozambique. Discours du pouvoir postcolonial et histoire des Églises chrétiennes', Lusotopie 1998 (Paris, Karthala, 1998), esp. pp. 416-417.
141. Noticias, 9 November 1988.
142. On Frelimo's Fifth Congress, see M. Hall and T. Young, Confronting Leviathan. Mozambique Since Independence (London, Hurst, 1997), pp. 201-203.
143. Hall and Young, Confronting Leviathan, p. 200, note 42, and Isaias Funzamo (former head of the Swiss Mission/Presbyterian Church and former president of CCM), interview, Maputo, 31 March 1994.
144. There were at least two drafts of the law. One or the other version was discussed with each major organised faith in the country. See MJ/DAR: 54/DAR/MJ/88, director of DAR to Minister of Justice, 4 June 1988 and MJ/DAR: 59/DAR/MJ/89, Director of DAR to Minister of Justice, 16 May 1989. We consulted the 1989 draft of the law at the Center of African Studies (CEA), University of Eduardo Mondlane (UEM), folder 357.
145. Boletim da Republica (Maputo), Series 1, Second Supplement, 1 June 1990 (Decreto 11/90), and Boletim da Republica, Series 1, Second Supplement, 31 December 1991 (Lei 26/91).
146. Boletim da Republica (Maputo), Series 1, Second Supplement, 1 June 1990 (Decreto 11/90), and Boletim da Republica, Series 1, Second Supplement, 31 December 1991 (Lei 26/91).
147. Between 1990 and 1995, the Department of Religious Affairs registered no less than 150 new religious institutions, doubling in effect the number of (legal) Churches in the country. MJ/DAR: List of registered religious institutions, 5 de Junho de 1991; Nova Vida, 6 (June 1995), p. 11. At the provincial level, numbers also exploded, even in such a remote province as Niassa. Jean-Barnabé Manuel Tabou (director of DAR-Niassa), interview, Cuamba, 5 May 1994.
148. On the 'religious market', see R. Finke, 'Religious Deregulation: Origins and Consequences', Journal of Church and State, 32 (Summer 1990), pp. 609-626; Berger, The Sacred Canopy, ch 6.
149. On the 'religious market', see R. Finke, 'Religious Deregulation: Origins and Consequences', Journal of Church and State, 32 (Summer 1990), pp. 609-626; Berger, The Sacred Canopy, ch 6.
150. UEM/CEA, folder 357: 172/DAR/MJ/1992 'Ausência de legislaçāo em certos sectores da vida social das populaçōes' (Director of DAR to the President of the Commission of Social Affairs of the Assembly of the Republic), 28 April 1992, p. 1.
151. Ibid, p. 2.
152. The governor of Nampula could do little more than offer mediation when physical fighting erupted between different Muslim organisations in Nampula in 1993; see above. Similarly, the State could do nothing when, in 1999, some American fundamentalist protestants in Maputo went to evangelise inside a Mosque in the middle of the month of Ramadan. See Panafrican News Agency, 8 January 2000; personal communication by e-mail from a US embassy official, January 2000.
153. A good overview of the Church's activities in Mozambique can be found in Savana, 7 October 1994, pp. 16-17; mediaFAX. 721, 23 March 1995; Imparcial, 492,
154. A good overview of the Church's activities in Mozambique can be found in Savana, 7 October 1994, pp. 16-17; mediaFAX. 721, 23 March 1995; Imparcial, 492, 13 May 1996.
155. A good overview of the Church's activities in Mozambique can be found in Savana, 7 October 1994, pp. 16-17; mediaFAX. 721, 23 March 1995; Imparcial, 492, 13 May 1996.
156. See P. Oliveira, 'Le Président et le Transcendant', Politique Africaine, 52 (December 1993), pp. 150-151; Savana, 4 February 1994, 18 February 1994, 18 March 1994, 20 May 1994.
157. See P. Oliveira, 'Le Président et le Transcendant', Politique Africaine, 52 (December 1993), pp. 150-151; Savana, 4 February 1994, 18 February 1994, 18 March 1994, 20 May 1994.
158. Monthly Review Bulletin (London), 16 (11 November 1997), p. 3; Indian Ocean Newsletter, 17 July 1993, p. 2.
159. Monthly Review Bulletin (London), 16 (11 November 1997), p. 3; Indian Ocean Newsletter, 17 July 1993, p. 2.
160. For Muslim accusations, see mediaFAX, 568 (10 August 1994), p. 3; Savana, 6 January 1995, pp. 1-4. For Christian accusations, see the Ides affair itself.
161. For Muslim accusations, see mediaFAX, 568 (10 August 1994), p. 3; Savana, 6 January 1995, pp. 1-4. For Christian accusations, see the Ides affair itself.
162. For Muslim accusations, see mediaFAX, 568 (10 August 1994), p. 3; Savana, 6 January 1995, pp. 1-4. For Christian accusations, see the Ides affair itself.
163. On transcendental meditation, see footnote 86, and the sect's electronic magazine Enlightenment, March 1999 (at http://www.enlightenment-magazine.org). On IURD's TV channel, see Domingo, 25 May 1997, p. 33; mediaFAX, 28 December 1998, p. 2.
164. On transcendental meditation, see footnote 86, and the sect's electronic magazine Enlightenment, March 1999 (at http://www.enlightenment-magazine.org). On IURD's TV channel, see Domingo, 25 May 1997, p. 33; mediaFAX, 28 December 1998, p. 2.
165. On transcendental meditation, see footnote 86, and the sect's electronic magazine Enlightenment, March 1999 (at http://www.enlightenment-magazine.org). On IURD's TV channel, see Domingo, 25 May 1997, p. 33; mediaFAX, 28 December 1998, p. 2.
166. See the director of DAR's official statements in Domingo, 17 March 1996, p. 9.