"The devil hath laughed at the physicians": Witchcraft and medical practice in seventeenth-century New England

Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences

Volumn 55, Issue 1, 2000, Pages 5-36

  Gevitz, Norman ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; HISTORY; HUMAN; UNITED STATES; WITCHCRAFT;

HISTORY, 17TH CENTURY; HUMANS; NEW ENGLAND; WITCHCRAFT;

EID: 0033651593     PISSN: 00225045     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/jhmas/55.1.5     Document Type: Article

References (176)

1. Fielding Garrison, An Introduction to the History of Medicine (Philadelphia: Saunders, 1929), p. 304; Charles Upham, Salem Witchcraft: with an Account of Salem Village and a History of Opinions on Witchcraft and Kindred Subjects [first published 1867] (Williamstown, Mass.: Corner House, 1971), pp. 361-62; see also Henry R. Viets, A Brief History of Medicine in Massachusetts (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1930), p. 51.
2. Fielding Garrison, An Introduction to the History of Medicine (Philadelphia: Saunders, 1929), p. 304; Charles Upham, Salem Witchcraft: with an Account of Salem Village and a History of Opinions on Witchcraft and Kindred Subjects [first published 1867] (Williamstown, Mass.: Corner House, 1971), pp. 361-62; see also Henry R. Viets, A Brief History of Medicine in Massachusetts (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1930), p. 51.
3. Fielding Garrison, An Introduction to the History of Medicine (Philadelphia: Saunders, 1929), p. 304; Charles Upham, Salem Witchcraft: with an Account of Salem Village and a History of Opinions on Witchcraft and Kindred Subjects [first published 1867] (Williamstown, Mass.: Corner House, 1971), pp. 361-62; see also Henry R. Viets, A Brief History of Medicine in Massachusetts (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1930), p. 51.
4. th-Century Massachusetts (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1984); Peter Charles Hoffer, The Devil's Disciples (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996); and Bernard Rosenthal, Salem Story: Reading the Witch Trials of 1692 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993).
5. th-Century Massachusetts (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1984); Peter Charles Hoffer, The Devil's Disciples (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996); and Bernard Rosenthal, Salem Story: Reading the Witch Trials of 1692 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993).
6. th-Century Massachusetts (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1984); Peter Charles Hoffer, The Devil's Disciples (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996); and Bernard Rosenthal, Salem Story: Reading the Witch Trials of 1692 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993).
7. th-Century Massachusetts (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1984); Peter Charles Hoffer, The Devil's Disciples (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996); and Bernard Rosenthal, Salem Story: Reading the Witch Trials of 1692 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993).
8. th-Century Massachusetts (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1984); Peter Charles Hoffer, The Devil's Disciples (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996); and Bernard Rosenthal, Salem Story: Reading the Witch Trials of 1692 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993).
9. th-Century Massachusetts (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1984); Peter Charles Hoffer, The Devil's Disciples (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996); and Bernard Rosenthal, Salem Story: Reading the Witch Trials of 1692 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993).
10. th-Century Massachusetts (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1984); Peter Charles Hoffer, The Devil's Disciples (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996); and Bernard Rosenthal, Salem Story: Reading the Witch Trials of 1692 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993).
11. Sanford J. Fox, Science and Justice: The Massachusetts Witchcraft Trials (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1968), pp. 45-78.
12. The argument for hysteria as a modern diagnosis was most forcefully argued in Chadwick Hansen, Witchcraft at Salem (New York: G. Braziller, 1969). For the ergot thesis, see Linnda Caporael, "Ergotism: The Satan loosed in Salem?" Science, 1976, 192, 21-26; Nicholas P. Spanos and Jack Gottlieb, "Ergotism and the Salem witch trials," Science, 1976, 194, 1390-94;
13. The argument for hysteria as a modern diagnosis was most forcefully argued in Chadwick Hansen, Witchcraft at Salem (New York: G. Braziller, 1969). For the ergot thesis, see Linnda Caporael, "Ergotism: The Satan loosed in Salem?" Science, 1976, 192, 21-26; Nicholas P. Spanos and Jack Gottlieb, "Ergotism and the Salem witch trials," Science, 1976, 194, 1390-94;
14. The argument for hysteria as a modern diagnosis was most forcefully argued in Chadwick Hansen, Witchcraft at Salem (New York: G. Braziller, 1969). For the ergot thesis, see Linnda Caporael, "Ergotism: The Satan loosed in Salem?" Science, 1976, 192, 21-26; Nicholas P. Spanos and Jack Gottlieb, "Ergotism and the Salem witch trials," Science, 1976, 194, 1390-94;
15. Mary K. Matossian, "Ergot and the Salem witchcraft affair," Am. Sci., 1982, 70, 355-57.
16. The following list of physicians, surgeons, and apothecaries are individuals that regularly treated patients. It includes both those who were remunerated and who were not paid for their services. It does not include individuals, most notably Cotton Mather, who were medically literate but did not practice in the community. This list is derived from a much larger population of seventeenth- and early eighteenth-century practitioners identified for a broader examination of early New England medicine. Some of these individuals have not been previously identified as health care practitioners. Isaac Addington (1645-1715) Boston; Thomas Atwood (d. 1682) Hartford, Wethersfield; Nicholas Augur (ca. 1612-1677) New Haven; John Barton (d. 1694) Salem, Marblehead; John Bridgham (1645-1721) Ipswich; Gershom Bulkeley (1636-1713) Wethersfield; Benjamin Bullivant (fl. 1686-1696) Boston; John Buss (1640-1736) Wells, Concord; Samuel Checkley (1661-1712) Boston; John Clark II (d. 1690) Boston; Robert Couch (fl. 1663-1673) Boston, New Hampshire; Anthony Crosby (1635-1673) Rowley; Benjamin Davis (1649-1704) Boston; Mr. Day, Cambridge [see below]; John Dole (1648-1695) Newbury; Joseph Eliot (1638-1694) Guilford; John Emerson (ca. 1641-1700) Gloucester; John Emerson Jr. (1670-1732) Manchester; Zerobabel Endecott (1635-1684) Salem; Renald Fernald (d. 1656) Portsmith; Dr. Fuller (fl. 1659-1663) Essex County [see below]; Bartholemew Gedney (1640-1698) Salem; Thomas Graves (1638-1697) Charlestown; Henry Greenland (1628-ca.1695) Newbury, Portsmith; William Griggs (ca.1618-ca.1698) Gloucester, Salem Village; Nathaniel Hall (fl. 1686-1713) Yarmouth, Boston, Hingham; Thomas Hastings (1652-1712) Hatfield; George Jackson (ca. 1658-ca. 1723) Permaquid, Marblehead; Thomas Maule (1648-1724) Salem; Thomas Oakes (1644-1719) Boston; Thomas Pell (1613-1669) Fairfield; Jonathan Prescott Sr. (d. 1721) Concord; Francis Raynes (fl. 1646-1693) York; Phillip Reade (ca. 1624-1696) Concord; Anthony Randall ["the French doctor"] (fl. 1692) Salem; Bryan Rosseter (d. 1672) Windsor, Guilford; Jeremiah Swain (1643-1710) Reading; Peter Thacher (1651-1727) Barnstable, Milton; Thomas Thacher (1620-1678) Weymouth, Boston; Roger Toothacre (ca. 1634-1692) Billerica; Edward Weld (1666-1702) Salem; Michael Wigglesworth (1631-1705) Malden; John Winthrop (1588-1649) Boston; John Winthrop Jr. (1606-1676) Hartford; Wait Winthrop (1642-1717) Boston; Timothy Woodbridge (ca. 1656-1732) Hartford. The context of the case in which "Mr. Day" the surgeon is mentioned suggests the location to be Cambridge in Massachusetts rather than England. However, I have yet to positively identify this practitioner, nor have I been able identify the particular "Dr. Fuller."
17. The case against Margaret Jones is reported in Richard S. Dunn, James Savage and Laetitia Yeandle, eds., The Journal of John Winthrop 1630-1619 (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press, 1996), pp. 711-12. For Goodwife Glover, see Cotton Mather's Memorial Providences Relating to Witchcrafts and Possessions [originally published in 1689] in George Lincoln Burr, ed., Narrative of the Witchcraft Cases (New York: Barnes and Noble, 1968), pp. 104-5.
18. The case against Margaret Jones is reported in Richard S. Dunn, James Savage and Laetitia Yeandle, eds., The Journal of John Winthrop 1630-1619 (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press, 1996), pp. 711-12. For Goodwife Glover, see Cotton Mather's Memorial Providences Relating to Witchcrafts and Possessions [originally published in 1689] in George Lincoln Burr, ed., Narrative of the Witchcraft Cases (New York: Barnes and Noble, 1968), pp. 104-5.
19. The case against Margaret Jones is reported in Richard S. Dunn, James Savage and Laetitia Yeandle, eds., The Journal of John Winthrop 1630-1619 (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press, 1996), pp. 711-12. For Goodwife Glover, see Cotton Mather's Memorial Providences Relating to Witchcrafts and Possessions [originally published in 1689] in George Lincoln Burr, ed., Narrative of the Witchcraft Cases (New York: Barnes and Noble, 1968), pp. 104-5.
20. For the panic in Hartford, including the diagnosis of Dr. Rosseter, see the set of documents compiled in David D. Hall, ed., Witch-Hunting in Seventeenth Century New England (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1991), pp. 147-63. For the medical diagnosis in Salem Village, see John Hale, A Modest Enquiry into the Nature of Witchcraft [originally published in 1702] (Bainbridge, N.Y.: York Mail-Print Inc., 1973), p. 23.
21. For the panic in Hartford, including the diagnosis of Dr. Rosseter, see the set of documents compiled in David D. Hall, ed., Witch-Hunting in Seventeenth Century New England (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1991), pp. 147-63. For the medical diagnosis in Salem Village, see John Hale, A Modest Enquiry into the Nature of Witchcraft [originally published in 1702] (Bainbridge, N.Y.: York Mail-Print Inc., 1973), p. 23.
22. For Wait Winthrop, see Richard S. Dunn, Puritans and Yankees: The Winthrop Dynasty of New England 1630-1717 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1962), particularly pp. 258-85.
23. For Bartholemew Gedney, see Henry Waters, comp., The Gedney and Clarke Families (n.p., 1880), pp. 11-13.
24. For Gedney's activities as an apothecary, see Essex County Court Transcripts 48-45-3 (21 October 1689) and 52-59-2 (29 March 1692), at the Essex Institute, Salem, Massachusetts. Gedney at his death left drugs and instruments valued at L60.
25. See George Francis Dow, Everyday Life in the Massachusetts Bay Colony (New York: Dover Books, 1988), p. 179.
26. See Leland L. Estes, "The role of medicine and medical theories in the rise and fall of the witch hunts in England," (Ph.D. diss., Chicago: University of Chicago, 1985), pp. 50-89.
27. See George Mora, Witches, Devils and Doctors in the Renaissance: Johann Weyer's De Praestigiis Daemonum (Binghampton, N.Y.: Medieval & Renaissance Texts & Studies, 1991); Mark Edward Clark and Kirk M. Summers, "Hippocratic medicine and Aristotelian science in the 'Daemonum Investigatio Peipatetica' of Andrea Cesalpino," Bull. Hist. Med., 1995, 69, 527-41. Giovanni Baptista Codronchi's De Morbis Veneficis Ac Veneficiis (1595) is discussed by Estes, (n.8), pp. 54-56.
28. See George Mora, Witches, Devils and Doctors in the Renaissance: Johann Weyer's De Praestigiis Daemonum (Binghampton, N.Y.: Medieval & Renaissance Texts & Studies, 1991); Mark Edward Clark and Kirk M. Summers, "Hippocratic medicine and Aristotelian science in the 'Daemonum Investigatio Peipatetica' of Andrea Cesalpino," Bull. Hist. Med., 1995, 69, 527-41. Giovanni Baptista Codronchi's De Morbis Veneficis Ac Veneficiis (1595) is discussed by Estes, (n.8), pp. 54-56.
29. See George Mora, Witches, Devils and Doctors in the Renaissance: Johann Weyer's De Praestigiis Daemonum (Binghampton, N.Y.: Medieval & Renaissance Texts & Studies, 1991); Mark Edward Clark and Kirk M. Summers, "Hippocratic medicine and Aristotelian science in the 'Daemonum Investigatio Peipatetica' of Andrea Cesalpino," Bull. Hist. Med., 1995, 69, 527-41. Giovanni Baptista Codronchi's De Morbis Veneficis Ac Veneficiis (1595) is discussed by Estes, (n.8), pp. 54-56.
30. Edward Jorden, A Brief Discourse of a Disease Called the Suffocation of the Mother (London: John Windet, 1603); John Cotta, The Triall of Witch-Craft [originally published in 1616] (New York: Da Capo Press, 1968); William Drage, Daimonomageia: A Small Treatise of Sicknesses and Diseases from Witchcraft and Supernatural Causes (London: J. Dover, 1665); John Webster, The Displaying of Supposed Witchcraft (London: J.M., 1677). See also Garfield Tourney, "The physician and witchcraft in Restoration England," Med. Hist., 1972, 16, 143-55.
31. Edward Jorden, A Brief Discourse of a Disease Called the Suffocation of the Mother (London: John Windet, 1603); John Cotta, The Triall of Witch-Craft [originally published in 1616] (New York: Da Capo Press, 1968); William Drage, Daimonomageia: A Small Treatise of Sicknesses and Diseases from Witchcraft and Supernatural Causes (London: J. Dover, 1665); John Webster, The Displaying of Supposed Witchcraft (London: J.M., 1677). See also Garfield Tourney, "The physician and witchcraft in Restoration England," Med. Hist., 1972, 16, 143-55.
32. Edward Jorden, A Brief Discourse of a Disease Called the Suffocation of the Mother (London: John Windet, 1603); John Cotta, The Triall of Witch-Craft [originally published in 1616] (New York: Da Capo Press, 1968); William Drage, Daimonomageia: A Small Treatise of Sicknesses and Diseases from Witchcraft and Supernatural Causes (London: J. Dover, 1665); John Webster, The Displaying of Supposed Witchcraft (London: J.M., 1677). See also Garfield Tourney, "The physician and witchcraft in Restoration England," Med. Hist., 1972, 16, 143-55.
33. Edward Jorden, A Brief Discourse of a Disease Called the Suffocation of the Mother (London: John Windet, 1603); John Cotta, The Triall of Witch-Craft [originally published in 1616] (New York: Da Capo Press, 1968); William Drage, Daimonomageia: A Small Treatise of Sicknesses and Diseases from Witchcraft and Supernatural Causes (London: J. Dover, 1665); John Webster, The Displaying of Supposed Witchcraft (London: J.M., 1677). See also Garfield Tourney, "The physician and witchcraft in Restoration England," Med. Hist., 1972, 16, 143-55.
34. Edward Jorden, A Brief Discourse of a Disease Called the Suffocation of the Mother (London: John Windet, 1603); John Cotta, The Triall of Witch-Craft [originally published in 1616] (New York: Da Capo Press, 1968); William Drage, Daimonomageia: A Small Treatise of Sicknesses and Diseases from Witchcraft and Supernatural Causes (London: J. Dover, 1665); John Webster, The Displaying of Supposed Witchcraft (London: J.M., 1677). See also Garfield Tourney, "The physician and witchcraft in Restoration England," Med. Hist., 1972, 16, 143-55.
35. Estes, (n. 9), pp. 53-89.
36. See Patricia Watson, The Angelical Conjunction: The Preacher-Physicians of Colonial New England (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1991), p. 3. Cotton Mather, The Angel of Bethesda (Barre, Mass.: American Antiquarian Society, 1972); Margaret Humphreys Warner, "Vindicating the minister's medical role: Cotton Mather's concept of the Nishmath-Chajim and the spiritualization of medicine" J. Hist. Med., 1981, 36, 278-95.
37. See Patricia Watson, The Angelical Conjunction: The Preacher-Physicians of Colonial New England (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1991), p. 3. Cotton Mather, The Angel of Bethesda (Barre, Mass.: American Antiquarian Society, 1972); Margaret Humphreys Warner, "Vindicating the minister's medical role: Cotton Mather's concept of the Nishmath-Chajim and the spiritualization of medicine" J. Hist. Med., 1981, 36, 278-95.
38. See Patricia Watson, The Angelical Conjunction: The Preacher-Physicians of Colonial New England (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1991), p. 3. Cotton Mather, The Angel of Bethesda (Barre, Mass.: American Antiquarian Society, 1972); Margaret Humphreys Warner, "Vindicating the minister's medical role: Cotton Mather's concept of the Nishmath-Chajim and the spiritualization of medicine" J. Hist. Med., 1981, 36, 278-95.
39. These laws are found in Hall, (n. 7) Witch-Hunting, pp. 315-16.
40. For the distinction between professional and lay definitions of witchcraft, see Keith Thomas, Religion and the Decline of Magic (New York: Scribner, 1971), particularly pp. 435-68; Godbeer, (n. 2) The Devil's Dominion, pp. 153-78.
41. For the distinction between professional and lay definitions of witchcraft, see Keith Thomas, Religion and the Decline of Magic (New York: Scribner, 1971), particularly pp. 435-68; Godbeer, (n. 2) The Devil's Dominion, pp. 153-78.
42. For the clerical literature, see William Perkins, A Discourse on the Damned Art of Witchcraft (Cambridge: University of Cambridge, 1608); Meric Causabon, A Treatise Concerning Enthusiasme (London: Roger Daniel, 1656); and John Gaule, Select Cases of Conscience Touching Witches and Witchcrafts (London: W. Wilson, 1646). For the legal literature, see Robert Filmer, An Advertisement to the Jury-Men of England [originally published 1653] (Exeter: The Rota, 1975); Richard Bernard, A Guide to Grand-Jury Men (London: Felix Kyngston, 1630); and Matthew Hale, A Short Treatise Touching Sherrifs Accompts . . . To Which is Added a Tryal of Witches (London: William Shrowsbery, 1683). Other important works of this period include Thomas Ady, A Candle in the Dark (London: Robert Ibbitson, 1656); and Joseph Glanvill, Saducismus Triumphatus: or, Full and Plain Evidence Concerning Witches and Apparitions (London: J. Collins, 1681). The single most profound early English work on witchcraft was Reginald Scot, Discoverie of Witchcraft [originally published in 1584] (London: R.C., 1651).
43. For the clerical literature, see William Perkins, A Discourse on the Damned Art of Witchcraft (Cambridge: University of Cambridge, 1608); Meric Causabon, A Treatise Concerning Enthusiasme (London: Roger Daniel, 1656); and John Gaule, Select Cases of Conscience Touching Witches and Witchcrafts (London: W. Wilson, 1646). For the legal literature, see Robert Filmer, An Advertisement to the Jury-Men of England [originally published 1653] (Exeter: The Rota, 1975); Richard Bernard, A Guide to Grand-Jury Men (London: Felix Kyngston, 1630); and Matthew Hale, A Short Treatise Touching Sherrifs Accompts . . . To Which is Added a Tryal of Witches (London: William Shrowsbery, 1683). Other important works of this period include Thomas Ady, A Candle in the Dark (London: Robert Ibbitson, 1656); and Joseph Glanvill, Saducismus Triumphatus: or, Full and Plain Evidence Concerning Witches and Apparitions (London: J. Collins, 1681). The single most profound early English work on witchcraft was Reginald Scot, Discoverie of Witchcraft [originally published in 1584] (London: R.C., 1651).
44. For the clerical literature, see William Perkins, A Discourse on the Damned Art of Witchcraft (Cambridge: University of Cambridge, 1608); Meric Causabon, A Treatise Concerning Enthusiasme (London: Roger Daniel, 1656); and John Gaule, Select Cases of Conscience Touching Witches and Witchcrafts (London: W. Wilson, 1646). For the legal literature, see Robert Filmer, An Advertisement to the Jury-Men of England [originally published 1653] (Exeter: The Rota, 1975); Richard Bernard, A Guide to Grand-Jury Men (London: Felix Kyngston, 1630); and Matthew Hale, A Short Treatise Touching Sherrifs Accompts . . . To Which is Added a Tryal of Witches (London: William Shrowsbery, 1683). Other important works of this period include Thomas Ady, A Candle in the Dark (London: Robert Ibbitson, 1656); and Joseph Glanvill, Saducismus Triumphatus: or, Full and Plain Evidence Concerning Witches and Apparitions (London: J. Collins, 1681). The single most profound early English work on witchcraft was Reginald Scot, Discoverie of Witchcraft [originally published in 1584] (London: R.C., 1651).
45. For the clerical literature, see William Perkins, A Discourse on the Damned Art of Witchcraft (Cambridge: University of Cambridge, 1608); Meric Causabon, A Treatise Concerning Enthusiasme (London: Roger Daniel, 1656); and John Gaule, Select Cases of Conscience Touching Witches and Witchcrafts (London: W. Wilson, 1646). For the legal literature, see Robert Filmer, An Advertisement to the Jury-Men of England [originally published 1653] (Exeter: The Rota, 1975); Richard Bernard, A Guide to Grand-Jury Men (London: Felix Kyngston, 1630); and Matthew Hale, A Short Treatise Touching Sherrifs Accompts . . . To Which is Added a Tryal of Witches (London: William Shrowsbery, 1683). Other important works of this period include Thomas Ady, A Candle in the Dark (London: Robert Ibbitson, 1656); and Joseph Glanvill, Saducismus Triumphatus: or, Full and Plain Evidence Concerning Witches and Apparitions (London: J. Collins, 1681). The single most profound early English work on witchcraft was Reginald Scot, Discoverie of Witchcraft [originally published in 1584] (London: R.C., 1651).
46. For the clerical literature, see William Perkins, A Discourse on the Damned Art of Witchcraft (Cambridge: University of Cambridge, 1608); Meric Causabon, A Treatise Concerning Enthusiasme (London: Roger Daniel, 1656); and John Gaule, Select Cases of Conscience Touching Witches and Witchcrafts (London: W. Wilson, 1646). For the legal literature, see Robert Filmer, An Advertisement to the Jury-Men of England [originally published 1653] (Exeter: The Rota, 1975); Richard Bernard, A Guide to Grand-Jury Men (London: Felix Kyngston, 1630); and Matthew Hale, A Short Treatise Touching Sherrifs Accompts . . . To Which is Added a Tryal of Witches (London: William Shrowsbery, 1683). Other important works of this period include Thomas Ady, A Candle in the Dark (London: Robert Ibbitson, 1656); and Joseph Glanvill, Saducismus Triumphatus: or, Full and Plain Evidence Concerning Witches and Apparitions (London: J. Collins, 1681). The single most profound early English work on witchcraft was Reginald Scot, Discoverie of Witchcraft [originally published in 1584] (London: R.C., 1651).
47. For the clerical literature, see William Perkins, A Discourse on the Damned Art of Witchcraft (Cambridge: University of Cambridge, 1608); Meric Causabon, A Treatise Concerning Enthusiasme (London: Roger Daniel, 1656); and John Gaule, Select Cases of Conscience Touching Witches and Witchcrafts (London: W. Wilson, 1646). For the legal literature, see Robert Filmer, An Advertisement to the Jury-Men of England [originally published 1653] (Exeter: The Rota, 1975); Richard Bernard, A Guide to Grand-Jury Men (London: Felix Kyngston, 1630); and Matthew Hale, A Short Treatise Touching Sherrifs Accompts . . . To Which is Added a Tryal of Witches (London: William Shrowsbery, 1683). Other important works of this period include Thomas Ady, A Candle in the Dark (London: Robert Ibbitson, 1656); and Joseph Glanvill, Saducismus Triumphatus: or, Full and Plain Evidence Concerning Witches and Apparitions (London: J. Collins, 1681). The single most profound early English work on witchcraft was Reginald Scot, Discoverie of Witchcraft [originally published in 1584] (London: R.C., 1651).
48. For the clerical literature, see William Perkins, A Discourse on the Damned Art of Witchcraft (Cambridge: University of Cambridge, 1608); Meric Causabon, A Treatise Concerning Enthusiasme (London: Roger Daniel, 1656); and John Gaule, Select Cases of Conscience Touching Witches and Witchcrafts (London: W. Wilson, 1646). For the legal literature, see Robert Filmer, An Advertisement to the Jury-Men of England [originally published 1653] (Exeter: The Rota, 1975); Richard Bernard, A Guide to Grand-Jury Men (London: Felix Kyngston, 1630); and Matthew Hale, A Short Treatise Touching Sherrifs Accompts . . . To Which is Added a Tryal of Witches (London: William Shrowsbery, 1683). Other important works of this period include Thomas Ady, A Candle in the Dark (London: Robert Ibbitson, 1656); and Joseph Glanvill, Saducismus Triumphatus: or, Full and Plain Evidence Concerning Witches and Apparitions (London: J. Collins, 1681). The single most profound early English work on witchcraft was Reginald Scot, Discoverie of Witchcraft [originally published in 1584] (London: R.C., 1651).
49. For the clerical literature, see William Perkins, A Discourse on the Damned Art of Witchcraft (Cambridge: University of Cambridge, 1608); Meric Causabon, A Treatise Concerning Enthusiasme (London: Roger Daniel, 1656); and John Gaule, Select Cases of Conscience Touching Witches and Witchcrafts (London: W. Wilson, 1646). For the legal literature, see Robert Filmer, An Advertisement to the Jury-Men of England [originally published 1653] (Exeter: The Rota, 1975); Richard Bernard, A Guide to Grand-Jury Men (London: Felix Kyngston, 1630); and Matthew Hale, A Short Treatise Touching Sherrifs Accompts . . . To Which is Added a Tryal of Witches (London: William Shrowsbery, 1683). Other important works of this period include Thomas Ady, A Candle in the Dark (London: Robert Ibbitson, 1656); and Joseph Glanvill, Saducismus Triumphatus: or, Full and Plain Evidence Concerning Witches and Apparitions (London: J. Collins, 1681). The single most profound early English work on witchcraft was Reginald Scot, Discoverie of Witchcraft [originally published in 1584] (London: R.C., 1651).
50. For the clerical literature, see William Perkins, A Discourse on the Damned Art of Witchcraft (Cambridge: University of Cambridge, 1608); Meric Causabon, A Treatise Concerning Enthusiasme (London: Roger Daniel, 1656); and John Gaule, Select Cases of Conscience Touching Witches and Witchcrafts (London: W. Wilson, 1646). For the legal literature, see Robert Filmer, An Advertisement to the Jury-Men of England [originally published 1653] (Exeter: The Rota, 1975); Richard Bernard, A Guide to Grand-Jury Men (London: Felix Kyngston, 1630); and Matthew Hale, A Short Treatise Touching Sherrifs Accompts . . . To Which is Added a Tryal of Witches (London: William Shrowsbery, 1683). Other important works of this period include Thomas Ady, A Candle in the Dark (London: Robert Ibbitson, 1656); and Joseph Glanvill, Saducismus Triumphatus: or, Full and Plain Evidence Concerning Witches and Apparitions (London: J. Collins, 1681). The single most profound early English work on witchcraft was Reginald Scot, Discoverie of Witchcraft [originally published in 1584] (London: R.C., 1651).
51. Thomas Willis, "A medical philosophical discourse of fermentation," in The Remaining Works of . . . Dr. Thomas Willis (London: T. Dring, 1681), pp. 48-49.
52. The literature on colonial New England medical education and practice focuses more on the eighteenth century than the seventeenth century. Nevertheless, see Philip Cash, Eric Christianson, and J. Worth Estes, eds., Medicine in Colonial Massachusetts, 1620-1820 (Boston: University of Virginia Press, 1980);
53. Ronald L. Numbers, ed., Medicine in the New World: New Spain, New France and New England (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1987),
54. Watson, (n. 13) The Angelical Conjunction;
55. Norman Gevitz, "Samuel Fuller of Plymouth Plantation: A 'Skillful Physician' or 'Quacksalver,'" J. Hist. Med., 1992, 47, 29-48;
56. Malcolm Sydney Beinfeld, "The Early New England doctor: An adaptation to a provincial environment," Yale J. Biol. Med., 1942, 15, 99-132, 271-88.
57. See Karlsen, (n. 2) The Devil, pp. 141-44.
58. In May 1649, the General Court of Massachusetts "decreed that no person or persons whatsoever that are employed about the bodies of men, women, or children, for preservation of life or health, (as physicians, chirurgeons, midwives, or others) presume to exercise or put forth any act contrary to the known rules of art, nor exercise any force, violence, or cruelty upon or towards the bodies of any, whether young or old (no, not in the most difficult and desperate cases) without the advice and consent of such as are skilful in the same art, if such may be had . . . " Records of Massachusetts Bay, 1642-1649 (Boston: William White, 1853), vol. 2, 278-79.
59. Some of the domestic remedies of colonists were collected by John Josselyn in his New England's Rarities Discovered [originally published in 1672] reprinted in Trans. Collect. Am. Antiq. Soc., 1860, 4, 107-237.
60. Some of the domestic remedies of colonists were collected by John Josselyn in his New England's Rarities Discovered [originally published in 1672] reprinted in Trans. Collect. Am. Antiq. Soc., 1860, 4, 107-237.
61. Hall, (n. 7) Witchcraft Hunting, pp. 180-81.
62. Ibid., p. 186.
63. Ibid., pp. 192-93.
64. Mather, (n. 6) Memorial Providences, p. 101.
65. Paul Boyer and Stephen Nissenbaum, eds., The Salem Witchcraft Papers (New York: Da Capo Press, 1977), vol. 1, 124-25.
66. Ibid., vol. 2, 558-59.
67. Ibid., vol. 1, 189.
68. Ibid., vol. 3, 812-13.
69. Ibid., vol. 2, pp. 601-2.
70. Eyewitness John Hale reported, "These children were bitten and pinched by invisible agents; their arms, necks, and backs turned this way and that way and returned back again, so as it was impossible for them to do of themselves, and beyond the power of any epileptic fits or natural disease to effect. Sometimes they were taken dumb, their mouths stopped, their throats choaked, their limbs wracked and tormented." Hale, (n. 7) A Modest Enquiry, p. 24.
71. See David D. Hall, Worlds of Wonder, Days of Judgment: Popular Religious Belief in Early New England (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1989), pp. 71-116.
72. Godbeer, (n. 2) The Devil's Dominion, pp. 77-83, Demos, (n. 2) Entertaining Satan, pp. 182-84.
73. Godbeer, (n. 2) The Devil's Dominion, pp. 77-83, Demos, (n. 2) Entertaining Satan, pp. 182-84.
74. Cotta, (n. 11) The Triall of Witch-Craft, pp. 70-80.
75. For Rosseter's complete autopsy findings and documents relating to this case, see Hall, (n. 7) Witch-Hunting, pp. 152-56.
76. Boyer and Nissenbaum, (n. 25) The Salem Witchcraft Papers, vol. 2, 665.
77. Ibid., vol. 1, 52-53.
78. Ibid., vol. 1, 185.
79. Ibid., vol. 2, 390.
80. Ibid., vol. 3, 793.
81. For contemporary understandings of mental disease, see Michael MacDonald, Mystical Bedlam: Madness, Anxiety, and Healing in Seventeenth-Century England (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981); Robert Burton, The Anatomy of Melancholy [originally published in 1621] (London: Thomas Tegg, 1845). See also Stanley Jackson, "Robert Burton and psychological healing," J. Hist. Med., 1989, 44, 160-78; Larry D. Eldridge, "'Crazy brained': Mental illness in Colonial America," Bull. Hist. Med., 1996, 70, 361-86.
82. For contemporary understandings of mental disease, see Michael MacDonald, Mystical Bedlam: Madness, Anxiety, and Healing in Seventeenth-Century England (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981); Robert Burton, The Anatomy of Melancholy [originally published in 1621] (London: Thomas Tegg, 1845). See also Stanley Jackson, "Robert Burton and psychological healing," J. Hist. Med., 1989, 44, 160-78; Larry D. Eldridge, "'Crazy brained': Mental illness in Colonial America," Bull. Hist. Med., 1996, 70, 361-86.
83. For contemporary understandings of mental disease, see Michael MacDonald, Mystical Bedlam: Madness, Anxiety, and Healing in Seventeenth-Century England (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981); Robert Burton, The Anatomy of Melancholy [originally published in 1621] (London: Thomas Tegg, 1845). See also Stanley Jackson, "Robert Burton and psychological healing," J. Hist. Med., 1989, 44, 160-78; Larry D. Eldridge, "'Crazy brained': Mental illness in Colonial America," Bull. Hist. Med., 1996, 70, 361-86.
84. For contemporary understandings of mental disease, see Michael MacDonald, Mystical Bedlam: Madness, Anxiety, and Healing in Seventeenth-Century England (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981); Robert Burton, The Anatomy of Melancholy [originally published in 1621] (London: Thomas Tegg, 1845). See also Stanley Jackson, "Robert Burton and psychological healing," J. Hist. Med., 1989, 44, 160-78; Larry D. Eldridge, "'Crazy brained': Mental illness in Colonial America," Bull. Hist. Med., 1996, 70, 361-86.
85. Cotta, (n. 11) The Triall, pp. 83-84.
86. Boyer and Nissenbaum, (n. 26) Salem Witchcraft Papers, vol. 1, 250.
87. Ibid., vol. 1, 185.
88. Ibid., vol. 3, 734.
89. Ibid., vol. 1, 251.
90. Deodat Lawson, A Brief and True Narrative of Some Remarkable Passages Relating to Sundry Persons Afflicted by Witchcraft, at Salem Village . . . [originally published in 1692] in Burr, (n. 6) Narratives, pp. 161-62.
91. Deodat Lawson, A Brief and True Narrative of Some Remarkable Passages Relating to Sundry Persons Afflicted by Witchcraft, at Salem Village . . . [originally published in 1692] in Burr, (n. 6) Narratives, pp. 161-62.
92. Estes, (n. 9), p. 67.
93. Hale, (n. 7) A Modest Enquiry, pp. 42-43.
94. Hall, (n. 7) Witch-Hunting, pp. 201-2.
95. Ibid.
96. Increase Mather, An Essay For The Recording of Illustrious Providences [originally published in 1684] (New York: Garland, 1977), p. 263.
97. See Ilza Veith, Hysteria: The History of a Disease (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965), pp. 10-36.
98. Jorden, ( n. 11) A Brief Discourse. For other original materials relating to this case and counter-arguments, see Michael MacDonald, ed., Witchcraft and Hysteria in Elizabethan London: Edward Jorden and the Mary Glover Case (London: Routledge, 1991).
99. Jorden, ( n. 11) A Brief Discourse. For other original materials relating to this case and counter-arguments, see Michael MacDonald, ed., Witchcraft and Hysteria in Elizabethan London: Edward Jorden and the Mary Glover Case (London: Routledge, 1991).
100. Burton, (n. 41) The Anatomy of Melancholy, pp. 271-75; William Harvey, "On parturition," in The Works of William Harvey (London: Sydenham Society, 1847) pp. 242-46; Thomas Willis, An Essay of the Pathology of the Brain and Nervous Stock . . . (London: T. Dring, 1684), pp. 69-78; Thomas Sydenham, The Works of Thomas Sydenham (London: Sydenham Society, 1848), vol. 2, 95; Veith, (n. 53) Hysteria, pp. 130-47.
101. Burton, (n. 41) The Anatomy of Melancholy, pp. 271-75; William Harvey, "On parturition," in The Works of William Harvey (London: Sydenham Society, 1847) pp. 242-46; Thomas Willis, An Essay of the Pathology of the Brain and Nervous Stock . . . (London: T. Dring, 1684), pp. 69-78; Thomas Sydenham, The Works of Thomas Sydenham (London: Sydenham Society, 1848), vol. 2, 95; Veith, (n. 53) Hysteria, pp. 130-47.
102. Burton, (n. 41) The Anatomy of Melancholy, pp. 271-75; William Harvey, "On parturition," in The Works of William Harvey (London: Sydenham Society, 1847) pp. 242-46; Thomas Willis, An Essay of the Pathology of the Brain and Nervous Stock . . . (London: T. Dring, 1684), pp. 69-78; Thomas Sydenham, The Works of Thomas Sydenham (London: Sydenham Society, 1848), vol. 2, 95; Veith, (n. 53) Hysteria, pp. 130-47.
103. Burton, (n. 41) The Anatomy of Melancholy, pp. 271-75; William Harvey, "On parturition," in The Works of William Harvey (London: Sydenham Society, 1847) pp. 242-46; Thomas Willis, An Essay of the Pathology of the Brain and Nervous Stock . . . (London: T. Dring, 1684), pp. 69-78; Thomas Sydenham, The Works of Thomas Sydenham (London: Sydenham Society, 1848), vol. 2, 95; Veith, (n. 53) Hysteria, pp. 130-47.
104. Burton, (n. 41) The Anatomy of Melancholy, pp. 271-75; William Harvey, "On parturition," in The Works of William Harvey (London: Sydenham Society, 1847) pp. 242-46; Thomas Willis, An Essay of the Pathology of the Brain and Nervous Stock . . . (London: T. Dring, 1684), pp. 69-78; Thomas Sydenham, The Works of Thomas Sydenham (London: Sydenham Society, 1848), vol. 2, 95; Veith, (n. 53) Hysteria, pp. 130-47.
105. Cotton Mather, "Another brand pluckt out of the burning," in Robert Calef, More Wonders of the Invisible World [originally published in 1700] (Bainbridge, N.Y.: York Mail-Print, Inc., 1972), p. 6.
106. Nicholas Augur to John Winthrop Jr., 17 June 1653, in Malcolm Freiberg, ed., Winthrop Papers VI (Boston: Massachusetts Historical Society, 1992), pp. 300-2.
107. See Edwin P. Augur, Family History and Genealogy of the Descendants of Robert Augur of New Haven Colony (Middletown, Conn.: Pelton and King, 1904), pp. 9-14. Other later unpublished letters from Augur on different cases, dated 9 July 1663 and 2 May 1670, are found in the Winthrop Papers Collection at the Massachusetts Historical Society, Boston.
108. See Robert Black, The Younger John Winthrop (New York: Columbia University Press, 1966); Dunn, (n. 8) Puritans and Yankees, pp. 80-96; Ronald Sterne Wilkinson, "The alchemical library of John Winthrop Jr. (1606-1670) and his descendants in Colonial America," Ambix, 1963, 11, 33-51. Winthrop's early medical correspondence can be found in Freiberg, (n. 57) Winthrop Papers. The bulk of his medical writings remain unpublished.
109. See Robert Black, The Younger John Winthrop (New York: Columbia University Press, 1966); Dunn, (n. 8) Puritans and Yankees, pp. 80-96; Ronald Sterne Wilkinson, "The alchemical library of John Winthrop Jr. (1606-1670) and his descendants in Colonial America," Ambix, 1963, 11, 33-51. Winthrop's early medical correspondence can be found in Freiberg, (n. 57) Winthrop Papers. The bulk of his medical writings remain unpublished.
110. See Robert Black, The Younger John Winthrop (New York: Columbia University Press, 1966); Dunn, (n. 8) Puritans and Yankees, pp. 80-96; Ronald Sterne Wilkinson, "The alchemical library of John Winthrop Jr. (1606-1670) and his descendants in Colonial America," Ambix, 1963, 11, 33-51. Winthrop's early medical correspondence can be found in Freiberg, (n. 57) Winthrop Papers. The bulk of his medical writings remain unpublished.
111. See Robert Black, The Younger John Winthrop (New York: Columbia University Press, 1966); Dunn, (n. 8) Puritans and Yankees, pp. 80-96; Ronald Sterne Wilkinson, "The alchemical library of John Winthrop Jr. (1606-1670) and his descendants in Colonial America," Ambix, 1963, 11, 33-51. Winthrop's early medical correspondence can be found in Freiberg, (n. 57) Winthrop Papers. The bulk of his medical writings remain unpublished.
112. Freiberg, (n. 57) Winthrop Papers, pp. 300-1.
113. Ibid., p. 301.
114. Ibid.
115. Ibid.
116. Ibid.
117. Ibid.
118. For Elizabeth Godman's continuing troubles and fate, see Hall, (n. 7) Witch-Hunting, PP- 72-73.
119. Boyer and Nissenbaum, (n. 26) Salem Witchcraft Papers, vol. 2, 595.
120. Ibid., vol. 3, 813.
121. Demos, (n. 2) Entertaining Satan, pp. 401-9; Godbeer, (n. 2) Devil's Dominion, pp. 235-42.
122. Demos, (n. 2) Entertaining Satan, pp. 401-9; Godbeer, (n. 2) Devil's Dominion, pp. 235-42.
123. Nathaniel Greensmith, Rebecca Greensmith, probably Mary Barnes, and possibly Mary Sanford were executed as a result of the Hartford witch hunt early in 1663 while Winthrop was abroad. After Winthrop returned, he refused to carry out the sentence against Elizabeth Seager rendered by the court in 1665. In 1670, Winthrop was part of the court that set aside the death sentence of Katherine Harrison. See Hall, (n. 7) Witch-Hunting, pp. 147, 184; Black, (n. 59) The Younger John Winthrop, pp. 180-81.
124. Nathaniel Greensmith, Rebecca Greensmith, probably Mary Barnes, and possibly Mary Sanford were executed as a result of the Hartford witch hunt early in 1663 while Winthrop was abroad. After Winthrop returned, he refused to carry out the sentence against Elizabeth Seager rendered by the court in 1665. In 1670, Winthrop was part of the court that set aside the death sentence of Katherine Harrison. See Hall, (n. 7) Witch-Hunting, pp. 147, 184; Black, (n. 59) The Younger John Winthrop, pp. 180-81.
125. Thomas Thacher to John Wilson and others, 27 February 1653/4, in Freiberg, (n. 57) Winthrop Papers VI, pp. 362-64.
126. Hale, (n. 7) A Modest Enquiry, pp. 64-65.
127. Hall, (n. 7) Witch-Hunting, p. 258.
128. Mather, (n. 6) Memorial Providences, p. 101.
129. Boyer and Nissenbaum, (n. 26) Salem Witchcraft Papers, vol. 2, 439.
130. Eleanor Davis Crosby, Simon Crosby the Emmigrant (Boston: George H. Ellis, 1914), pp. 33-35.
131. Boyer and Nissenbaum, (n. 26) Salem Witchcraft Papers, vol. 2, 559.
132. Ibid., vol 1, 124-25.
133. Trial records for Mary Bradbury are in ibid., vol. 1, 115-29.
134. See Records and Files of the Quarterly Courts of Essex County, Massachusetts (Salem: Essex Institute, 1912), vol. 2, 226-32. Dr. Phillip Reade's testimony in 1669 was directed at Lynn doctress Ann Burt. See Hall, (n. 7) Witch-Hunting, pp. 185-88.
135. See Records and Files of the Quarterly Courts of Essex County, Massachusetts (Salem: Essex Institute, 1912), vol. 2, 226-32. Dr. Phillip Reade's testimony in 1669 was directed at Lynn doctress Ann Burt. See Hall, (n. 7) Witch-Hunting, pp. 185-88.
136. Karlsen, (n. 2) The Devil, pp. 62-63.
137. Records and Files, (n. 80), vol. 5, 35-36.
138. Boyer and Nissenbaum, (n. 26) Salem Witchcraft Papers, vol. 3, 821.
139. Hall, (n. 7) Witch-Hunting, p. 186.
140. See Andrew V. Rapoza, "The trials of Phillip Reade, seventeenth-century itinerant physician," Dublin Semin. N. Engl. Folkife, 1992, 15, 82-94.
141. Boyer and Nissenbaum, (n. 26) Salem Witchcraft Papers, vol. 3, 769, 771-73.
142. Marion L. Starkey, The Devil in Massachusetts [originally published in 1949] (New York: Doubleday, 1969), pp. 42-43;
143. Godbeer, (n. 2) Devil's Dominion, p. 81;
144. Boyer and Nissebaum, (n. 2) Salem Possessed, p. 2.
145. Boyer and Nissenbaum, (n. 26) Salem Witchcraft Papers, vol. 2, 672, Lawson, (n. 48) Brief and True, pp. 152-53; Paul Boyer and Stephen Nissenbaum, eds., Salem Village Witchcraft: A Documentary Record of Local Conflict in New England (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1993), pp. 262-63. For biographical information on Griggs, see Harriet S. Tapley, "Early physicians of Danvers," Hist. Collect. Danvers Hist. Soc., 1916, 4, 83-87; H. Minot Pitman, "Early Griggs families of Massachusetts," N. Engl. Hist. Geneal. Reg., 1969, 123, 169-73. Anthony S. Patton, "The witch doctor" Harvard Med. Bull., 1999, 72, 35-39 accepts without question that Griggs made the fateful diagnosis that the girls were under an "evil hand."
146. Boyer and Nissenbaum, (n. 26) Salem Witchcraft Papers, vol. 2, 672, Lawson, (n. 48) Brief and True, pp. 152-53; Paul Boyer and Stephen Nissenbaum, eds., Salem Village Witchcraft: A Documentary Record of Local Conflict in New England (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1993), pp. 262-63. For biographical information on Griggs, see Harriet S. Tapley, "Early physicians of Danvers," Hist. Collect. Danvers Hist. Soc., 1916, 4, 83-87; H. Minot Pitman, "Early Griggs families of Massachusetts," N. Engl. Hist. Geneal. Reg., 1969, 123, 169-73. Anthony S. Patton, "The witch doctor" Harvard Med. Bull., 1999, 72, 35-39 accepts without question that Griggs made the fateful diagnosis that the girls were under an "evil hand."
147. Boyer and Nissenbaum, (n. 26) Salem Witchcraft Papers, vol. 2, 672, Lawson, (n. 48) Brief and True, pp. 152-53; Paul Boyer and Stephen Nissenbaum, eds., Salem Village Witchcraft: A Documentary Record of Local Conflict in New England (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1993), pp. 262-63. For biographical information on Griggs, see Harriet S. Tapley, "Early physicians of Danvers," Hist. Collect. Danvers Hist. Soc., 1916, 4, 83-87; H. Minot Pitman, "Early Griggs families of Massachusetts," N. Engl. Hist. Geneal. Reg., 1969, 123, 169-73. Anthony S. Patton, "The witch doctor" Harvard Med. Bull., 1999, 72, 35-39 accepts without question that Griggs made the fateful diagnosis that the girls were under an "evil hand."
148. Boyer and Nissenbaum, (n. 26) Salem Witchcraft Papers, vol. 2, 672, Lawson, (n. 48) Brief and True, pp. 152-53; Paul Boyer and Stephen Nissenbaum, eds., Salem Village Witchcraft: A Documentary Record of Local Conflict in New England (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1993), pp. 262-63. For biographical information on Griggs, see Harriet S. Tapley, "Early physicians of Danvers," Hist. Collect. Danvers Hist. Soc., 1916, 4, 83-87; H. Minot Pitman, "Early Griggs families of Massachusetts," N. Engl. Hist. Geneal. Reg., 1969, 123, 169-73. Anthony S. Patton, "The witch doctor" Harvard Med. Bull., 1999, 72, 35-39 accepts without question that Griggs made the fateful diagnosis that the girls were under an "evil hand."
149. Boyer and Nissenbaum, (n. 26) Salem Witchcraft Papers, vol. 2, 672, Lawson, (n. 48) Brief and True, pp. 152-53; Paul Boyer and Stephen Nissenbaum, eds., Salem Village Witchcraft: A Documentary Record of Local Conflict in New England (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1993), pp. 262-63. For biographical information on Griggs, see Harriet S. Tapley, "Early physicians of Danvers," Hist. Collect. Danvers Hist. Soc., 1916, 4, 83-87; H. Minot Pitman, "Early Griggs families of Massachusetts," N. Engl. Hist. Geneal. Reg., 1969, 123, 169-73. Anthony S. Patton, "The witch doctor" Harvard Med. Bull., 1999, 72, 35-39 accepts without question that Griggs made the fateful diagnosis that the girls were under an "evil hand."
150. Boyer and Nissenbaum, (n. 26) Salem Witchcraft Papers, vol. 2, 672, Lawson, (n. 48) Brief and True, pp. 152-53; Paul Boyer and Stephen Nissenbaum, eds., Salem Village Witchcraft: A Documentary Record of Local Conflict in New England (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1993), pp. 262-63. For biographical information on Griggs, see Harriet S. Tapley, "Early physicians of Danvers," Hist. Collect. Danvers Hist. Soc., 1916, 4, 83-87; H. Minot Pitman, "Early Griggs families of Massachusetts," N. Engl. Hist. Geneal. Reg., 1969, 123, 169-73. Anthony S. Patton, "The witch doctor" Harvard Med. Bull., 1999, 72, 35-39 accepts without question that Griggs made the fateful diagnosis that the girls were under an "evil hand."
151. Hale, (n. 7) A Modest Enquiry, p. 23.
152. For John Barton, see Boyer and Nissenbaum (n. 26) Salem Witchcraft Papers, vol. 1, 106-8. Other physicians in the near vicinity of Salem Village in 1692 were John Fiske of Wenham, Samuel Hardie of Beverly, David Bennett of Rowley, Philemon Dane of Ipswich, and James Holgrave of Salem.
153. Dunn, (n. 8) Puritans and Yankees, pp. 229-85.
154. Mather, (n. 6) Memorial Providences, pp. 93-95.
155. Thomas Brattle, "Letter dated October 8, 1692," in Burr, (n. 6) Narratives, p. 171.
156. Ibid.
157. Wait's son John, who also practiced medicine gave credence in 1716 to similar types of sympathetic correspondences of even earlier vintage. See John Winthrop to Cotton Mather, New London, 5 November 1716, in Mass. Hist. Soc. Coll. 6th Ser., 1892, 5, 333-34.
158. Boyer and Nissenbaum, (n. 26) Salem Witchcraft Papers, vol. 2, 246, 673.
159. Godbeer, (n. 2) Devil's Dominion, pp. 216-22, Hoffer, (n. 2) The Devil's Disciples, pp. 179-98.
160. Godbeer, (n. 2) Devil's Dominion, pp. 216-22, Hoffer, (n. 2) The Devil's Disciples, pp. 179-98.
161. Brattle, (n. 93) Letter, p. 184.
162. Hansen, (n. 4) Witchcraft at Salem, pp. 157-58.
163. Hansen, (n. 4) Witchcraft at Salem, pp. 156-57; Hall (n. 7) Witch-Hunting, pp. 182-83; Thomas W. Jodziewicz, "A stranger in the land: Gershom Bulkeley of Connecticut," Trans. Am. Phil. Soc., 1988, 78, part 2, 52-53.
164. Hansen, (n. 4) Witchcraft at Salem, pp. 156-57; Hall (n. 7) Witch-Hunting, pp. 182-83; Thomas W. Jodziewicz, "A stranger in the land: Gershom Bulkeley of Connecticut," Trans. Am. Phil. Soc., 1988, 78, part 2, 52-53.
165. Hansen, (n. 4) Witchcraft at Salem, pp. 156-57; Hall (n. 7) Witch-Hunting, pp. 182-83; Thomas W. Jodziewicz, "A stranger in the land: Gershom Bulkeley of Connecticut," Trans. Am. Phil. Soc., 1988, 78, part 2, 52-53.
166. Gershom Bulkeley to [Benjamin Davis], 15 March 1700/1, Jeffries Papers, Massachusetts Historical Society. This letter is partially printed in Jodziewicz, (n. 100), p. 53.
167. th centuries," Pharm. Hist., in press.
168. th centuries," Pharm. Hist., in press.
169. th centuries," Pharm. Hist., in press.
170. th centuries," Pharm. Hist., in press.
171. th centuries," Pharm. Hist., in press.
172. John Langdon Sibley, Biographical Sketches of Graduates of Harvard University (Cambridge, Mass.: C.W. Sever, 1873), vol. 1, pp. 277-79.
173. George Lincoln, History of Hingham (Cambridge, Mass.: Town of Cambridge, 1893), vol. 1, 314.
174. For the decline but persistence in America of such beliefs, see Herbert Leventhal, In the Shadow of the Enlightenment: Occultism and Renaissance Science in Eighteenth Century America (New York: New York University Press, 1976).
175. See Thomas, (n. 15) Religion, pp. 641-68. One of the last significant European medical figures to publicly maintain a belief in witchcraft was Friedrich Hoffman (1660-1742). See Lester S. King, "Friedrich Hoffman and some medical aspects of witchcraft," Clio Med., 1974, 9, 299-309.
176. See Thomas, (n. 15) Religion, pp. 641-68. One of the last significant European medical figures to publicly maintain a belief in witchcraft was Friedrich Hoffman (1660-1742). See Lester S. King, "Friedrich Hoffman and some medical aspects of witchcraft," Clio Med., 1974, 9, 299-309.