Cytological, genetic and evolutionary functions of chiasmata based on chiasma graph analysis

Journal of Theoretical Biology

Volumn 198, Issue 2, 1999, Pages 239-257

  Imai, Hirotami T ^a   Wada, Masayasu Y ^b   Hirai, Hirohisa ^c   Matsuda, Yoichi ^d   Tsuchiya, Kimiyuki ^e  

^a NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF GENETICS   (Japan)

^b Amagi Wild Boor Park   (Japan)

^c KYOTO UNIVERSITY   (Japan)

^d NAGOYA UNIVERSITY   (Japan)

^e UNIVERSITY OF MIYAZAKI   (Japan)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ANIMAL TISSUE; ARTICLE; CENTROMERE; CHROMOSOME CHIASM; CROSSING OVER; CYTOLOGY; EVOLUTION; IN SITU HYBRIDIZATION; MALE; NONHUMAN; PRIORITY JOURNAL; TELOMERE;

ANIMALIA; MUS PLATYTHRIX;

EID: 0033591402     PISSN: 00225193     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1006/jtbi.1999.0913     Document Type: Article

References (168)

1. Antonio, C., Gonzalez-Garcia, J. M. & Suja, J. A. (1993). Pycnotic cycle of the sex chromosome of Pyrgomorpha conica (Orthoptera) and development of spermatogenesis. Genome 36, 535-541.
2. Ashley, T. (1994). Mammalian meiotic recombination: A reexamination. Hum. Genet. 94, 587-593.
3. Ashley, T., Jaarola, M. & Fredga, K. (1989a). The behavior during pachynema of a normal and an inverted Y chromosome in Microtus agrestis. Hereditas 111, 281-294.
4. Ashley, T., Jaarola, M. & Fredga, K. (1989b). Absence of synapsis during pachynema of the normal sized sex chromosomes of Microtus arvalis. Hereditas 111, 295-304.
5. Baker, S. M., Plug, A. W., Prolla, T. A., Bronner, C. E., Harris, A. C., Yao, X., Christie, D.-M., Monell, C., Arnheim, N., Bradley, A., Ashley, T. & Liskay, R. M. (1996). Involvment of mouse Mlhl in DNA mismatch repair and meiotic crossing over. Nature Genet. 13, 336-342.
6. Böök, J. A. & Kjessler, B. (1964). Meiosis in the human male. Cytogenetics 3, 143-147.
7. Borodin, P. M., Sablina, O. V. & Rodionova, M. I. (1995) Pattern of X-Y chromosome pairing in microtine rodents. Hereditas 123, 17-23.
8. Breckon, G. & Savage, J. R. K. (1982). Homozygous deficiency: Syrian hamsters with only 42 chromosomes. Cytogenet. Cell Genet. 33, 285-294.
9. Buss, M. E. & Henderson, S. A. (1988). The effects of elevated temperature on chiasma formation in Locusta migratoria. Chromosoma 97, 235-246.
10. Camacho, J. P. M., Carballo, A. R. & Cebrero, J. (1980) The B-chromosome system of the grasshopper Eyprepocnemis plorans subsp. plorans (Charpentier). Chromosoma 80, 163-176.
11. Cardoso, H., Saez, F. A. & Brum-Zorrilla, N. (1974). Location, structure and behaviour of C-heterochromatin during meiosis in Dichroplus silveiraguidoi (Acrididae-Orthoptera). Chromosoma 48, 51-64.
12. Carpenter, A. T. C. (1975). Electron microscopy of meiosis in drosophila melanogaster females: II: The recombination nodule - a recombination-associated structure at pachytene? Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 72, 3186-3189.
13. Carpenter, A. T. C. (1987). Gene conversion, recombination nodules, and the initiation of meiotic synapsis. Bioessays 6, 232-236.
14. Castro-Sierra, E. & Wolf, U. (1968). Studies on the male meiosis of Ellobius lutescens Th. Cytogenetics 7, 241-248.
15. Cavalier-Smith, T. (1985). The Evolution Of Genome Size. Chichester: Wiley.
16. Chandler, M., Green, D. M., Taylor, A., Zeyl, C. W. & Sharbel, T. F. (1993). Chiasma frequency in frogs of the genus Leiopelma (Amphibia; Anura) and a test of the hypothesis of inducible recombination. Hereditas 118, 205-210.
17. Chandley, A. C. (1989). The handling and analysis of meiotic cells in domestic and laboratory animals. In: Cytogenetics Of Animals (Halnan, C. R. E., ed.) pp. 41-56. Wallingford: C.A.B. International.
18. Charles, D. R. (1938). The spatial distribution of cross-overs in X-chromosome tetrads of Drosophila melanogaster. J. Genet. 36, 103-126.
19. Darlington, C. D. (1929). Chromosome bahaviour and structural hybridity in the Tradescantiae. J. Genet. 21, 207-286.
20. Darlington, C. D. (1932). Recent Advances in Cytology. Philadelphia: Blakiston's Son & Co., Inc.
21. Dearn, J. M. (1974a). Phase transformation and chiasma frequency variation in locusts. I. Schistocerca Gregaria. Chromosoma 45, 321-338.
22. Dearn, J. M. (1974b). Phase transformation and chiasma frequency variation in locusts. II. Locusta Migratoria. Chromosoma 45, 339-352.
23. Dutrillaux, B. & Rumpler, Y. (1977). Chromosomal evolution in Malagasy lemurs. II. Meiosis in intra- and interspecific hybrids in the genus Lemur. Cytogenet. Cell Genet. 18, 197-211.
24. Egel, R. (1995). The synaptonemal complex and the distribution of meiotic recombination evbents. TIG 11, 206-208.
25. Evans, E. P., Breckon, G. & Ford, C. E. (1964). An air-drying method for meiotic preparations from mammalian testes. Cytogenetics 3, 289-294.
26. Fang, J.-S. & Jagiello, G. M. (1988). An analysis of the chromomere map and chiasmata characteristics of human diplotene spermatocytes. Cytogenet. Cell Genet. 47, 52-57.
27. Fiskesjö, G. (1974). C-banded male meiotic chromosomes of Acheta domesticus. Hereditas 76, 157-160.
28. Fontana, P. G. & Vickery, V. R. (1973). Segregation-distortion in the B-chromosome system of Tettigidea lateralis (Say) (Orthoptera: Tetrigidae). Chromosoma 43, 75-100.
29. Fontana, P. G. & Vickery, V. R. (1976). Cytotaxonomic studies on the genus Boonacris I. The "eastern" taxa and a comparison with the related genera Dendrotettix and Appalachia (Orthoptera: Catantopidae: Podismini). Can. J. Genet. Cytol. 18, 625-652.
30. Ford, C. E. (1969). Meiosis in mammals. In: Comparative Mammalian Cytogenetics (Benirschke, K., ed.) pp. 91-106. New York: Springer-Verlag.
31. Gibson, I. & Hewitt, G. (1972). Interpopulation variation in the satellite DNA from grasshoppers with B-chromosomes. Chromosoma 38, 121-138.
32. Gorlov, I. P., Gorlova, O. Y. & Logunov, D. V. (1995). Cytogenetic studies on Siberian spiders. Hereditas 122, 211-220.
33. Gosálvez, J., López-Fernández, C. & Bella, L. J. (1988). A hybrid zone between Chorthippus parallelus parallelus and Chorthippus parallelus erythropus (Orthoptera: Acrididae): Chromosomal differentiation. Genome 30, 656-663.
34. Gosden, J. & Hanratty, D. (1993). PCR in situ: Rapid alternative to in situ hybridization for mapping short, low copy number sequences without isotopes. Bio. Techniques 15, 78-80.
35. Gosden, J., Hanratty, D., Starling, J., Fantes, J., Michell, A. & Porteous, D. (1991). Oligonucleotide-primed in situ DNA synthesis (PRINS): A method for chromosome mapping, banding, and investigation of sequence organization. Cytogenet. Cell Genet. 57, 100-104.
36. Green, D. M & Sharbel, T. F. (1988). Comparative cytogenetics of the primitive frog, Leiopelma archeyi (Anura, Leiopelmatidae). Cytogenet. Cell Genet. 47, 212-216.
37. Gropp, A. & Citoler, P. (1969). Patterns of autosomal heterochromatin. In: Comparative Mammalian Cytogenetics (Benirschke, K., ed.) pp. 267-276. New York: Springer-Verlag.
38. Gropp, A., Winking, H., Zech, L. & Müller, H. (1972). Robertsonian chromosomal variation and identification of metacentric chromosomes in feral mice. Chromosoma 39, 265-288.
39. Guillemin, C. (1967). Caryotypes de Rana temporaria (L.) et de Rana dalmatina (Bonaparte). Chromosoma 21, 189-197.
40. Hartman, T. P. V. & Southern, D. L. (1994). Female meiosis in the onion fly and cabbage root fly (Diptera: Anthomyiidae). Genome 37, 848-857.
41. Hayata, I. (1973). Chromosomal polymorphism caused by supernumerary chromosomes in the field mouse, Apodemus Giliacus. Chromosoma 42, 403-414.
42. Hayman, D. & Sharp, P. (1981). Verification of the structure of the complex sex chromosome system in Lagorchestes conspicillatus Gould (Marsupialia: Mammalia). Chromosoma 83, 263-274.
43. Henderson, S. A. (1963). Chiasma distribution at diplotene in a locust. Heredity 18, 173-190.
44. Henderson, S. A. (1971). Grades of chromatid organisation in mitotic and meiotic chromosomes II. Their interpretation in terms of a master/slave model. Chromosoma 35, 41-56.
45. Henriques-Gil, N., Santos, J. L. & Giraldez, R. (1982). B-chromosome polymorphism and interchromosomal chiasma interference in Eyprecnemis plorans (Acrididae: Orthoptera). Chromosoma 85, 349-359.
46. Henriques-Gil, N., Arana, P. & Santos, J. L. (1983). Spontaneous translocations between B chromosomes and the normal complement in the grasshopper Eyprepocnemis plorans. Chromosoma 88, 145-148.
47. Hewitt, G. M. & John, B. (1968). Parallel polymorphism for supernumerary segments in Chorthippus parallelus (Zetterstedt) I. British populations. Chromosoma 25, 319-342.
48. Hewitt, G. M. & John, B. (1971). The cytogenetic systems of grasshoppers and locusts I. Chortoicetes terminifera. Chromosoma 34, 302-323.
49. Hirai, H. & Loverde, P. T. (1995). FISH techniques for constructing physical maps on schistosome chromosomes. Parasitol. Today 11, 310-314.
50. Hirai, H., Yamamoto, M.-T., Ogura, K., Satta, Y., Yamada, M., Taylor, R. W. & Imai, H. T. (1994). Multiplication of 28S rDNA and NOR activity in chromosome evolution among ants of the Myrmecia pilosula species complex. Chromosoma 103, 171-178.
51. Hirai, H., Hirata, M., Aoki, Y., Tanaka, M. & Imai, H. T. (1996a). Chiasma analyses of the parasite flukes, Schistosoma and Paragonimus (Trematoda), by using the chiasma distribution graph. Genes Genet. Syst. 71, 181-188.
52. Hirai, H., Yamamoto, M.-T., Taylor, R. W. & Imai, H. T. (1996b). Genomic dispersion of 28S rDNA during karyotypic evolution in the ant genus Myrmecia (Formicidae). Chromosoma 105, 190-196.
53. Holm, P. B. & Rasmussen, S. W. (1977). Three-dimensional reconstructions of meiotic chromosomes in human spermatocytes. Chromosomes Today 6, 83-93.
54. Howell, W. M. & Black, D. A. (1980). Controlled silver-staining of nucleus organizer region with a protective colloidal developer: A 1-step method. Experientia 36, 1014-1015.
55. Hultén, M. (1974). Chiasma distribution at diakinesis in the normal human male. Hereditas 76, 55-78.
56. Imai, H. T. & Moriwaki, K. (1982). A re-examination of chiasma terminalization and chiasma frequency in male mice. Chromosoma 85, 439-452.
57. Imai, H. T., Wada, M. Y. & Moriwaki, K. (1990). The sex chromosome association (Sxa) gene is located on the X-chromosome in mice. Jpn. J. Genet. 65, 65-69.
58. 1 hybrids between Japanese wild mice (Mus musculus molossinus) and inbred laboratory mice. Cytogenet. Cell Genet. 29, 166-175.
59. Imai, H. T., Maruyama, T., Gojobori, T., Inoue, U. & Crozier, R. H. (1986). Theoretical bases for karyotype evolution. 1. The minimum-interaction hypothesis. Am. Nat. 128, 900-920.
60. Imai, H. T., Takahata, N., Maruyama, T., Daniel, A., Honda, T., Matsuda, Y. & Moriwaki, K. (1988). Theoretical bases for karyotype evolution. II. The fusion burst in man and mouse. Jpn. J. Genet. 63, 313-342.
61. Jagiello, G. M. (1969). Some cytolotic aspects of meiosis in female guinea pig. Chromosoma 27, 95-101.
62. Janssens, F. A. (1909). La théorie de la chiasmatypie. nouvelleNouvelle interpretation des cinèses de maturation. La Cellule 25, 389-411.
63. Janssens, F. A. (1924). La chiasmatypie dans les insectes. La Cellule 34, 135-359.
64. John, B. (1973). The cytogenetic systems of grasshoppers and locusts II. The origin and evolution of supernumerary segments. Chromosoma 44, 123-146.
65. John, B. (1990). Meiosis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
66. John, B. & Claridge, M. F. (1974). Chromosome variation in British populations of Oncopsis (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae). Chromosoma 46, 77-89.
67. John, B. & Freeman, M. (1974). B-chromosome behaviour in Phaulacridium vittatum. Chromosoma 46, 181-195.
68. John, B. & Freeman, M. (1975a). Causes and consequences of Robertsonian exchange. Chromosoma 52, 123-136.
69. John, B. & Freeman, M. (1975b). The cytogenetic structure of Tasmanian populations of Phaulacridium vittatum. Chromosoma 53, 283-293.
70. John, B. & Henderson, S. A. (1962). Asynapsis and polyploidy in Schistocerca paranensis. Chromosoma 13, 111-147.
71. John, B. & Hewitt, G. M. (1965). The B-chromosome system of Myrmeleotettix maculatus (THUNB.) I. The mechanics. Chromosoma 16, 548-578.
72. John, B. & Hewitt, G. M. (1966). A polymorphism for heterochromatic supernumerary segments in Chorthippus parallelus. Chromosoma 18, 254-271.
73. John, B. & King, M. (1977). Heterochromatin variation in Cryptobothrus chrysophorus I. Chromosome differentiation in natural populations. Chromosoma 64, 219-239.
74. John, B. & King, M. (1980). Heterochromatin variations in Cryptobothrus chrysophorus III. Synthetic hybrids. Chromosoma 78, 165-186.
75. John, B. & King, M. (1982). Meiotic effect of supernumerary heterochromatin in Heteropternis obscurrella. Chromosoma 85, 39-65.
76. John, B. & King, M. (1985a). The inter-relationship between heterochromatin distribution and chiasma distribution. Genetica 66, 183-194.
77. John, B. & King, M. (1985b). Pseudoterminalization, terminalization, and non-chiasmate modes of terminal association. Chromosoma 92, 89-99.
78. John, B. & Lewis, K. R. (1965a). Genetic speciation in the grasshopper Eyprepocnemis plorans. Chromosoma 16, 308-344.
79. John, B. & Lewis, K. R. (1965b). The meiotic system. Protoplasmatologia VI/F/1, 1-35. Vienna: Springer-Verlag.
80. John, B. & Miklos, G. L. G. (1979). Functional aspects of satellite DNA and heterochromatin. Int. Rev. Cytol. 58, 1-114.
81. Jones, G. H. (1978). Giemsa C-banding of rye meiotic chromosomes and the nature of 'terminal chiasmata'. Chromosoma 66, 45-57.
82. Jones, G. H. (1984). The control of chiasma distribution. In: Controlling Events in Meiosis (Evans, C. W. & Dickinson, H. G., eds) pp. 293-320. Cambridge: Symposia of the Society for Experimental Biology 38.
83. Jones, G. H. (1987). Chiasmata. In: Meiosis (Moens, P. B., ed.) pp. 213-244. Orland: Academic Press.
84. Jones, G. H. & Tease, C. (1984). Analysis of exchanges in differentially stained meiotic chromosomes of Locusta migratoria after BrdU-substitution and FPG staining. IV. The nature of "terminal" associations. Chromosoma 89, 33-36.
85. Joseph, A. M. & Chandley, A. C. (1984). The morphological sequence of XY pairing in the Norway rat Rattus norvegicus. Chromosoma 89, 381-386.
86. Kanda, N. & Kato, H. (1980). Analysis of crossing over in mouse meiotic dells by BrdU labelling technique. Chromosoma 78, 113-121.
87. Keitges, E., Rivest, M., Siniscalco, M. & Gartler, S. M. (1985). X-linkage of steroid sulphatase in the mouse is evidence for a functional Y-linked allele. Nature 315, 226-227.
88. Keyl, H.-G. & Hägele, K. (1971). B-chromosomen bei Chironomous. Chromosoma 35, 403-417.
89. King, M. & Hayman, D. (1978). Seasonal variation of chiasma frequency in Phyllodactylus marumoratus (Gray) (Gekkonidae-Reptilia). Chromosoma 69, 131-154.
90. King, J. S. & Mortimer, R. K. (1990). A polymerization model of chiasma interference and corresponding computer simulation. Genetics 126, 1127-1138.
91. Koch, J. E., Kolvraa, S., Petersen, K. B., Gregersen, N. & Bolund, L. (1989). Oligonucleotide-priming methods for the chromosome-specific labelling of alpha satellite DNA in situ. Chromosoma 98, 259-265.
92. Kohli, J. & Bähler, J. (1994). Homologous recombination in fission yeast: Absence of crossover interference and synaptonemal complex. Experientia 50, 295-306.
93. Lake, S. (1986). Recombination frequencies and the coincidence in proximal X-chromosome regions including heterochromatin in Drosophila melanogaster. Hereditas 105, 263-268.
94. Lawrie, N.M., Tease, C. & Hultén, M.A. (1995). Chiasma frequency, distribution and interference maps of mouse autosomes. Chromosoma 140, 308-314.
95. Lewis, K. R. & John, B. (1959). Breakdown and restoration of chromosome stability following inbreeding in a locust. Chromosoma 10, 589-618.
96. Lewis, K. R. & John, B. (1966). The meiotic consequences of spontaneous chromosome breakage. Chromosoma 18, 287-304.
97. Lie, T. & Laane, M. M. (1982). Reconstruction analyses of synaptonemal complexes in haploid and diploid pachytene nuclei of Physarum polycephalum (Myxomycetes). Hereditas 96, 119-140.
98. Lindsley, D. L. & Sandler, L. (1977). The genetic analysis of meiosis in female Drosophila melanogaster. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. London B277, 295-312.
99. Loidl, J. (1994). Cytological aspects of meiotic recombination. Experientia 50, 285-294.
100. Loidl, J., Klein, F. & Scherthan, H. (1994). Homologous pairing is reduced but not abolished in asynaptic mutants of yeast. J. Cell Biol. 125, 1191-1200.
101. Lucov, Z. & Nur, U. (1973). Accumulation of B-chromosomes by preferential segregation in females of the grasshopper Melanoplus femur-rubrum. Chromosoma 42, 289-306.
102. Mather, K. (1937). The determination of position in crossing-over. II. The chromosome length-chiasma frequency relation. Cytologia Fujii jub vol, 514-526.
103. 1 hybrids. Cytogenet. Cell Genet. 34, 241-252.
104. Matsuda, Y., Imai, H. T., Moriwaki, K. & Kondo, K. (1983). Modes of inheritance of X-Y dissociation in inter-subspecies hybrids between BALB/c mice and Mus musculus molossinus. Cytogenet. Cell Genet. 35, 209-215.
105. Matthey, R. (1963). Cytologie comparée et polymorphisme chromosomique chez des Mus africains appartenant aux groupes bufo-triton et minutoides (Mammalia-Rodentia). Cytogenetics 2, 290-322.
106. Meyne, J., Hirai, H. & Imai, H. T. (1995). FISH analysis of the telomere sequences of bulldog ants (Myrmecia: Formicidae). Chromosoma 104, 14-18.
107. Meredith, R. (1969). A simple method for preparing meiotic chromosomes from mammalian testis. Chromosoma 26, 254-258.
108. Moens, P. B. (1994). Molecular perspectives of chromosome pairing at meiosis. Bioessay 16, 101-106.
109. Moens, P. B. & Pearlman, R. E. (1990). Telomere and centromere DNA are associated with the cores of meiotic prophase chromosomes. Chromosoma 100, 8-14.
110. Moses, M. J. (1968). Synaptinemal complex. Ann. Rev. Genet. 2, 363-412.
111. Moses, M. J. (1977). Synaptonemal complex karyotyping in spermatocytes of the chinese hamster (Cricetulus griseus). Chromosoma 60, 99-125.
112. Nankivell, R. N. (1976). Karyotype differences in the crenaticeps -group of Atractomorpha (Orthoptera, Acridoidea, Pyrgomorphidae). Chromosoma 56, 127-142.
113. Nolte, D. J. (1964). The nuclear phenotype of locusts. Chromosoma 15, 367-388.
114. Nur, U. (1969). Mitotic instability leading to an accumulation of B-chromosomes in grasshoppers. Chromosoma 27, 1-19.
115. Nur, U. (1981). Undercondensation and localized euchromatinization of the X chromosome in the grasshopper Melanoplus femur-rubrum. Chromosoma 82, 353-365.
116. Ohno, S. & Weiler, C. (1961). Sex chromosome behavior pattern in germ and somatic cells of Mesocricetus aratus. Chromosoma 12, 362-373.
117. Oliver, J. H., Tanaka, K. Jr & Sawada, M. (1974). Cytogenetics of ticks (Acari: Ixodoidea) 14. Chromosomes of nine species of Asian haemaphysalines. Chromosoma 45, 445-456.
118. Page, B. M. (1973). Identification of chromosome 9 in human male meiosis. Cytogenet. Cell Genet. 12, 254-263.
119. Papeschi, A. G. (1991). DNA content and heterochromatin variation in species of Belostoma (Heteroptera, Belostomatidae). Heteditas 115, 109-114.
120. Pearson, P. L., Ellis, J. D. & Evans, H. J. (1970). A gross reduction in chiasma formation during meiotic prophase and a defective DNA repair mechanism associated with a case of human male infertility. Cytogenetics 9, 460-470.
121. Pelliccia, F., Di Castro, M. Lanza, V., Volpi, E. V. & Rocchi, A. (1991). GATA repeats in the genome of Asella aquaticus (Crustacea, Isopoda). Chromosoma 100, 152-155.
122. Pennock, L. A., Tinkle, D. W. & Shaw, M. W. (1969). Minute Y chromosome in the lizard genus Uta (family Iguanidae). Cytogenetics 8, 9-19.
123. Pogosianz, H. E. (1970). Meiosis in the Djungarian hamster I. General pattern of male meiosis. Chromosoma 31, 392-403.
124. Polani, P. E. (1972). Centromere localization at meiosis and the position of chiasmata in the male and female mouse. Chromosoma 36, 343-374.
125. Rappold, G. A. (1993). The pseudoautosomal regions of the human sex chromosomes. Hum. Genet. 92, 315-324.
126. Rasmussen, S. W. & Holm, P. B. (1980). Mechanics of meiosis. Hereditas 93, 187-216.
127. Rasmussen, S. W. & Holm, P. B. (1984). The synaptonemal complex, recombination nodules and chiasmata in human spermatocytes. In: Controlling Events in Meiosis (Evans, C. W. & Dickinson, H. G., eds) pp. 271-292. Cambridge: Symposia of the Society for Experimental Biology 38.
128. Rausch, V. R. & Rausch, R. L. (1974). The chromosomal complement of the yellow-cheeked vole Microtus xanthognathus (Leach). Can. J. Genet. Cytol. 16, 267-272.
129. Rodman, T. C. & Biedler, J. L. (1973). Specificity of compaction in meiotic chromosomes of the female Chinese hamster. Chromosoma 42, 229-246.
130. Rouyer, F., De La Chapelle, A., Anderson, M. & Weissenbach, J. (1990). An interspersed repeated sequence specific for human subtelomeric regions. EMBO J. 9, 505-514.
131. Rufas, J. S., Suja, J. A. & García De La Vega, C. (1986). Generation by a polymorphic supernumerary segment of recombination in a normally achiasmate proximal region in Acrotylus insubricus (Scopoli) (Orthoptera, Acrididae). Can J. Genet. Cytol. 28, 433-438.
132. Saadallah,N. & Hultén, M. (1983). Chiasma distribution, genetic lengths, and recombination fractions: A comparison between chromosomes 15 and 16. J. Med. Genet. 20, 290-299.
133. Santos, J. L. & Giraldez, R. (1978). The effect of C-heterochromatin in chiasma terminalization in Chorthippus biguttulus L. (Acrididae, Orthoptera). Chromosoma 70, 59-66.
134. Sasaki, M. & Making, S. (1965). The meiotic chromosomes of man. Chromosoma 16, 637-651.
135. 2Y mechanism of sex determination in a South American rodent, Deltamys kempi (Rodentia, Cricetidae). Cytogenet. Cell Genet. 38, 50-55.
136. Scherthan, H. (1997). Chromosome behaviour in earliest meiotic prophase. Chromosomes Today 12, 217-248.
137. Schmid, M. (1980). Chromosome banding in Amphibia V. Highly differentiated ZW/ZZ sex chromosomes and exceptional genome size in Pyxicephalus adspersus (Anura, Ranidae). Chromosoma 80, 69-96.
138. Schmid, M., Fernández-Badillo, A., Feichtinger, W., Steinlein, C. & Roman, J. I. (1988). On the highest chromosome number in mammals. Cytogenet. Cell Genet. 49, 305-308.
139. Schroeter, G. L. & Hewitt, G. M. (1974). The effects of supernumerary chromatin in three species of grasshopper. Can J. Genet. Cytol. 16, 285-296.
140. Sharma, T. & Raman, R. (1972). Odd diploid number in both sexes and a unique multiple sex-chromosome system of a rodent, Vandeleuria o. Oleracea (BENNETT). Cytogenetics 11, 247-258.
141. Sharp, P. (1982). Sex chromosome pairing during male meiosis in marsupials. Chromosoma 86, 27-47.
142. Shaw, D. D. (1970a). The supernumerary segment system of Stethophyma I. Structural basis. Chromosoma 30, 326-343.
143. Shaw, D. D. (1970b). Pseudomultiple production in Ageneotettix deorum deorum. Chromosoma 31, 421-433.
144. Shaw, D. D. (1976). Population cytogenetics of the genus Caledia (Orthoptera: Acridinae) I. Inter- and intraspecific karyotype diversity. Chromosoma 54, 221-243.
145. Shaw, D. D. & Knowles, G. R. (1976). Comparative chiasma analysis using a computerised optical digitiser. Chromosoma 59, 103-127.
146. Shaw, D. D. & Wilkinson, P. (1978). "homologies" between non-homologous chromosomes in the grass-hopper Caledia captiva. Chromosoma 68, 241-259.
147. Shaw, D. D., Webb, G. C. & Wilkinson, P. (1976). Population cytogenetics of the genus Caledia (Orthoptera: Acridinae) II. Variation in the pattern of C-banding. Chromosoma 56, 169-190.
148. Smith-White, S. (1968). Brachycome lineariloba: A species for experimental cytogenetics. Chromosoma 23, 359-364.
149. Solari, A. J. (1970). The behaviour of chromosomal axes during diplotene in mouse spermatocytes. Chromosoma 31, 217-230.
150. Solari, A. J. (1994). Sex Chromosomes and Sex Determination in Vertebrates. Boca Raton: CRC Press.
151. Solari, A. J. & Ashley, T. (1977). Ultrastructure and behavior of the achiasmatic, telosynaptic XY pair of the sand rat (Psammomys obesus). Chromosoma 62, 319-336.
152. Southern, D. I. (1967). Chiasma distribution in Truxaline grasshoppers. Chromosoma 22, 164-191.
153. Suja, J. A., Antonio, C., Garcia De La Vega, C. & Rufas, J. S. (1994). Supernumerary chromosome segments and intrabivalent chiasma redistribution in Pyrgomorpha conica (Orthoptera). Heredity 73, 1-10.
154. Sym, M. & Roeder, G. S. (1994). Crossover interference is abolished in the absence of a synaptonemal complex protein. Cell 79, 283-292.
155. Tease, C. (1978). Cytological detection of crossing-over in BUdR substituted meiotic chromosomes using the fluorescent plus Giemsa technique. Nature 272, 823-824.
156. Tease, C. & Jones, G. H. (1978). Analysis of exchanges in differentially stained meiotic chromosomes of Locusta migratoria after BrdU-substitution and FPG staining I. Crossover exchanges in monochiasmate bivalents. Chromosoma 69, 163-178.
157. Therkelsen, A. J., Nielsen, A., Koch, J., Hindkjër, J. & Kolvraa, S. (1995). Staining of human telomeres with primed in situ labeling (PRINS). Cytogenet. Cell Genet. 68, 115-118.
158. Therman, E. & Susman, M. (1993). Human chromosomes, 3rd edn. New York: Springer-Verlag.
159. von Wettstein, D., Rasmussen, S. W. & Holm, P. B. (1984). The synaptonemal complex in genetic segregation. Ann. Rev. Genet. 18, 331-413.
160. Wada, M. Y. & Imai, H. T. (1991). On the Robertsonian polymorphism found in the Japanese raccoon dog (Nyctereutes procyonoides viverrinus). Jpn. J. Genet. 66, 1-11.
161. Wada, M. Y. & Imai, H. T. (1995). Theoretical analysis of chiasmata using a novel chiasma graph method applied to Chinese hamster, mice, and dog. Jpn. J. Genet. 70, 233-265.
162. Wahrman, J. & Gourevitz, P. (1973). Extreme chromosome variability in a colonizing rodent. Chromosomes Today 4, 399-424.
163. Wolf, K. W., Baumgart, K. & Winking, H. (1988). Meiotic association and segregation of the achiasmatic giant sex chromosomes in the field vole (Microtus agrestis). Chromosoma 97, 124-133.
164. 2Y sex chromosome mechanism in the scincid lizard Scincella laterale (Say). Chromosoma 43, 101-108.
165. Yonenaga, Y. (1972). Chromosomal polymorphism in the rodent Akodon arviculoides spp. (2n = 14) resulting from two pericentric inversions. Cytogenetics 11, 488-499.
166. Zickler, D. (1977). Development of the synaptonemal complex and the "recombination nodules" during meiotic prophase in the seven bivalents of the fungs Sordaria macrospora Auersw. Chromosoma 61, 289-316.
167. Zickler, D., Moreau, P. J. F., Huynh, A. D. & Slezec, A. M. (1992). Correlation between pairing initiation sites, recombination nodules and meiotic recombination in Sordalia macrospora. Genetics 132, 135-148.
168. Zimmerman, E. G. (1974). Chromosomes of the Mexican plateau mouse, Peromyscus melanophrys, and a new sex determining mechanism in mammals. Can. J. Genet. Cytol. 16, 797-804.