Are the foreign born a source of strength for U.S. science?

Science

Volumn 285, Issue 5431, 1999, Pages 1213-1214

  Levin, Sharon G ^a   Stephan, Paula E ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI ST LOUIS   (United States)

^b GEORGIA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ENGINEERING; ETHNOLOGY; HUMAN; POLICY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; SCIENCE; SHORT SURVEY; SOCIOLOGY; STATISTICAL ANALYSIS; TRAINING; UNITED STATES;

EID: 0033588343     PISSN: 00368075     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1126/science.285.5431.1213     Document Type: Short Survey

References (23)

1. Data are from the 1993 National Survey of College Graduates (NSCG), a National Science Foundation survey of college-educated individuals at the time of the 1990 census, see Science Online for supplementary information. Occupational field, not field of education, defines who is a scientist or engineer. Individuals not in the labor force, individuals in the military, individuals not in the United States, and individuals in social science occupations are excluded, as are scientists without a doctoral or a medical degree and engineers without a baccalaureate. Estimates are weighted to adjust for different initial probabilities of sample selection and subsequent nonresponse. Individuals born abroad to U.S. citizens are counted as foreign born. Only those who had immigrated or completed their highest degree before 1980 are included in the 1980 estimates.
2. The National Research Council [Trends in the Early Careers of Life Scientists (National Academy Press, Washington, DC, 1998), p. 4] reports a growing "imbalance between the number of life-science Ph.D.'s being produced and the availability of positions that permit them to become independent investigators," a situation exacerbated by "the influx of foreign-born Ph.D. candidates together with the increase in foreign-trained Ph.D.'s who have sought postdoctoral training in the U.S." Also see, for example, G. J. Borjas, J. Econ. Lit. 37, 1667 (1994); D. S. North, Soothing the Establishment (University Press of America, Inc., Lanham, MD, 1995); M. Rao, J. Econ. Educ. 26, 274 (Summer 1995); R. Finn, Scientist, 27 November 1995, 1, 8-9; J. Glanz, Science 272, 190 (1996); M. Teitelbaum, New York Times, 19 March 1996, A23; M. Phillips, Wall Street Journal, 4 September 1996, A2.
3. The National Research Council [Trends in the Early Careers of Life Scientists (National Academy Press, Washington, DC, 1998), p. 4] reports a growing "imbalance between the number of life-science Ph.D.'s being produced and the availability of positions that permit them to become independent investigators," a situation exacerbated by "the influx of foreign-born Ph.D. candidates together with the increase in foreign-trained Ph.D.'s who have sought postdoctoral training in the U.S." Also see, for example, G. J. Borjas, J. Econ. Lit. 37, 1667 (1994); D. S. North, Soothing the Establishment (University Press of America, Inc., Lanham, MD, 1995); M. Rao, J. Econ. Educ. 26, 274 (Summer 1995); R. Finn, Scientist, 27 November 1995, 1, 8-9; J. Glanz, Science 272, 190 (1996); M. Teitelbaum, New York Times, 19 March 1996, A23; M. Phillips, Wall Street Journal, 4 September 1996, A2.
4. The National Research Council [Trends in the Early Careers of Life Scientists (National Academy Press, Washington, DC, 1998), p. 4] reports a growing "imbalance between the number of life-science Ph.D.'s being produced and the availability of positions that permit them to become independent investigators," a situation exacerbated by "the influx of foreign-born Ph.D. candidates together with the increase in foreign-trained Ph.D.'s who have sought postdoctoral training in the U.S." Also see, for example, G. J. Borjas, J. Econ. Lit. 37, 1667 (1994); D. S. North, Soothing the Establishment (University Press of America, Inc., Lanham, MD, 1995); M. Rao, J. Econ. Educ. 26, 274 (Summer 1995); R. Finn, Scientist, 27 November 1995, 1, 8-9; J. Glanz, Science 272, 190 (1996); M. Teitelbaum, New York Times, 19 March 1996, A23; M. Phillips, Wall Street Journal, 4 September 1996, A2.
5. The National Research Council [Trends in the Early Careers of Life Scientists (National Academy Press, Washington, DC, 1998), p. 4] reports a growing "imbalance between the number of life-science Ph.D.'s being produced and the availability of positions that permit them to become independent investigators," a situation exacerbated by "the influx of foreign-born Ph.D. candidates together with the increase in foreign-trained Ph.D.'s who have sought postdoctoral training in the U.S." Also see, for example, G. J. Borjas, J. Econ. Lit. 37, 1667 (1994); D. S. North, Soothing the Establishment (University Press of America, Inc., Lanham, MD, 1995); M. Rao, J. Econ. Educ. 26, 274 (Summer 1995); R. Finn, Scientist, 27 November 1995, 1, 8-9; J. Glanz, Science 272, 190 (1996); M. Teitelbaum, New York Times, 19 March 1996, A23; M. Phillips, Wall Street Journal, 4 September 1996, A2.
6. The National Research Council [Trends in the Early Careers of Life Scientists (National Academy Press, Washington, DC, 1998), p. 4] reports a growing "imbalance between the number of life-science Ph.D.'s being produced and the availability of positions that permit them to become independent investigators," a situation exacerbated by "the influx of foreign-born Ph.D. candidates together with the increase in foreign-trained Ph.D.'s who have sought postdoctoral training in the U.S." Also see, for example, G. J. Borjas, J. Econ. Lit. 37, 1667 (1994); D. S. North, Soothing the Establishment (University Press of America, Inc., Lanham, MD, 1995); M. Rao, J. Econ. Educ. 26, 274 (Summer 1995); R. Finn, Scientist, 27 November 1995, 1, 8-9; J. Glanz, Science 272, 190 (1996); M. Teitelbaum, New York Times, 19 March 1996, A23; M. Phillips, Wall Street Journal, 4 September 1996, A2.
7. The National Research Council [Trends in the Early Careers of Life Scientists (National Academy Press, Washington, DC, 1998), p. 4] reports a growing "imbalance between the number of life-science Ph.D.'s being produced and the availability of positions that permit them to become independent investigators," a situation exacerbated by "the influx of foreign-born Ph.D. candidates together with the increase in foreign-trained Ph.D.'s who have sought postdoctoral training in the U.S." Also see, for example, G. J. Borjas, J. Econ. Lit. 37, 1667 (1994); D. S. North, Soothing the Establishment (University Press of America, Inc., Lanham, MD, 1995); M. Rao, J. Econ. Educ. 26, 274 (Summer 1995); R. Finn, Scientist, 27 November 1995, 1, 8-9; J. Glanz, Science 272, 190 (1996); M. Teitelbaum, New York Times, 19 March 1996, A23; M. Phillips, Wall Street Journal, 4 September 1996, A2.
8. The National Research Council [Trends in the Early Careers of Life Scientists (National Academy Press, Washington, DC, 1998), p. 4] reports a growing "imbalance between the number of life-science Ph.D.'s being produced and the availability of positions that permit them to become independent investigators," a situation exacerbated by "the influx of foreign-born Ph.D. candidates together with the increase in foreign-trained Ph.D.'s who have sought postdoctoral training in the U.S." Also see, for example, G. J. Borjas, J. Econ. Lit. 37, 1667 (1994); D. S. North, Soothing the Establishment (University Press of America, Inc., Lanham, MD, 1995); M. Rao, J. Econ. Educ. 26, 274 (Summer 1995); R. Finn, Scientist, 27 November 1995, 1, 8-9; J. Glanz, Science 272, 190 (1996); M. Teitelbaum, New York Times, 19 March 1996, A23; M. Phillips, Wall Street Journal, 4 September 1996, A2.
9. The National Research Council [Trends in the Early Careers of Life Scientists (National Academy Press, Washington, DC, 1998), p. 4] reports a growing "imbalance between the number of life-science Ph.D.'s being produced and the availability of positions that permit them to become independent investigators," a situation exacerbated by "the influx of foreign-born Ph.D. candidates together with the increase in foreign-trained Ph.D.'s who have sought postdoctoral training in the U.S." Also see, for example, G. J. Borjas, J. Econ. Lit. 37, 1667 (1994); D. S. North, Soothing the Establishment (University Press of America, Inc., Lanham, MD, 1995); M. Rao, J. Econ. Educ. 26, 274 (Summer 1995); R. Finn, Scientist, 27 November 1995, 1, 8-9; J. Glanz, Science 272, 190 (1996); M. Teitelbaum, New York Times, 19 March 1996, A23; M. Phillips, Wall Street Journal, 4 September 1996, A2.
10. From the 2075 National Academy of Science (NAS) members in 1994, we excluded foreign associates living outside the United States, Public Welfare Medalists, members of the psychology and social science sections, and 20 for whom no section was specified. From the 1781 members of National Academy of Engineering (NAE) as of 30 June 1995, we excluded foreign associates living outside of the United States.
11. Institute for Scientific Information (ISI), Current Contents, various issues. Because of the difficulty in locating papers in engineering, technology, and applied science, these classics were excluded.
12. ISI, Science Watch, various issues.
13. In preparing the list of 250, some heavily cited authors with common names were omitted because attribution could not accurately be determined.
14. CHI Research Inc., Haddon Heights, NJ. Citations to patents can be used as an index of their importance. M. Trajtenberg, Rand J. Econ. 21, 172 (1990); M. B. Albert, D. Avery, F. Narin, P. McAllister, Res. Policy 20, 251 (1991).
15. CHI Research Inc., Haddon Heights, NJ. Citations to patents can be used as an index of their importance. M. Trajtenberg, Rand J. Econ. 21, 172 (1990); M. B. Albert, D. Avery, F. Narin, P. McAllister, Res. Policy 20, 251 (1991).
16. D. B. Audretsch and P. E. Stephan, Am. Econ. Rev. 86, 641 (1996).
17. American Men and Women of Science (Bowker, New York, 1992); Official ABMS Directory of Board Certified Medical Specialists, 1993 (American Board of Medical Specialities, Princeton, NJ, 4 vols., 1993).
18. American Men and Women of Science (Bowker, New York, 1992); Official ABMS Directory of Board Certified Medical Specialists, 1993 (American Board of Medical Specialities, Princeton, NJ, 4 vols., 1993).
19. See the supplementary information in Science Online at www.sciencemag.org/feature/data/1041439.shl.
20. S. Siegel, Nonparametric Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences (McGraw-Hill, New York, 1956), p. 59.
21. When statistically significant, the proportions observed were always higher than expected.
22. The life sciences include NAS members in sections 21-27, 41-43, 61, and 62; the physical sciences, members in sections 12, 13, 14, and 33.
23. This research was supported by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation grant 93-5-3, the School of Policy Studies at Georgia State University (GSU), and the Graduate School at the University of Missouri - St. Louis (UM - St. Louis). We thank W. Amis, M. Finn, M. Fox, J. Harrington, R. Mathless, F. Narin, D. Pendlebury, and T. Seldes for their assistance. We also thank the following students: D. Banks, A. Levin, D. Loesel, and M. Ying at UM - St. Louis, and M. Crimmins, R. Hawkins, and J. Keene at GSU.