Indian-Atlantic interocean exchange: Dynamics, estimation and impact

Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans

Volumn 104, Issue C9, 1999, Pages 20885-20910

  De Ruijter, W P M ^a   Biastoch, A ^b   Drijfhout, S S ^c   Lutjeharms, J R E ^d   Matano, R P ^e   Pichevin, T ^f   Van Leeuwen, P J ^a   Weijer, W ^a  

^a UTRECHT UNIVERSITY   (Netherlands)

^b GEOMAR HELMHOLTZ CENTRE FOR OCEAN RESEARCH KIEL   (Germany)

^c ROYAL NETHERLANDS METEOROLOGICAL INSTITUTE KNMI   (Netherlands)

^d UNIVERSITY OF CAPE TOWN   (South Africa)

^e OREGON STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^f Serv Hydrographique Oceanogr Mar   (France)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

OCEANIC CIRCULATION; WATER EXCHANGE;

(SOUTH); ATLANTIC OCEAN; INDIAN OCEAN;

EID: 0033567569     PISSN: None     EISSN: 21699291     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1029/1998jc900099     Document Type: Article

References (161)

1. Allan, R. J., J. A. Lindesay, and C. J. C. Reason, Multidecadal variability in the climate system over the Indian Ocean region during the austral summer, J. Clim., 8, 1853-1873, 1995.
2. Arhan, M., H. Mercier, and J. R. E. Lutjeharms, The disparate evolution of three Agulhas rings in the South Atlantic Ocean, J. Geophys. Res., this issue..
3. Barnier, B., P. Marchesiello, and A. P. de Miranda, Modeling the ocean circulation in the South Atlantic: A strategy for dealing with open boundaries, in The South Atlantic: Present and Past Circulation, edited by G. Wefer et al., pp Springer-Verlag, New York, 289-304, 1996.
4. Beal, L. M. and H. L. Bryden, Observations of an Agulhas Undercurrent, Deep-Sea Res., 44, 1715-1724, 1997.
5. Beckmann, A., C.W. Böning, C. Köberle, and J. Willebrand, Effects of increased horizontal resolution in a simulation of the North Atlantic Ocean. J.Phys.Oceanogr. 24, 326-344, 1994.
6. Bennett, S. L., Where three oceans meet: the Agulhas retroflection region, Dissertation, WHOI and MIT, WHOI-88-51, 1988.
7. Berger, W. H,. and G. Wefer, Expeditions into the past: Paleoceanographic studies in the South Atlantic, in The South Atlantic: present and past circulation. Eds. Wefer, G., W. H. Berger, G. Siedler, D. J. Webb, Springer-Verlag, Berlin-Heidelberg, 363-410, 1996.
8. Biastoch, A., and W. Krauss, The role of mesoscale eddies in the source regions of the Agulhas current, J. Phys.Oceanogr., in press, 1998.
9. Bleck, R., and E. P. Chassignet, Simulating the ocean circulation with isopycnic coordinate models. The Pennsylvania Academy of Science, 17-39, 1994.
10. Bleck, R., S. Sun, and S. Dean, Global simulations with an isopycnic coordinate model. Some New Directions in Science and computers, World Scientific, Singapore, 1996.
11. Boddem, J. and R. Schlitzer, Interocean exchange and meridional mass and heat fluxes in the South Atlantic, J. Geophys. Res., 100, 15821-15834, 1995.
12. Boebel, O., C. Duncombe Rae, S. Garzoli, J. Lutjeharms, P. Richardson, T. Rossby, C. Schmid, and W. Zenk, Float experiment studies interocean exchanges at the tip of Africa, Eos, Trans. AGU., 79, 1, 1998.
13. Boning, C.W. and F.O. Bryan, Large-scale transport processes in high-resolution circulation models, in The Warm Water Sphere of the North Atlantic Ocean, 91-128, Bornstrager, Berlin, 1998.
14. Boudra, D.B., and E.P. Chassignet, Dynamics of the Agulhas retroflection and ring formation in a numerical model. I. The vorticity balance, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 18, 280-303, 1988.
15. Boudra, D.B,. and W.P.M. de Ruijter, The wind-driven circulation of the South Atlantic - Indian Ocean - II. Experiments using a multy-layer numerical model. Deep-Sea Res. 33, 447-482, 1986.
16. Broecker, W. S., The great ocean conveyor, Oceanography, 4, 79-89, 1991.
17. Bunker, A.F., Surface energy fluxes of the South Atlantic Ocean, Month. Weath. Rev., 116, 809-823, 1988.
18. Byrne, D. A., A. L. Gordon, and W. F. Haxby, Agulhas eddies: a synoptic view using Geosat ERM data, J. Phys.Oceanogr, 25, 902-917, 1995.
19. Cai, W., and R.J. Greatbatch, Compensation for the NADW outflow in a Global Ocean Circulation Model, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 25, 226-241, 1995.
20. Chassignet, E.P., Rings in numerical models of ocean general circulation: A statistical study. J.Geophys. Res. 97, 9479-9492, 1992.
21. Chassignet, E.P., and D.B. Boudra,Dynamics of the Agulhas retroflection and ring formation in a numerical model. II, Energetics and ring formation, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 18, 304-319, 1988.
22. Chassignet, E.P., D.B. Olson, and D.B. Boudra, Evolution of rings in numerical models and observations, in: J.C.J. Nihoul, B.M. Jamart (eds.) Mesoscale/Syn Coherent Structures in Geophysical Turbulence. Elsevier, 337-357, 1989.
23. Cheney, R. A., J. G. Marsh, and B. D. Beckley, Global mesoscale variability from colinear tracks of SEASAT altimeter data, J. Geophys. Res., 88, 4343-4354, 1983.
24. Clement, A. C., and A. L. Gordon, The absolute velocity field of Agulhas eddies and the Benguela Current, J. Geophys. Res., 100, 22591-22601, 1995.
25. Da Silveira, I. C. A., L. B. de Miranda, and W. S. Brown, On the origins of the North Brazil Current, J. Geophys. Res., 99, 22501-22512, 1994.
26. Darbyshire, J., The effect of bottom topography on the Agulhas Current, Pure Appl.Geophys., 101, 208-220, 1972.
27. De Ruijter, W. P. M., Asymptotic analysis of the Agulhas and Brazil Current systems. J.Phys.Ocenogr. 12, 361-373, 1982.
28. De Ruijter, W. P. M., and D. B. Boudra, The wind-driven circulation in the South Atlantic-Indian Ocean-I. Numerical experiments in a one-layer model, Deep-Sea Res., 32, 557-574, 1985.
29. De Ruijter, W. P. M., P. J. van Leeuwen, and J. R. E. Lutjeharms, Generation and evolution of Natal Pulses, solitary meanders in the Agulhas Current, J. Phys.Oceanogr., in press, 1999.
30. Di Marco, S.F., W.D. Nowlin Jr., and P. Chapman, Properties and transport of the Mozambique Channel, 1998 US WOCE Report 34-35, 1998.
31. Doos, K., Interocean exchange of water masses, J.Geophys.Res., 100, 13499-13514, 1995.
32. Drijfhout, S. S., E. Maier-Reimer, and U. Mikolajewicz, Tracing the conveyor belt in the Hamburg LSG ocean general circulation model, J. Geophys. Res., 101, 22563-22575, 1996.
33. Duncombe Rae, C. M., L. V. Shannon, and F. A. Shillington, An Agulhas ring in the South Atlantic Ocean, South African Journal of Science, Vol. 85, 747-748, 1989.
34. Duncombe Rae, C. M., A. J. Boyd, and R. J. M. Crawford, "Predation" of anchovy by an Agulhas ring: a possible contributory cause of the poor year class of 1989, S. Afr. J. Mar. Sci., 12, 167-173, 1992b.
35. Duncombe Rae, C. M., F. A. Shillington, J. J. Agenbag, J. Taunton-Clark, and M. L. Gründlingh, An Agulhas Ring in the South Atlantic Ocean and its interaction with the Benguela upwelling frontal system, Deep-Sea Res., 39, 2009-2027, 1992a.
36. Duncombe Rae, C. M., S. L. Garzoli, and A. L. Gordon, The eddy field of the southeast Atlantic Ocean: a statistical census from the Benguela Sources and Transport project, J. Geophys. Res., 101, 11949-11964, 1996.
37. DYNAMO Group. DYNAMO, Dynamics of North Atlantic Models: Simulation and assimilation with high resolution models. Berichte aus dem Institut fur. Meereskunde Kiel nr. 294, 1997.
38. Feron, R. C. V., W.P.M. de Ruijter, and D. Oskam, Ring-shedding in the Agulhas Current system, J. Geophys. Res., 97, 9467-9477, 1992.
39. Feron, R.C.V., Eddies and mean flow in the ocean: applications of satellite altimetry, Ph.D. dissertation, 125 pp, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands, 1994.
40. Feron, R.C.V., W.P.M. de Ruijter, and P.J. van Leeuwen, New method to determine the mean ocean circulation from satellite altimetry, J. Geophys. Res., 103, 1343-1362, 1998.
41. Ffield, A., J. M. Toole, and W. D. Wilson, Seasonal circulation in the South Indian Ocean, Geophys. Res. Lett., in press, 1998.
42. Fine, R. A., M. J. Warner, and R. F. Weiss, Water mass modification at the Agulhas Retroflection: chlorofluormethane studies, Deep-Sea Res., 35, 311-332, 1988.
43. Fine, R.A., Circulation of Antarctic Intermediate Water in the South Indian Ocean, Deep-Sea Res., 40, 2021-2042, 1993.
44. Fofonoff, N.P., Physical properties of seawater, in The Sea, VI, ed. M.N. Hill, New York, Intersience, 1962.
45. FRAM Group, the, An eddy-resolving model of the Southern Ocean, Eos, 72(15), 169-172, 1991.
46. Frantatoni, D.M., W.E. Johns, and T.L. Townsend, Rings of the North Brazil Current: their structure and behaviour inferred from observations and a numerical simulation, J. Geophys. Res., 100, 10633-10654, 1995.
47. Fu, L-L., The general circulation and meridional heat transport of the subtropical South Atlantic determined by inverse methods, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 11, 1171-1193, 1981.
48. Fu, L.L., and R.D. Smith, Global ocean circulation from satellite altimetry and high-resolution computer simulation, Bull.Amer.Met.Soc,. 11, 2625-2636, 1996.
49. Garzoli, S. L., A. L. Gordon, V. Kamenkovich, D. Pillsbury, and C. Duncombe Rae, Variability and sources of the southeastern Atlantic circulation, J. Mar. Res., 54, 1039-1071, 1996.
50. Garzoli, S. L., and A. L. Gordon, Origins and variability of the Benguela Current, J. Geophys. Res., 101, 897-906, 1996.
51. Goñi, G.J., S.L. Garzoli, A.J. Roubicek, D.B. Olson, and O.B. Brown, Agulhas ring dynamics from TOPEX/POSEIDON satellite altimeter data, J. Mar. Res., 55, 861-883, 1997.
52. Gordon, A. L., and A. R. Piola, Atlantic ocean upper layer salinity budget. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 13, 1293-1300, 1983.
53. Gordon, A. L., and W. F. Haxby, Agulhas eddies invade the South Atlantic: evidence from Geosat altimeter and shipboard CTD survey, J.Geophys. Res., 95, 3117-3125, 1990.
54. Gordon, A. L., Indian-Atlantic transfer of thermocline water at the Agulhas Retroflection, Science, 227, 1030-1033, 1985.
55. Gordon, A. L., Interocean exchange of thermocline water, J. Geophys. Res., 91, 5037-5046, 1986.
56. Gordon, A. L., J. R. E. Lutjeharms, and M. L. Gründlingh, Stratification and circulation at the Agulhas Retroflection, Deep-Sea Res. 34, 565-599, 1987.
57. Gordon, A. L., Weiss, R. F., Smethie Jr., W. M., Warner, M. J., Thermocline and intermediate water communication between the South Atlantic and Indian Oceans, J. Geophys. Res., 97, 7223-7240, 1992.
58. Gründlingh, M. L., On the volume transport of the Agulhas Current, Deep-Sea Res., 27, 557-563, 1980.
59. Gründlingh, M. L., On the course of the Agulhas Current, S. Afr. geogr. J., 65, 49-57, 1983.
60. Gründlingh, M. L., R. A. Carter and R. C. Stanton, Circulation and water properties of the Southwest Indian Ocean, Spring 1987, Progr. Oceanogr., 28, 305-342, 1991.
61. Gründlingh, M. L., Review of cyclonic eddies in the Mozambique Ridge Current, S. Afr. J. Mar. Sci., 6, 193-206, 1988.
62. Gründlingh, M. L., Tracking eddies in the southeast Atlantic and southwest Indian oceans with TOPEX/POSEIDON, J .Geophys. Res., 100, 24977-24986, 1995.
63. Harris, T. F. W., Sources of the Agulhas Current in the spring of 1964, Deep-Sea Res., 19, 633-650, 1972.
64. Harris, T. F. W., and D. van Foreest, The Agulhas Current in March 1969, Deep-Sea Res., 25, 549-561, 1978.
65. Hellerman, S., and M. Rosenstein, Normal monthly wind stress over the world ocean with error estimates. J. Phys. Oceanogr. 13, 1093-1104, 1983.
66. Holfort, J., Large-scale circulation and meridional transports in the South Atlantic. Ph.D dissertation. Institut für Meereskunde der Universität Kiel, 96 pp, 1994.
67. Howard, W. R., and W. L. Prell, Late quaternary surface circulation of the southern Indian Ocean and its relationship to orbital variation, Paleoceanography, 7, 79-117, 1992.
68. Hurlburt, H. E., and J. D. Thompson. A numerical study of Loop Current intrusions and eddy-shedding. J. Phys. Oceanogr., 10, 1611-1651, 1980.
69. Jacobs, S. S., and D. T. Georgi, Observations on the Southwest Indian/Antarctic Ocean, Deep-Sea Res., 24(suppl.). 43-84, 1977.
70. Jury, M.R., H.R. Valentine and J.R.E. Lutjeharms, Influence of the Agulhas Current on summer rainfall along the southeast coast of South Africa, J. Appl. Meteor., 32, 1282-1287, 1993.
71. Kamenkovich, V. M., Y. P. Leonov, D. A. Nechaev, D. A. Byrne, and A. L. Gordon, On the influence of bottom topography on the Agulhas eddy, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 26, 892-912, 1996.
72. Larquw, L., K. Maamaatuaiahutapu, and V. Garcon, On the intermediate and deep water flows in the South Atlantic Ocean, J. Geophys. Res., 102, 12425-12440, 1997.
73. Lee-Thorp, A. M., M. Rouault, and J. R. E. Lutjeharms, Moisture uptake in the boundary layer above the Agulhas Current: a case study, J. Geophys. Res., submitted, 1997.
74. Levitus, S. S., 1982. Climatological atlas of the world oceans, NOAA professional paper 13, US Govern. Printing Office, Washington D.C.
75. Lutjeharms, J. R. E., Meridional heat transport across the Subtropical Convergence by a warm eddy, Nature, 331, 251-253, 1987.
76. Lutjeharms, J. R. E., Remote sensing corroboration of the retroflection of the East Madagascar Current, Deep-Sea Res., 35, 2045-2050, 1988.
77. Lutjeharms, J. R. E., and J. Cooper, Inter-basin leakage through Agulhas current filaments, Deep-Sea Res., 43, 213-238, 1996.
78. Lutjeharms, J. R. E., and W. P. M. de Ruijter, The influence of the Agulhas Current on the adjacent coastal ocean: possible impacts of climate change. J. Mar. Syst., 7, 321-336, 1996.
79. Lutjeharms, J. R. E., and A. L. Gordon, Shedding of an Agulhas ring observed at sea, Nature, 325, 138-140, 1987.
80. Lutjeharms, J. R. E., and H. R. Roberts, The Natal Pulse; an extreme transient on the Agulhas Current, J. Geophys. Res., 93, 631-635, 1988.
81. Lutjeharms, J. R. E., and H. R. Valentine, Southern Ocean thermal fronts south of Africa, Deep-Sea Res., 31, 1461-1475, 1984.
82. Lutjeharms, J. R. E., and H. R. Valentine, Eddies at the Sub-Tropical Convergence south of Africa, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 18, 761-774, 1988.
83. Lutjeharms, J. R. E., and R. C. van Ballegooyen, Topographic control in the Agulhas Current system, Deep-Sea Res., 31, 1321-1337, 1984
84. Lutjeharms, J. R. E., and R. C. van Ballegooyen, Anomalous upstream retroflection in the Agulhas current, Science, 240, 1770-1772, 1988a.
85. Lutjeharms, J. R. E., and R. C. van Ballegooyen, The Agulhas Current retroflection, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 18, 1570-1583, 1988b.
86. Lutjeharms, J. R. E., and D.J. Webb, D. J., Modeling the Agulhas Current system with FRAM (Fine Resolution Antarctic Model), Deep-Sea Res., 42, 523-551, 1995.
87. Lutjeharms, J. R. E., R. Catzel, and H. R. Valentine, Eddies and other border phenomena of the Agulhas Current, Cont. Shelf Res., 9, 597-616, 1989.
88. Lutjeharms, J. R. E., The exchange of water between the South Indian and the South Atlantic Oceans, in The South Atlantic; present and past circulations, eds G. Wefer, G.W. H. Berger, G. Siedler, and D. J. Webb, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, 1996.
89. Lutjeharms, J.R.E., W.P.M. de Ruijter, and R.G. Peterson, Inter-basin exchange and the Agulhas retroflection; the development of some oceanographic concepts, Deep-Sea Res., 39, 1791-1807, 1992.
90. Macdonald, A. M., Property fluxes at 30° S and their implications for the Pacific-Indian Throughflow and the global heat budget, J. of Geophys. Res., 98 (C4), 6851-6868, 1993.
91. Macdonald, A. M., and C. Wunsch, An estimate of global ocean circulation and heat fluxes, Nature, 382, 436-439, 1996.
92. Maltrud, M.E., R.D. Smith, A.J. Semtner, and R.C. Malone, Global eddy-resolving ocean simulations driven by 1985-1994 atmospheric winds. J.Geophys.Res. 103, 30825-30853, 1998.
93. Mason, S. J., Sea-surface temperature-South African rainfall associations, 1910-1989, Int J. Climatol., 15, 119-135, 1995.
94. Matano, R. P., and S. G. H. Philander, Heat and mass balances of the South Atlantic Ocean calculated from a numerical model, J. Geophys. Res., 98 (C1), 977-984, 1993.
95. Matano, R. P., A numerical study of the Agulhas Retroflection: the role of bottom topography. J. Phys. Oceanogr. 26, 2267-2279, 1996.
96. Matano, R. P., C. G. Simionato, and P. T. Strub, Modeling the wind-driven variability of the South Indian Ocean, J. Phys. Oceanogr., in press, 1998.
97. McCann, M. P., A. J. Semtner Jr., and R. M. Chervin, Transports and budgets of volume, heat, and salt from a global eddy-resolving ocean model, Climate Dyn., 10, 59-80, 1994.
98. McCartney, M. S, and M. E. Woodgate-Jones, A deep-reaching anticyclonic eddy in the subtropical gyre of the eastern South Atlantic, Deep-Sea Res., 38, S411-S443, 1991.
99. McClean, L.L., A.J. Semtner, and V. Zlotnicki, Comparisons of mesoscale variability in the Semtner-Chervin 1/4° model, the Los Alamos Parallel Ocean Program 1/6° model, and TOPEX/POSEIDON data. J.Geoph.Res. 102, in press, 1997.
100. Möller, L., Die Zirkulation des Indischen Ozeans; auf grund von Temperatur- und Saltzgehalttiefenmessungen und Oberflächenstrombeobachtungen, Veröff. Inst. Meeresk. Univ. Berlin nf A, 16, 1-32, 1929.
101. Moore, D.W., and P.P. Niiler, A two-layer model for the separation of inertial boundary currents, J. Mar. Res., 32, 457-484, 1974.
102. Nof, D., Eddy-wall interactions. J. Mar. Res., 46, 527-555, 1988.
103. Nof, D., and T. Pichevin, The retroflection paradox, J.Phys.Oceanogr. 26, 2344-2358, 1996.
104. Olson, D. B., and R.H. Evans, Rings of the Agulhas Current, Deep-Sea Res., 33, 27-42, 1986.
105. Olson, D. B., R. A. Fine, and A. L. Gordon, Convective modifications of water masses in the Agulhas, Deep-Sea Res., 39, S163-S181, 1992.
106. Ou, H. W., and W. P. M. de Ruijter, Separation of an inertial boundary current frrom a curved coast line, J.Phys.Oceanogr., 16, 280-289, 1986.
107. Parsons, A.T., A two-layer model of Gulf Stream separation. J. Fluid Mech., 39, 511-528, 1969.
108. Pearce, A. F., and M. L. Gründlingh, Is there a seasonal variation in the Agulhas Current?, J. Mar. Res., 40, 177-184, 1982.
109. Peterson, R. G., and L. Stramma, Upper-level circulation in the South Atlantic ocean, Prog. Oceanogr., 26, 1-73, 1991.
110. Pichevin, T., D. Nof, and J.R.E. Lutjeharms, Why are there Agulhas rings?, J. Phys.Oceanogr., in press, 1999.
111. Piola, A. R., and A. L. Gordon, Intermediate waters in the uthwest South Atlantic, Deep-Sea Res., 36, 1-16, 1989.
112. Quartly, G. D.,and M. A. Srokosz, Seasonal variations in the region of the Agulhas retroflection: studies with Geosat and FRAM. J. Phys. Oceanogr. 23, 2107-2124, 1993.
113. Rahmstorf, S., J. Marotzke, and J. Willebrand, Stability of the thermohaline circulation. In: W. Krauss (ed.), The warm water sphere of the North Atlantic., Gebr.Bornträger Berlin, Stuttgart, 446 pp, 1995.
114. Rahmstorf, S., On the freshwater forcing and transport of the Atlantic thermohaline circulation. Climate Dyn, 12, 799-811, 1996.
115. Reason, C.J.C., R. J. Allan, and J. A. Lindsay, Dynamical response of the oceanic circulation and temperature to interdecadal variability in the surface winds over the Indian Ocean, J. Climate, 9, 97-114, 1996a.
116. Reason, C.J.C., R.J. Allan, and J.A. Lindsay, Evidence for the influence of remote forcing on interdecadal variability in the southern Indian Ocean. J. Geoph. Res. 101, 11867-11882, 1996b.
117. Reid, J. L., On the total geostrophic circulation of the South Atlantic Ocean: flow patterns, tracers, and transports, Prog. Oceanogr., 23, 149-244, 1989.
118. Ribbe, J., and M. Tomczak. Effect of the missing Indonesian inflow in the fine resolution Antarctic model. J.Phys.Oceanogr. 27, 445-455, 1997.
119. Rintoul, S. R., South Atlantic inter-basin exchange, J. Geophys. Res., 96, 2675-2692, 1991.
120. Rouault, M., and J.R. E. Lutjeharms, Air-sea interaction in the marine atmosphere boundary layer: a new South African research venture, S. Afr. J. Sci., 90, 11-12, 1994.
121. Saetre, R., and J. Da Silva, The circulation of the Mozambique Channel, Deep-Sea Res., 31, 485-508, 1984.
122. Saunders, P. M., and B. A. King, Oceanic fluxes on the WOCE A11 section, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 25, 1942-1958, 1995.
123. Schlitzer, R., Determining the mean, large-scale circulation of the Atlantic with the Adjoint Method, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 23, 1935-1952, 1993.
124. Schlitzer, R., Mass and heat transports in the South Atlantic derived from historical hydrographic data, in: The South Atlantic: present and past circulation, eds. Wefer, G., W. H. Berger, G. Siedler and D. J. Webb, Springer-Verlag, Berlin-Heidelberg, 1996.
125. Schmitz Jr., W. R., On the inter-basin-scale thermohaline circulation, Rev. Geophys., 33 (2), 151-173, 1995.
126. Schmitz, W.J. Jr., and P.L. Richardson, On the sources of the Florida Current, Deep-Sea Res., 38, S389-S409, 1991.
127. Schott, F. A., L. Stramma, and J. Fischer, The warm water inflow into the western tropical Atlantic boundary regime, spring 1994, J.Geophys.Res., 100, 24745-24760, 1995.
128. Semtner, A. J., and R. M. Chervin, A simulation of the global ocean circulation with resolved eddies, J. Geophys. Res., 93, 15502-15522, 1988.
129. Semtner Jr., A. J., and R. M. Chervin, Ocean general circulation from a global eddy-resolving model, J. of Geophys. Res., 97, 5493-5550, 1992.
130. Shannon, L. V., and D. Hunter, Notes on Antarctic Intermediate Water around Southern Africa, S. Afr. J. Mar. Sci., 6, 107-117, 1988.
131. Shannon, L. V., J. R. E. Lutjeharms, and J. J. Agenbag, Episodic input of Subantarctic water into the Benguela region, S. Afr. J. Sci., 85, 317-322, 1989.
132. Shannon, L. V., J. J. Agenbag, N. D. Walker, and J. R. E. Lutjeharms, A major perturbation in the Agulhas retroflection area in 1986, Deep-Sea Res., 37, 493-512, 1990.
133. Shriver, J. F., and H. E. Hurlburt. The contribution of the global thermohaline circulation to the Pacific to Indian Ocean throughflow via Indonesia. J. Geophys. Res., 102, 5491-5511.
134. Stammer, D., and C.W. Böning. Generation and distribution of mesoscale eddies in the North Atlantic Ocean. In: Krauss, W. (ed). The warmwatersphere of the North Atlantic Ocean. Gebr. Bornträger Berlin, Stuttgart, 159-193, 1996.
135. Stammer, D., R. Tokmakian, A. Semtner and C. Wunsch, How well does a 1/4° global circulation model simulate large-scale oceanic observations? J.Geoph.Res, 101, 25779-25811, 1996.
136. Stevens, D.P., On open boundary conditions for three dimensional primitive equation ocean circulation models. Geoph.Astroph. Fluid Dyn. 51, 103-133, 1990.
137. Stommel. H., Asymmetry of interoceanic fresh-water and heat fluxes. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 77, 2377-2382, 1980.
138. Stramma, L., and J. R. E. Lutjeharms, The flow field of the subtropical gyre in the South Indian Ocean, J. Geophys. Res., 102, 5513-5530, 1997.
139. Stramma, L., and R. G. Peterson, Geostrophic transport in the Benguela Current region, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 19, 1440-1448, 1989.
140. Stramma, L., and R. G. Peterson, The South Atlantic Current, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 20, 846-859, 1990.
141. Stramma, L., J. Fischer, and J. Reppin, The North Brazil Undercurrent, Deep- Sea Res., 42, 773-795, 1995.
142. Thompson, S. R., D. P. Stevens, and K. Döös, The importance of interocean exchange south of Africa in a numerical model, J. of Geophys. Res., 102 (C2), 3303-3315, 1997.
143. Valentine, H. R., J. R. E. Lutjeharms, and G. B. Brundrit, The water masses and volumetry of the southern Agulhas Current region, Deep-Sea Res., 40, 1285-1305, 1993.
144. Van Ballegooyen, R. C., M.L. Gründlingh, and J. R. E Lutjeharms, Eddy fluxes of heat and salt from the southwest Indian Ocean into the southeast Atlantic Ocean: a case study, J. Geophys. Res., 99, 14053-14070, 1994.
145. Van Gogh, J., Uitkomsten van Wetenschap en Ervaring aangaande winden en zeestromingen in sommige gedeelten van den oseaan. Koninklijk Nederlandsch Meteorologisch Instituut, 74 pp, 1857.
146. Van Leeuwen, P. J., W. P. M. de Ruijter, and J. R. E. Lutjeharms, Natal Pulses and the formation of Agulhas rings, J. Geophys.Res., in press, 1999.
147. Venegas, S.A., L.A. Mysak, and D.N. Straub, Evidence for interannual and interdecadal climate variability in the South Atlantic, Geophys.Res.Lett., 23, 2673-2676, 1996.
148. Veronis, G., Model of the world ocean circulation:I Wind-driven two-layer. J. Mar. Res., 31, 228-288, 1973.
149. Wakker, K.F., R.C.A. Zandbergen, M.C. Naeije, and B.A.C. Ambrosius, GEOSAT altimeter data analysis for the oceans around South Africa, J. Geophys. Res., 95, 2991-3006, 1990.
150. Walker, N. D., and R. D. Mey, Ocean-atmosphere heat fluxes within the Agulhas Retroflection region, J. Geophys. Res., 93, 15473-15483, 1988.
151. Walker, N. D., Links between South African summer rainfall and temperature variability of the Agulhas and Benguela Current systems, J. Geophys Res., 95, 3297-3319, 1990.
152. Warner, M. J., and R. F. Weiss, Chlorofluormethanes in South Atlantic Antarctic Intermediate Water. Deep-Sea Res., 39, 2053-2075, 1992.
153. Warren, B.A., Topographic influences on the path of the Gulf Stream, Tellus, 15, 167-183, 1963.
154. Warren, B. A., Why is no deep water formed in the Pacific? J. Mar. Res., 41, 327-347, 1983.
155. Weijer, W., W.P.M. de Ruijter, H.A. Dijkstra, and P.J. van Leeuwen, Impact of interbasin exchange on the Atlantic overturning circulation, J.Phys.Oceanogr., in press, 1999.
156. William, C.S., The OCCAM global ocean model. In:Coming of Age (Proceedings Sixth ECMWF Workshop on the use of Parallel Processors in Meteorology). World Scientific. 446-454, 1995.
157. Wright, P., An atlas based on the 'COADS' data set, fields of mean wind, cloudiness and humidity at the surface of the global ocean. Report no. 14 Max-Planck-Institut f. Meteorologie, Hamburg, 1988.
158. Wunsch, C., The North Atlantic general circulation west of 50° W determined by inverse methods, Rev. Geophys. Space Phys., 16, 583-620, 1978.
159. Wyrtki, K., L. Magaard, and J. Hagar, Eddy energy in the oceans, J. Geophys. Res., 81, 2641-2646, 1976.
160. Zaucker, F., T. F. Stocker, and W. S. Broecker, Atmospheric fresh water fluxes and their effect on the global thermohaline circulation. J. Geophys. Res., 99, 12443-12457, 1994
161. Zlotnicki, V., L. Fu, and W. Patzert, Seasonal variability in global sea level observed with Geosat altimetry, J. Geophys. Res., 94, 17959-17969, 1989.