Northern hemisphere ice-sheet influences on global climate change

Science

Volumn 286, Issue 5442, 1999, Pages 1104-1111

  Clark, Peter U ^a   Alley, Richard B ^b   Pollard, David ^b  

^a OREGON STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ICE;

CLIMATE CHANGE; CLIMATE CYCLE; ICE SHEET;

AIR TEMPERATURE; GEOLOGY; GLOBAL CLIMATE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SEA;

EID: 0033527784     PISSN: 00368075     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1126/science.286.5442.1104     Document Type: Review

References (158)

1. N. J. Shackleton, A. Berger, W. R. Peltier, Trans. R. Soc. Edinburgh Earth Sci. 81, 251 (1990).
2. A. C. Mix et al., Proc. Ocean Drill. Prog. Sci. Results 138, 371 (1995).
3. J. D. Hays, J. Imbrie, N. J. Shackleton, Science 194, 1121 (1976); J. Imbrie et al., in Milankovitch and Climate, Part 1, A. L. Berger et al., Eds. (Kluwer Academic, Boston, MA, 1984), pp. 121-164.
4. J. D. Hays, J. Imbrie, N. J. Shackleton, Science 194, 1121 (1976); J. Imbrie et al., in Milankovitch and Climate, Part 1, A. L. Berger et al., Eds. (Kluwer Academic, Boston, MA, 1984), pp. 121-164.
5. J. Imbrie et al., Paleoceanography 7, 701 (1992).
6. J. Imbrie et al., Paleoceanography 8, 699 (1993).
7. C. Bond et al., Nature 365, 739 (1993).
8. J. S. Walder and J. E. Costa, Earth Surf. Proc. Land. 21, 701 (1992).
9. S. Manabe and A. J. Broccoli, J. Geophys. Res. 90, 2167 (1985).
10. D. Pollard and S. L. Thompson, Quat. Sci. Rev. 16, 841 (1997).
11. J. Kutzbach et al., Quat. Sci. Rev. 17, 473 (1998).
12. A. Ganopolski, S. Rahmstorf, V. Petouknov, M. Claussen, Nature 391, 351 (1998).
13. D. Rind, J. Geophys. Res. 92, 4241 (1987); R. A. Shinn and E. J. Barron, J. Clim. 2, 1517 (1989); B. Felzer, R. J. Oglesby, T. Webb III, D. E. Hyman, J. Geophys. Res. 101, 19, 077 (1996).
14. D. Rind, J. Geophys. Res. 92, 4241 (1987); R. A. Shinn and E. J. Barron, J. Clim. 2, 1517 (1989); B. Felzer, R. J. Oglesby, T. Webb III, D. E. Hyman, J. Geophys. Res. 101, 19, 077 (1996).
15. D. Rind, J. Geophys. Res. 92, 4241 (1987); R. A. Shinn and E. J. Barron, J. Clim. 2, 1517 (1989); B. Felzer, R. J. Oglesby, T. Webb III, D. E. Hyman, J. Geophys. Res. 101, 19, 077 (1996).
16. E. Maier-Raimer and U. Mikolajewicz, in Oceanography 1988, A. Ayala-Castanares, W. Wooster, A. Yanez-Arancibia, Eds. (UNAM, Mexico, 1989), pp. 87-100.
17. T. F. Stocker, D. G. Wright, W. S. Broecker, Paleoceanography 7, 529 (1992).
18. S. Rahmstorf, Nature 378, 145 (1995).
19. W. S. Broecker, G. Bond, M. Klas, Paleoceanography 5, 469 (1990); E. G. Birchfield, H. Wang, J. J. Rich, J. Geophys. Res. 99, 12, 459 (1994).
20. W. S. Broecker, G. Bond, M. Klas, Paleoceanography 5, 469 (1990); E. G. Birchfield, H. Wang, J. J. Rich, J. Geophys. Res. 99, 12, 459 (1994).
21. A. J. Weaver, in Mechanisms of Global Climate Change at Millennial Time Scales, P. U. Clark, R. S. Webb, L. D. Keigwin, Eds. [American Geophysical Union (AGU), Washington, DC, 1999], pp. 285-300.
22. W. F. Ruddiman, in North America and Adjacent Oceans During the Last Deglaciation, W. F. Ruddiman and H. E. Wright, Jr., Eds. (Geological Society of America, Boulder, CO, 1987), pp. 137-154.
23. G. C. Bond et al., in Mechanisms of Global Climate Change at Millennial Time Scales, P. U. Clark, R. S. Webb, L. D. Keigwin, Eds. (AGU, Washington, DC, 1999), pp. 35-58.
24. A. C. Mix and R. G. Fairbanks, Earth Planet Sci. Lett. 73, 231 (1985); E. A. Boyle and L. D. Keigwin, Nature 330, 35 (1987); P. B. deMenocal, D. W. Oppo, R. G. Fairbanks, W. L. Prell, Paleoceanography 7, 229 (1992).
25. A. C. Mix and R. G. Fairbanks, Earth Planet Sci. Lett. 73, 231 (1985); E. A. Boyle and L. D. Keigwin, Nature 330, 35 (1987); P. B. deMenocal, D. W. Oppo, R. G. Fairbanks, W. L. Prell, Paleoceanography 7, 229 (1992).
26. A. C. Mix and R. G. Fairbanks, Earth Planet Sci. Lett. 73, 231 (1985); E. A. Boyle and L. D. Keigwin, Nature 330, 35 (1987); P. B. deMenocal, D. W. Oppo, R. G. Fairbanks, W. L. Prell, Paleoceanography 7, 229 (1992).
27. M. E. Raymo, W. F. Ruddiman, N.J. Shackleton, D. W. Oppo, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 97, 353 (1990).
28. L. D. Keigwin, G. A. Jones, S. J. Lehman, E. Boyle, J. Geophys. Res. 96, 16, 811 (1991).
29. D. Rind, D. Peteet, W. S. Broecker, A. McIntyre, W. F. Ruddiman, Clim. Dyn. 1, 3 (1986); P. J. Fawcett, A. M. Agustsdottir, R. B. Alley, C. A. Shuman, Paleoceanography 12, 23 (1997); U. Mikolajewizc, T. J. Crowley, A. Schiller, R. Voss, Nature 387, 384 (1997).
30. D. Rind, D. Peteet, W. S. Broecker, A. McIntyre, W. F. Ruddiman, Clim. Dyn. 1, 3 (1986); P. J. Fawcett, A. M. Agustsdottir, R. B. Alley, C. A. Shuman, Paleoceanography 12, 23 (1997); U. Mikolajewizc, T. J. Crowley, A. Schiller, R. Voss, Nature 387, 384 (1997).
31. D. Rind, D. Peteet, W. S. Broecker, A. McIntyre, W. F. Ruddiman, Clim. Dyn. 1, 3 (1986); P. J. Fawcett, A. M. Agustsdottir, R. B. Alley, C. A. Shuman, Paleoceanography 12, 23 (1997); U. Mikolajewizc, T. J. Crowley, A. Schiller, R. Voss, Nature 387, 384 (1997).
32. S. W. Hostetler, P. U. Clark, P. J. Bartlein, A. C. Mix, N. G. Pisias, J. Geophys. Res. 104, 3947 (1999).
33. R. B. Alley and P. U. Clark, Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 27, 149 (1999).
34. S. W. Hostetler and P. J. Bartlein, in Mechanisms of Global Climate Change at Millennial Time Scales, P. U. Clark, R. S. Webb, L. D. Keigwin, Eds. (AGU, Washington, DC, 1999), pp. 313-328.
35. A. J. Weaver, M. Eby, A. J. Fanning, E. C. Wiebe, Nature 394, 847 (1998).
36. A. C. Mix, W. F. Ruddiman, A. McIntyre, Paleoceanography 1, 43 (1986); S. Manabe and R. J. Stouffer, J. Clim. 1, 841 (1988); T. J. Crowley, Paleoceanography 7, 489 (1992).
37. A. C. Mix, W. F. Ruddiman, A. McIntyre, Paleoceanography 1, 43 (1986); S. Manabe and R. J. Stouffer, J. Clim. 1, 841 (1988); T. J. Crowley, Paleoceanography 7, 489 (1992).
38. A. C. Mix, W. F. Ruddiman, A. McIntyre, Paleoceanography 1, 43 (1986); S. Manabe and R. J. Stouffer, J. Clim. 1, 841 (1988); T. J. Crowley, Paleoceanography 7, 489 (1992).
39. A. Schiller, U. Mikolajewicz, R. Voss, Clim. Dyn. 13, 325 (1997).
40. W. L. Prell and J. E. Kutzbach, J. Geophys. Res. 82, 8411 (1987); J. Overpeck, D. Anderson, S. Trumbore, W. Prell, Clim. Dyn. 12, 213 (1996).
41. W. L. Prell and J. E. Kutzbach, J. Geophys. Res. 82, 8411 (1987); J. Overpeck, D. Anderson, S. Trumbore, W. Prell, Clim. Dyn. 12, 213 (1996).
42. P. B. deMenocal and D. Rind, J. Geophys. Res. 98, 7265 (1993).
43. J. T. Overpeck, L. C. Peterson, N. Kipp, J. Imbrie, D. Rind, Nature 338, 553 (1989).
44. A. B. G. Bush and S. G. H. Philander, Science 279, 1341 (1998).
45. A. Ágústsdóttir, R. B. Alley, D. Pollard, W. H. Peterson, Geophys. Res. Lett. 26, 1333 (1999).
46. A. J. Broccoli and S. Manabe, Clim. Dyn. 1, 87 (1987).
47. 2: Natural Variations Archean to Present, E. T. Sundquist and W. S. Broecker, Eds. (AGU, Washington, DC, 1985), pp. 303-317.
48. W. B. Curry and T. J. Crowley, Paleoceanography 2, 480 (1987); H. J. Spero, J. Bijma, D. W. Lea, B. E. Bemis, Nature 390, 497 (1997).
49. W. B. Curry and T. J. Crowley, Paleoceanography 2, 480 (1987); H. J. Spero, J. Bijma, D. W. Lea, B. E. Bemis, Nature 390, 497 (1997).
50. T. Sowers, M. Bender, D. Raynaud, Y. S. Korotkevich, J. Orchardo, Paleoceanography 6, 679 (1991).
51. J. R. Petit et al., Nature 399, 429 (1999).
52. W. S. Broecker and G. M. Henderson, Paleoceanography 13, 352 (1998).
53. M. E. Raymo and M. Horowitz, Geophys. Res. Lett. 23, 367 (1996).
54. W. H. Berger, Naturwissenschaften 69, 87 (1982); W. S. Broecker, The Glacial World According to Wally (Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory, Palisades, NY, 1995); D. A. Hodell and C. D. Charles, Eos 80 (17), S198 (1999).
55. W. H. Berger, Naturwissenschaften 69, 87 (1982); W. S. Broecker, The Glacial World According to Wally (Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory, Palisades, NY, 1995); D. A. Hodell and C. D. Charles, Eos 80 (17), S198 (1999).
56. W. H. Berger, Naturwissenschaften 69, 87 (1982); W. S. Broecker, The Glacial World According to Wally (Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory, Palisades, NY, 1995); D. A. Hodell and C. D. Charles, Eos 80 (17), S198 (1999).
57. 2-climate relations is evolving rapidly [M. Pagani, M. A. Arthur, K. H. Freeman, Paleoceanography 14, 273 (1999); P. N. Pearson and M. R. Palmer, Science 284, 1824 (1999)] and is beyond the scope of this review.
58. 2-climate relations is evolving rapidly [M. Pagani, M. A. Arthur, K. H. Freeman, Paleoceanography 14, 273 (1999); P. N. Pearson and M. R. Palmer, Science 284, 1824 (1999)] and is beyond the scope of this review.
59. C. R. Bentley, Science 275, 1077 (1997); M. Oppenheimer, Nature 393, 325 (1998).
60. C. R. Bentley, Science 275, 1077 (1997); M. Oppenheimer, Nature 393, 325 (1998).
61. C. S. Boulton and A. S. Jones, J. Glaciol. 24, 29 (1979).
62. R. B. Alley, D. D. Blankenship, C. R. Bentley, S. T. Rooney, Nature 322, 57 (1986).
63. D. R. MacAyeal, Nature 359, 29 (1992).
64. _, Paleoceanography 8, 775 (1993).
65. P. U. Clark, Quat. Res. 41, 19 (1994).
66. S. Anandakrishnan, D. D. Blankenship, R. B. Alley, P. L. Stoffa, Nature 394, 62 (1998); R. E. Bell et al., Nature 394, 58 (1998).
67. S. Anandakrishnan, D. D. Blankenship, R. B. Alley, P. L. Stoffa, Nature 394, 62 (1998); R. E. Bell et al., Nature 394, 58 (1998).
68. P. U. Clark and D. Pollard, Paleoceanography 13, 1 (1998).
69. W. S. B. Paterson, The Physics of Glaciers (Pergamon, Tarrytown, NY, ed. 3, 1994); R. LeB. Hooke, Principles of Glacier Mechanics (Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, 1998).
70. W. S. B. Paterson, The Physics of Glaciers (Pergamon, Tarrytown, NY, ed. 3, 1994); R. LeB. Hooke, Principles of Glacier Mechanics (Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, 1998).
71. C. S. Boulton and R. C. A. Hindmarsh, J. Geophys. Res. 92, 9059 (1987).
72. B. Kamb, J. Geophys. Res. 96, 16, 585 (1991).
73. R. C. A. Hindmarsh, Quat. Sci. Rev. 16, 1039 (1997).
74. N. R. Iverson et al., J. Glaciol. 44, 634 (1998).
75. N. R. Iverson, B. Hanson, R. LeB. Hooke, P. Jansson, Science 267, 80 (1995); N. R. Iverson J. Glaciol. 45, 41 (1999).
76. N. R. Iverson, B. Hanson, R. LeB. Hooke, P. Jansson, Science 267, 80 (1995); N. R. Iverson J. Glaciol. 45, 41 (1999).
77. S. J. Marshall, L. Tarasov, G. K. C. Clarke, W. R. Peltier, Can J. Earth Sci., in press.
78. T. J. Hughes, Rev. Geophys. 13, 502 (1975).
79. D. D. Blankenship, C. R. Bentley, S. T. Rooney, R. B. Alley, Nature 322, 54 (1986); S. Anandakrishnan and R. B. Alley, J. Geophys. Res. 102, 15, 183 (1997).
80. D. D. Blankenship, C. R. Bentley, S. T. Rooney, R. B. Alley, Nature 322, 54 (1986); S. Anandakrishnan and R. B. Alley, J. Geophys. Res. 102, 15, 183 (1997).
81. H. Engelhardt, N. Humphrey, B. Kamb, M. Fahnestock, Science 248, 57 (1990).
82. S. J. Marshall, G. K. C. Clarke, A. S. Dyke, D. A. Fisher, J. Geophys. Res. 101, 17, 827 (1996).
83. N. G. Pisias and T. C. Moore Jr., Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 52, 450 (1981).
84. P. B. deMenocal, Science 270, 53 (1995).
85. D. F. Williams et al., Science 278, 1114 (1997).
86. S. C. Clemens, D. W. Murray, W. L. Prell, Science 274, 943 (1996).
87. Z. Ding, Z. Yu, N. W. Rutter, T. Liu, Quat. Sci. Rev. 13, 39 (1994).
88. J. Oerlemans, in Milankovitch and Climate, Part 2, A. L. Berger et al., Eds. (D. Reidel, Norwell, MA, 1984), pp. 607-611; B. Saltzman and K. A. Maasch, Clim. Dyn. 5, 201 (1991); A. Berger, X. S. Li, M. F. Loutre, Quat. Sci. Rev. 18, 1 (1999).
89. J. Oerlemans, in Milankovitch and Climate, Part 2, A. L. Berger et al., Eds. (D. Reidel, Norwell, MA, 1984), pp. 607-611; B. Saltzman and K. A. Maasch, Clim. Dyn. 5, 201 (1991); A. Berger, X. S. Li, M. F. Loutre, Quat. Sci. Rev. 18, 1 (1999).
90. J. Oerlemans, in Milankovitch and Climate, Part 2, A. L. Berger et al., Eds. (D. Reidel, Norwell, MA, 1984), pp. 607-611; B. Saltzman and K. A. Maasch, Clim. Dyn. 5, 201 (1991); A. Berger, X. S. Li, M. F. Loutre, Quat. Sci. Rev. 18, 1 (1999).
91. D. Paillard, Nature 391, 378 (1998).
92. C. DeBlonde and W. R. Peltier, J. Clim. 4, 318 (1991); M. Mudelsee and M. Schulz, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 151, 117 (1997).
93. C. DeBlonde and W. R. Peltier, J. Clim. 4, 318 (1991); M. Mudelsee and M. Schulz, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 151, 117 (1997).
94. 18O record of global ice volume suggest that this mechanism is unnecessary [J. A. Rial, Science 285, 564 (1999); A. J. Ridgwell, A. J. Watson, M. E. Raymo, Paleoceanography 14, 437 (1999)].
95. 18O record of global ice volume suggest that this mechanism is unnecessary [J. A. Rial, Science 285, 564 (1999); A. J. Ridgwell, A. J. Watson, M. E. Raymo, Paleoceanography 14, 437 (1999)].
96. 18O record of global ice volume suggest that this mechanism is unnecessary [J. A. Rial, Science 285, 564 (1999); A. J. Ridgwell, A. J. Watson, M. E. Raymo, Paleoceanography 14, 437 (1999)].
97. 18O record of global ice volume suggest that this mechanism is unnecessary [J. A. Rial, Science 285, 564 (1999); A. J. Ridgwell, A. J. Watson, M. E. Raymo, Paleoceanography 14, 437 (1999)].
98. 18O record of global ice volume suggest that this mechanism is unnecessary [J. A. Rial, Science 285, 564 (1999); A. J. Ridgwell, A. J. Watson, M. E. Raymo, Paleoceanography 14, 437 (1999)].
99. 18O record of global ice volume suggest that this mechanism is unnecessary [J. A. Rial, Science 285, 564 (1999); A. J. Ridgwell, A. J. Watson, M. E. Raymo, Paleoceanography 14, 437 (1999)].
100. W. S. Broecker and J. van Donk, Rev. Geophys. Space Phys. 8, 169 (1970).
101. W. T. Hyde and W. R. Peltier, J. Atmos. Sci. 42, 2170 (1985).
102. L. Tarasov and W. R. Peltier, J. Ceophys. Res. 104, 9517 (1999).
103. J. Mangerud, in Quaternary Landscapes, L. K.C. Shane and E. J. Cushing, Eds. (Univ. of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, 1991), pp. 38-75; P. U. Clark et al., Quat. Sci. Rev. 12, 79 (1993).
104. J. Mangerud, in Quaternary Landscapes, L. K.C. Shane and E. J. Cushing, Eds. (Univ. of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, 1991), pp. 38-75; P. U. Clark et al., Quat. Sci. Rev. 12, 79 (1993).
105. W. R. Peltier, Rev. Geophys. 36, 603 (1998).
106. S. J. Marshall, thesis, University of British Columbia (1996).
107. W. S. Broecker, Paleoceanography 13, 119 (1998).
108. R. B. Alley, P. U. Clark, L. D. Keigwin, R. S. Webb, in Mechanisms of Global Climate Change at Millennial Time Scales, P. U. Clark, R. S. Webb, L. D. Keigwin, Eds. (AGU, Washington, DC, 1999), pp. 385-394.
109. W. S. Broecker et al., Nature 341, 318 (1989); P. U. Clark et al., Paleoceanography 11, 563 (1996); D. C. Barber et al., Nature 400, 344 (1999); J. M. Licciardi, J. T. Teller, P. U. Clark, in Mechanisms of Global Climate Change at Millennial Time Scales, P. U. Clark, R. S. Webb, L. D. Keigwin, Eds. (AGU, Washington, DC, 1999), pp. 177-200; S. J. Marshall and G. K. C. Clarke, Quat. Res., in press.
110. W. S. Broecker et al., Nature 341, 318 (1989); P. U. Clark et al., Paleoceanography 11, 563 (1996); D. C. Barber et al., Nature 400, 344 (1999); J. M. Licciardi, J. T. Teller, P. U. Clark, in Mechanisms of Global Climate Change at Millennial Time Scales, P. U. Clark, R. S. Webb, L. D. Keigwin, Eds. (AGU, Washington, DC, 1999), pp. 177-200; S. J. Marshall and G. K. C. Clarke, Quat. Res., in press.
111. W. S. Broecker et al., Nature 341, 318 (1989); P. U. Clark et al., Paleoceanography 11, 563 (1996); D. C. Barber et al., Nature 400, 344 (1999); J. M. Licciardi, J. T. Teller, P. U. Clark, in Mechanisms of Global Climate Change at Millennial Time Scales, P. U. Clark, R. S. Webb, L. D. Keigwin, Eds. (AGU, Washington, DC, 1999), pp. 177-200; S. J. Marshall and G. K. C. Clarke, Quat. Res., in press.
112. W. S. Broecker et al., Nature 341, 318 (1989); P. U. Clark et al., Paleoceanography 11, 563 (1996); D. C. Barber et al., Nature 400, 344 (1999); J. M. Licciardi, J. T. Teller, P. U. Clark, in Mechanisms of Global Climate Change at Millennial Time Scales, P. U. Clark, R. S. Webb, L. D. Keigwin, Eds. (AGU, Washington, DC, 1999), pp. 177-200; S. J. Marshall and G. K. C. Clarke, Quat. Res., in press.
113. W. S. Broecker et al., Nature 341, 318 (1989); P. U. Clark et al., Paleoceanography 11, 563 (1996); D. C. Barber et al., Nature 400, 344 (1999); J. M. Licciardi, J. T. Teller, P. U. Clark, in Mechanisms of Global Climate Change at Millennial Time Scales, P. U. Clark, R. S. Webb, L. D. Keigwin, Eds. (AGU, Washington, DC, 1999), pp. 177-200; S. J. Marshall and G. K. C. Clarke, Quat. Res., in press.
114. M. A. Cane and A. C. Clement, in Mechanisms of Global Climate Change at Millennial Time Scales, P. U. Clark, R. S. Webb, L. D. Keigwin, Eds. (AGU, Washington, DC, 1999), pp. 373-384.
115. L. D. Keigwin and S. J. Lehman, Paleoceanography 9, 185 (1994); W. B. Curry, T. M. Marchitto, J. F. McManus, D. W. Oppo, K. L. Laarkamp, in Mechanisms of Global Climate Change at Millennial Time Scales, P. U. Clark, R. S. Webb, L. D. Keigwin, Eds. (AGU, Washington, DC, 1999), pp. 59-76.
116. L. D. Keigwin and S. J. Lehman, Paleoceanography 9, 185 (1994); W. B. Curry, T. M. Marchitto, J. F. McManus, D. W. Oppo, K. L. Laarkamp, in Mechanisms of Global Climate Change at Millennial Time Scales, P. U. Clark, R. S. Webb, L. D. Keigwin, Eds. (AGU, Washington, DC, 1999), pp. 59-76.
117. S. J. Marshall and G. K. C. Clarke, J. Geophys. Res. 102, 17827 (1997).
118. COHMAP Members, Science 241, 1043 (1988); S. Pinot et al., Clim. Dyn., in press.
119. COHMAP Members, Science 241, 1043 (1988); S. Pinot et al., Clim. Dyn., in press.
120. E. Bard, Science 284, 1133 (1999).
121. W. R. Peltier, Science 265, 195 (1994).
122. K. Lambeck, C. Smither, P. Johnston, Geophys. J. Int. 134, 102 (1998).
123. CLIMAP Project Members, Geol. Soc. Am. Map Chart Ser. 36 (1981).
124. P. Huybrechts and S. T'Siobbel, Ann. Glaciol. 25, 333 (1997).
125. R. B. Alley, J. Glaciol. 38, 245 (1992).
126. R. H. Thomas, J. Glaciol. 12, 55 (1973); K. C. Jezek, R. B. Alley, R. H. Thomas, Science 227, 1335 (1985).
127. R. H. Thomas, J. Glaciol. 12, 55 (1973); K. C. Jezek, R. B. Alley, R. H. Thomas, Science 227, 1335 (1985).
128. G. S. Boulton, C. D. Smith, A. S. Jones, J. Newsome, J. Geol. Soc. London 142, 447 (1985).
129. D. A. Fisher, N. Reeh, K. Langley, Geophys. Phys. Quat. 39, 229 (1985).
130. P. U. Clark, J. M. Licciardi, D. R. MacAyeal, J. W. Jenson, Geology 24, 679 (1996).
131. J. M. Licciardi, P. U. Clark, J. W. Jenson, D. R. MacAyeal, Quat. Sci. Rev. 17, 427 (1998).
132. J. X. Mitrovica and J. L. Davis, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 136, 343 (1995); J. L. Davis and J. X. Mitrovica, Nature 379, 331 (1996).
133. J. X. Mitrovica and J. L. Davis, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 136, 343 (1995); J. L. Davis and J. X. Mitrovica, Nature 379, 331 (1996).
134. N. G. Pisias and A. C. Mix, Paleoceanography 12, 381 (1997); S. E. Harris and A. C. Mix, Quat. Res. 51, 14 (1999).
135. N. G. Pisias and A. C. Mix, Paleoceanography 12, 381 (1997); S. E. Harris and A. C. Mix, Quat. Res. 51, 14 (1999).
136. C. Genthon et al., Nature 329, 414 (1987); S. M. Colman et al., Nature 378, 769 (1995); J. J. Morley and L. E. Heusser, Paleoceanography 12, 483 (1997).
137. C. Genthon et al., Nature 329, 414 (1987); S. M. Colman et al., Nature 378, 769 (1995); J. J. Morley and L. E. Heusser, Paleoceanography 12, 483 (1997).
138. C. Genthon et al., Nature 329, 414 (1987); S. M. Colman et al., Nature 378, 769 (1995); J. J. Morley and L. E. Heusser, Paleoceanography 12, 483 (1997).
139. P. M. Grootes, M. Stuiver, J. W. C. White, S. J. Johnsen, J. Jouzel, Nature 366, 552 (1993).
140. K. M. Cuffey et al., Science 270, 455 (1995); J. P. Severinghaus, T. Sowers, E. J. Brook, R. B. Alley, M. L. Bender, Nature 393, 141 (1998).
141. K. M. Cuffey et al., Science 270, 455 (1995); J. P. Severinghaus, T. Sowers, E. J. Brook, R. B. Alley, M. L. Bender, Nature 393, 141 (1998).
142. A. Berger and M. F. Loutre, Quat. Sci. Rev. 10, 297 (1991).
143. H. Schulz, U. von Rad, H. Erlenkeuser, Nature 393, 54 (1998).
144. M. G. Little et al., Paleoceanography 12, 568 (1997).
145. S. J. Johnsen, W. Dansgaard, H. B. Clausen, C. C. Langway Jr., Nature 235, 429 (1972).
146. E. J. Brook, personal communication.
147. T. Blunier et al., Nature 394, 739 (1998).
148. E. J. Brook, T. Sowers, J. Orchardo, Science 273, 1087 (1996).
149. C. K. C. Clarke et al., in Mechanisms of Global Climate Change at Millennial Time Scales, P. U. Clark, R. S. Webb, L. D. Keigwin, Eds. (AGU, Washington, DC 1999), pp. 243-262.
150. T. Sowers and M. Bender, Science 269, 210 (1995).
151. K. Fleming et al., Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 163, 327 (1998).
152. A. Berger, Quat. Res. 9, 139 (1978).
153. Evolutive spectral analyses were calculated by using fast Fourier transform, and spectra were smoothed with a Hanning filter with a half-filter with five spectral estimates. Time series were interpolated to a constant sampling interval and then normalized to a mean zero and a standard deviation of one. Sampling interval was 1 ky for (Fig. 7A) and (Fig. 7D), 2 ky for (Fig. 7E). and 4 ky for (Fig. 7B, C, and F). Every spectrum was calculated with a record length of 1 My with a 100-ky offset Each 1-My long segment was linearly detrended. Spectra are plotted at the midpoint of each interval, with the first 100-ky interval beginning at 500 ka. Spectral estimates have 15 degrees of freedom.
154. B. K. Linsley, Nature 380, 234 (1996).
155. J. Chappell and N. J. Shackleton, Nature 324, 137 (1986); J. Chappell et al., Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 141, 227 (1996).
156. J. Chappell and N. J. Shackleton, Nature 324, 137 (1986); J. Chappell et al., Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 141, 227 (1996).
157. E. Bard, B. Hamelin, R. G. Fairbanks, Nature 346, 456 (1990).
158. We thank T. Blunier, E. Brook, S. Clemens, P. deMenocal, K. Fleming, B. Linsley, A. Mix, J. Peck, H. Schulz, and D. Williams for providing data; P. Bartlein, J. Clark, S. Hostetler, J. Jenson, S. Marshall, D. MacAyeal, A. Mix, and N. Pisias for discussions; P. Bartlein, S. Hostetler, A. Mix, and two external reviewers for reviews; and P. Bartlein, S. Marshall, A. Mix, and N. Pislas for preparing figures. Supported by grants from the Earth System History program (R.B.A., P.U.C., D.P.) and the Office of Polar Programs (R.B.A) of the NSF.