Supranational action against sex discrimination: Equal pay and equal treatment in the European Union

International Labour Review

Volumn 138, Issue 4, 1999, Pages 381-410

  Heide, Ingeborg ^a  

^a INTERNATIONAL LABOUR OFFICE   (Switzerland)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EUROPEAN UNION; GENDER DISPARITY; LABOR POLICY; WAGE GAP; WORKING CONDITIONS;

EUROPE;

EID: 0033508188     PISSN: 00207780     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1564-913X.1999.tb00394.x     Document Type: Article

References (110)

1. See Judith Blom, Barry Fitzpatrick, Jeanne Gregory, Robert Knegt and Ursula O'Hare: The utilisation of sex equality litigation procedures in the Member States of the European Community: A comparative study, V/782/96-EN, Brussels, European Commission, 1995; on national litigation procedures, see also Barry Fitzpatrick, Jeanne Gregory and Erika Szyszczak: Sex equality litigation in the Member States of the European Community: A comparative study, V/407/94-EN, Brussels, European Commission, 1993.
2. See Judith Blom, Barry Fitzpatrick, Jeanne Gregory, Robert Knegt and Ursula O'Hare: The utilisation of sex equality litigation procedures in the Member States of the European Community: A comparative study, V/782/96-EN, Brussels, European Commission, 1995; on national litigation procedures, see also Barry Fitzpatrick, Jeanne Gregory and Erika Szyszczak: Sex equality litigation in the Member States of the European Community: A comparative study, V/407/94-EN, Brussels, European Commission, 1993.
3. For a comparative overview of equality cases from the different Member States, see European Commission: Equal opportunities for women and men in the European Union - Annual Report 1996, CE 98-96-566-EN-C, Luxembourg, Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 1997, p. 109.
4. See Equality Quarterly News (http://europe.eu.int/comm/dg05/equ_opp/index_en.htm), No. 1/99, Winter 1999.
5. The judgements of the European Court of Justice have often provoked fierce debates, with a correspondingly vast number of publications. In view of the large quantity of secondary literature published in all Member States, the citations in this article are mostly restricted to original or comparative sources and easily accessible publications from European Union institutions. The most comprehensive list of publications is probably the Legal bibliography of European integration, Luxembourg, Office for Official Publications of the European Communities (since 1981); for an excellent selection of publications in the social and equality fields, see Hans Von der Groeben, Jochen Thiesing and Claus-Dieter Ehlermann (eds.): Kommentar zum EU-/EG-Vertrag, Baden-Baden, Fünfte neubear beitete Auflag, 1999, pp. 3/903-3/915 and pp. 3/1192-3/1198. See also Women's rights and the Maastricht Treaty on European Union and Women's rights and the Treaty of Amsterdam, Working Papers of the European Parliament, Women's Rights Series, No. 10/94 and No. 5/98, respectively, and, more generally, http:// europe.eu.int/comm/dg05. The ECJ cases discussed in this article are indexed and summarized in European Commission: Handbook on equal treatment for women and men in the European Union, Second edition, Luxembourg, Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 1999. Additional information on the ECJ is available at http://curia.eu.int/en.
6. The judgements of the European Court of Justice have often provoked fierce debates, with a correspondingly vast number of publications. In view of the large quantity of secondary literature published in all Member States, the citations in this article are mostly restricted to original or comparative sources and easily accessible publications from European Union institutions. The most comprehensive list of publications is probably the Legal bibliography of European integration, Luxembourg, Office for Official Publications of the European Communities (since 1981); for an excellent selection of publications in the social and equality fields, see Hans Von der Groeben, Jochen Thiesing and Claus-Dieter Ehlermann (eds.): Kommentar zum EU-/EG-Vertrag, Baden-Baden, Fünfte neubear beitete Auflag, 1999, pp. 3/903-3/915 and pp. 3/1192-3/1198. See also Women's rights and the Maastricht Treaty on European Union and Women's rights and the Treaty of Amsterdam, Working Papers of the European Parliament, Women's Rights Series, No. 10/94 and No. 5/98, respectively, and, more generally, http:// europe.eu.int/comm/dg05. The ECJ cases discussed in this article are indexed and summarized in European Commission: Handbook on equal treatment for women and men in the European Union, Second edition, Luxembourg, Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 1999. Additional information on the ECJ is available at http://curia.eu.int/en.
7. The judgements of the European Court of Justice have often provoked fierce debates, with a correspondingly vast number of publications. In view of the large quantity of secondary literature published in all Member States, the citations in this article are mostly restricted to original or comparative sources and easily accessible publications from European Union institutions. The most comprehensive list of publications is probably the Legal bibliography of European integration, Luxembourg, Office for Official Publications of the European Communities (since 1981); for an excellent selection of publications in the social and equality fields, see Hans Von der Groeben, Jochen Thiesing and Claus-Dieter Ehlermann (eds.): Kommentar zum EU-/EG-Vertrag, Baden-Baden, Fünfte neubear beitete Auflag, 1999, pp. 3/903-3/915 and pp. 3/1192-3/1198. See also Women's rights and the Maastricht Treaty on European Union and Women's rights and the Treaty of Amsterdam, Working Papers of the European Parliament, Women's Rights Series, No. 10/94 and No. 5/98, respectively, and, more generally, http:// europe.eu.int/comm/dg05. The ECJ cases discussed in this article are indexed and summarized in European Commission: Handbook on equal treatment for women and men in the European Union, Second edition, Luxembourg, Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 1999. Additional information on the ECJ is available at http://curia.eu.int/en.
8. See, for instance, Karl-Jürgen Bieback: Indirect sex discrimination within the meaning of Directive (CE) 79/7 in the social security law of the EC Member States, V/1333/96-EN, Brussels, European Commission, 1996.
9. In the absence of a uniform system of citation, the system followed here is that set out by the European Court of Justice (ECJ) in ECJ Press Release No 57/99 of 30 July 1999 (http:// curia.eu.int/en/cp/index.htm). Accordingly, reference to articles as they stood before 1 May 1999 (when the Treaty of Amsterdam entered into force) is made by "EU Treaty", "EEC Treaty" or "EC Treaty", whereas "EC" or "EU" denotes articles as they stand since that date. One of the amendments introduced by the Treaty of Amsterdam was to renumber the articles, titles and sections of the Treaty on European Union and the Treaty establishing the European Community. Treaty articles cited in the following pages are numbered according to the new consolidated version of the Treaty of Amsterdam, unless reference is made to an earlier version. The equivalences between the two numbering systems are given in most cases. References to "the Treaty" should be understood to mean the founding Treaty of Rome as amended at the relevant time.
10. Because of its basically passive role, the European Parliament cannot be regarded as a true legitimating body for the European Union; its position was further strengthened through the Treaty of Amsterdam, but it still has no power to initiate legislation.
11. The Treaty establishing the European Economic Community was concluded by Belgium, Germany, France, Italy, Luxembourg and the Netherlands on 25 March 1957; it entered into force on 1 January 1958.The Community was later enlarged with the accession of Denmark, the United Kingdom and Ireland (1973), Greece (1981), Spain and Portugal (1986), Austria, Finland and Sweden (1995).
12. On the history of the social chapter, see Hans Von der Groeben, Jochen Thiesing and Claus-Dieter Ehlermann (eds.), op. cit. (note 4), p. 3/926-3/986.
13. See Article 39 EC (ex Article 48 EEC Treaty).
14. See Article 117 (2) EEC Treaty.
15. Belgium had ratified this Convention on 23 May 1952, France on 10 March 1953, and Germany and Italy on 8 June 1956.
16. See Hans Von der Groeben, Jochen Thiesing and Claus-Dieter Ehlermann (eds.), op. cit. (note 4), pp. 3/1207 et seq.
17. Since its famous Defrenne II ruling on Case 43/75, ECR 1976, p. 455 (see below).
18. For further information see Emil J. Kirchner: "The social framework of the European Union", in European Union Encyclopaedia and Directory 1996, Second edition, London, Europa, 1996, pp. 140-144.
19. Concluded on 17 February 1986, in force since 1 July 1987, OJ L/169, 29.6.1987.
20. Under this procedure, the European Parliament is consulted twice and can reconsider decisions after the Council of Ministers has reached a "common position". See Article 118a EEC Treaty (now Article 138 EC) and Article 189c EEC Treaty (now Article 252 EC).
21. Treaty on European Union, signed in Maastricht on 7 February 1992, in force since 1 November 1993. Because the United Kingdom was not a party to the SPA, the Agreement was mostly regarded as an instrument of international, not supranational, character.
22. See Article 189b EC Treaty (now Article 251 EC): this procedure enables the EP and the Council to make laws jointly in specific policy areas; the EP can, by absolute majority, eliminate proposals in these areas.
23. This procedure considerably speeded up the adoption of directives on parental leave (96/34/EC) and on part-time work (97/81/EC). On these instruments in international perspective, see, respectively, "Parental leave", in International Labour Review (Geneva), Vol. 136 (1997), No. 1, pp. 109-128; and "Part-time work: Solution or trap?", in International Labour Review (Geneva), Vol. 136 (1997), No. 4, pp. 558-579.
24. This procedure considerably speeded up the adoption of directives on parental leave (96/34/EC) and on part-time work (97/81/EC). On these instruments in international perspective, see, respectively, "Parental leave", in International Labour Review (Geneva), Vol. 136 (1997), No. 1, pp. 109-128; and "Part-time work: Solution or trap?", in International Labour Review (Geneva), Vol. 136 (1997), No. 4, pp. 558-579.
25. Treaty of Amsterdam amending the Treaty on European Union, the Treaties establishing the European Communities and Certain Related Acts, signed at Amsterdam, 2 October 1997, in force since 1 May 1999, OJ 97/C 340/01.
26. Articles 136 et seq. EC; for further information see Berndt Schulte: "Juridical instruments of the European Union and the European Communities", in Wolfgang Beck, Laurent van der Maesen and Alan Walker (eds.): The social quality of Europe, The Hague, Kluwer Law International, 1997, p. 45-67; and Suzanne Berthet: L'Union Européenne et l'Organisation internationale du Travail, Lyon, Université Jean Moulin/Lyon III, 1997.
27. Articles 136 et seq. EC; for further information see Berndt Schulte: "Juridical instruments of the European Union and the European Communities", in Wolfgang Beck, Laurent van der Maesen and Alan Walker (eds.): The social quality of Europe, The Hague, Kluwer Law International, 1997, p. 45-67; and Suzanne Berthet: L'Union Européenne et l'Organisation internationale du Travail, Lyon, Université Jean Moulin/Lyon III, 1997.
28. Sometimes referred to as the "Founding Treaties", these instruments are of international, not supranational, character.
29. When this directive was adopted, the transition period for Article 119 EEC Treaty on equal pay (now Article 141 EC) had come to an end more than 13 years earlier; the reluctance of the Commission to enforce its implementation in the meantime gave rise to very critical comments by the ECJ in the case Defrenne v. Société Anonyme Belge de Navigation Aérienne Sabena (Defrenne II), ECR 1976, p. 455.
30. See also Cases C-46/93 and C-48/93, Brasserie du Pêcheur, ECR 1996, p. I-1029.
31. Joined Cases C-178/94, C-179/94, C-188/94, C-189/94 and C-190/94, ECR 1996, p. 4845.
32. See Equality Quarterly News (http://europe.eu.int/comm/dg05/equ_opp/index_en.htm), No. 1/99, Winter 1999, p. 35.
33. Case 222/84, ECR 1986, p. 1651.
34. See Article 236 EC (ex Article 179 EC Treaty); Article 230 EC (ex Article 173 EC Treaty), paragraph 4, allows direct litigation under certain conditions, but it does not apply to directives, which are addressed to the Member States.
35. See Article 226 EC (ex Article 169 EEC/EC Treaty).
36. See Article 227 EC (ex Article 170 EEC/EC Treaty).
37. See Article 228 EC (ex Article 171 EEC/EC Treaty) and http://europe.eu.int/comm/ dg05/equ_opp/news/infring_en.htm.
38. Case C-229/89, Commission of the European Communities v. Kingdom of Belgium, ECR 1991, p. I-2205, on Directive 79/7/EEC; Case C-173/91, ECR 1993, p. I-673, on Directive 76/207/EEC and 119 EEC Treaty (now Article 141 EC).
39. Case 143/83, Commission of the European Communities v. Kingdom of Denmark, ECR 1985, 427, on the transposition of Directive 75/117/EEC.
40. Case 248/83, Commission of the European Communities v. Federal Republic of Germany, ECR 1985, p. 1459, on transposition of Directive 75/117/EEC.
41. Case C-187/98, Commission of the European Communities v. Hellenic Republic, OJ/C 258/18, on Directives 75/117/EEC and 79/7/EEC (pending).
42. Case 312/86, Commission of the European Communities v. French Republic, ECR 1988, p. 6315, on transposition of Directive 76/207/EEC; Case 318/86, ECR 1988, p. 3559, on access to posts in public service under the same Directive; Case C-197/96, ECR 1997, p. I-1489, on prohibition of night work under the same Directive; Case C-354/98, OJ 98/C 340/24, on Directive 96/97/EC, judgement of 8 July 1999 (nyr) (see http://curia.eu.int/en).
43. Case 163/82, Commission of the European Communities v. Italian Republic, ECR 1983, p. 3273, on transposition of Directive 76/207/EEC; Case C-207/96, ECR 1997, p. I-6869, on prohibition of night work under the same Directive.
44. Case 58/81, Commission of the European Communities v. Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, ECR 1982, p. 2175, on Directive 75/117/EEC (transposition); Case C-438/98, OJ 98/C 20/28, on transposition of Directive 96/97/EC (pending).
45. Case 61/81, Commission of the European Communities v. United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, ECR 1982, p. 2601, on transposition of Directive 75/117/EEC; Case 165/82, ECR 1983, p. 3431, on transposition of Directive 76/207/EEC.
46. For details see Equality Quarterly News (http://europe.eu.int/comm/dg05/equ_opp/ index_en.htm), No. 1/99, p. 9.
47. See Equality Quarterly News, No 4/98 (CE-V/2-98-019-EN-C), p. 20 et seq.
48. See note 40 above.
49. Case 80/70, Defrenne v. Belgian State (Defrenne I), ECR 1971, p. 445.
50. Case 43/75, Defrenne v. Société Anonyme Belge de Navigation Aérienne Sabena (Defrenne II), ECR 1976, p. 455.
51. Case 149/77, Defrenne v. Société Anonyme Belge de Navigation Aérienne Sabena (Defrenne III), ECR 1978, p. 1365.
52. See note 66 below. For an overview of this and related cases, see also "Occupational pension schemes: Towards perfect equality?", in International Labour Review (Geneva), Vol. 132 (1993), No. 4, pp. 440-450.
53. Case 69/80, Worringham and Humphreys v. Lloyds Bank Limited, ECR 1981, p. 767.
54. Case 170/84, Bilka-Kaufhaus GmbH v. Weber von Hartz, ECR 1986, p. 1607; see also note 66 below.
55. Case C-33/89, Kowalska v. Freie und Hansestadt Hamburg, ECR 1990, p. I-2591.
56. Case 171/88, Rinner-Kühn v. FWW Spezial-Gebäudereinigung GmbH & Co. KG, ECR 1989, p. 2743.
57. Case C-167/97, judgement of 9 February 1999 (nyr), in Equality Quarterly News (http://europe.eu.int/comm/dg05/equ_opp/index_en.htm), No. 2/99.
58. Case 12/81, Garland v. British Rail Engineering Limited, ECR 1982, p. 359.
59. Case C-249/96, ECR 1998, p. I-621.
60. Case 157/86, Murphy and Others v. An Bord Telecom Eireann, ECR 1988, p. 673.
61. Case 129/79, ECR 1980, p. 1275.
62. Case C-326/96, judgement of 1 December 1998 (nyr), see ECJ Press Release No. 73/98 (http://curia.eu.int/en).
63. Case C-66/96, judgement of 19 November 1998, (nyr), see ECJ Press Release No. 70/98 (http://curia.eu.int/en).
64. Cases C-281/97, Krüger v. Kreiskrankenhaus Ebersberg, judgement of 9 September 1999 (nyr), in ECJ Press Release No. 60/99; and C-333/97, Lewen v. Denda (nyr), in ECJ Press Release No. 82/99; on the legality of section 23a(3) of the Austrian Employee Act, see Case C-249/97, Gruber v. Silhouette International Schmied GmbH & Co. KG, judgement of 14 September 1999 (nyr), in ECJ Press Release No. 62/99; see (http://curia.eu.int/en).
65. See OECD: OECD Employment Outlook - June 1999, Paris, OECD, 1999, p. 240, table E; and, more generally, http://europa/eu.int/en/comm/eurostat.
66. In those areas covered by ECJ case law on equal pay, this definition applies already.
67. Case 96/80, ECR 1981, p. 911. In view of the fact that Ms. Jenkins was able to substantiate her claim with concrete evidence of the income of a man who performed the same work, this could be regarded as a case of direct discrimination as well.
68. Case C-33/89, ECR 1990, p. I-2591.
69. Case C-184/89, ECR 1991, p. I-297.
70. ECR 1998, p. I-3739; see also Case C-360/90, Arbeiterwohlfahrt der Stadt Berlin eV v. Bötel, ECR 1992, p. I-3589; Case C-297/93, Grau-Hupka v. Stadtgemeinde Bremen, ECR 1994, p. I-5535; Joined Cases C-399/92, C-409/92, C-34/93, C-50/93 and C-78/93, Stadt Lengerich and Others v. Helmig and Others, ECR 1994, I-5727; Case C-457/93, Kuratorium für Dialyse und Nierentransplantation eV v. Lewark, ECR 1996, p. I-243 (on part-time employees in the public service).
71. Case 262/88, Barber v. Guardian Royal Exchange Assurance Group, ECR 1990, p. I-1889; other important cases in this context are C-110/91, Moroni v. Collo GmbH, ECR 1993, p. I-6591; C-152/91, Neath v. Steeper Ltd, ECR 1993, p. I-6935; C-200/91, Coloroll Pension Trustees Limited v. Russell and Others, ECR 1994, p. I-4389; C-408/92, Smith and Others v. Avdel Systems Ltd, ECR 1994, I-4435; C-147/95, Dimossia Epicheirissi Ilektrismou (DEI) v. Evrenopoulos, ECR 1997, p. I-2057.
72. See Article 7, paragraph 1(a) of Directive 79/7/EEC.
73. Case C-435/93, ECR 1996, p. I-5223.
74. Case C-246/96, ECR 1997, p. I-7153.
75. See Equality Quarterly News (http://europe.eu.int/comm/dg05/equ_opp/index_en.htm), No. 2/99, on Case C-50/96 (Schröder); on Case C-78/98 (Preston and Others v. Wolverhampton and Others), see the Advocate General's recently delivered opinion in ECJ Press release No. 64/99 (http://curia.eu.int/en/cp/cp9964en.htm).
76. Case 109/88, ECR 1989, p. 3199.
77. Case C-127/92, ECR 1993, p. I-5535; see also Case C-400/93, Specialarbejderforbundet i Danmark v. Dansk Industri, formerly Industriens Arbeijdgivere, acting for Royal Copenhagen A/S, ECR 1995, p. I-1275.
78. Case C-309/97 (nyr), ruling of 11 May 1999; see ECJ Press Release No. 29/99 (http://curia.eu.int/en).
79. Case C-236/98, Jämställdhetsombudsmannen Lena Svenaeus, OJ 98/C 278/32 (pending).
80. Case C-13/94, ECR 1996, p. I-2143.
81. Case C-168/97, The Queen v. the Secretary of State for Defence, ex parte: Perkins (withdrawn), OJ 97/C 199/22; since the scope of sex equality is wider under Directive 76/207/ EEC than it is in the context of equal pay, a more generous interpretation than in the Grant Case (see note 54 above) would have been possible.
82. See Case 179/88, Handels-og Kontorfunktionœrernes Forbund i Danmark v. Dansk Arbejdsgiverforening (Hertz v. Aldi), ECR 1990, p. I-3979; C-421/92, Habermann-Beltermann v. Arbeiterwohlfahrt, Bezirksverband Ndb./Opf.e.V, ECR 1994, p. I-1657.
83. Case C-32/93, Webb v. EMO Air Cargo (UK) Ltd, ECR 1994, p. I-3567.
84. Case 177/88, ECR 1990, p. I-3941.
85. Case C-207/98, OJ 98/C 234/21 (pending).
86. Case 179/88 (see note 77 above).
87. Case C-400/95, Handels-og Kontorfunktionœrernes Forbund i Danmark (acting on behalf of Larsson) v. Dansk Handel & Service, acting on behalf of Føtex Supermarket A/S, ECR 1997, p. I-2757.
88. Case C-394/96, ECR 1998, p. I-4185; on payment of wages during pregnancy-related illness, see note 58 above.
89. Case C-136/95, Caisse nationale d'assurance vieillesse des travailleurs salariés (CNAVTS) v. Thibault, ECR 1998, p. I-2011.
90. For recent data on women in part-time employment, including the public sector, see OECD: The future of female-dominated occupations, Paris, OECD, 1998, p. 24 et seq. and 96 et seq.; see also Jill Rubery and Colette Fagan (in association with Claire Faichnie, Damian Grimshaw and Mark Smith): Equal opportunities and employment in the European Union, Vienna, Federal Ministry of Labour, Health and Social Affairs, 1998, Chapter 2.
91. For recent data on women in part-time employment, including the public sector, see OECD: The future of female-dominated occupations, Paris, OECD, 1998, p. 24 et seq. and 96 et seq.; see also Jill Rubery and Colette Fagan (in association with Claire Faichnie, Damian Grimshaw and Mark Smith): Equal opportunities and employment in the European Union, Vienna, Federal Ministry of Labour, Health and Social Affairs, 1998, Chapter 2.
92. See Case 152/84, Marshall v. Southampton and South-West Hampshire Area Health Authority (Teaching), ECR 1986, p. 723; this case did not involve a part-time worker, but a woman who had been dismissed only because she had reached the pensionable age which was interpreted as discriminatory under Directive 76/207/EEC; see also case C-188/89, Foster and Others v. British Gas, ECR 1990, p. I-3313.
93. Case C-1/95, ECR 1997, p. I-5253.
94. Case C-100/95, ECR 1997, p. I-5289.
95. Case C-450/93, Kalanke v. Freie Hansestadt Bremen, ECR 1995, p. I-3051.
96. Case C-409/95, Marshall v. Land Nordrhein-Westfalen, ECR 1997, p. I-6363.
97. See Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council on the interpretation of the judgement of the Court of Justice on 17 October 1995 in Case C-450/ 93, Kalanke v. Freie Hansestadt Bremen, 27.3.1996, COM(96)88 final; see also European Commission Press Release: Statement by Commissioner Flynn on the Marschall Case, 11 November 1997 H/ (http://europe.eu.int).
98. Case C-407/98, Abrahamsson and Anderson v. Fogelqvist, OJ 99/C 1/10 (pending); on the basis of the argument in the Marschall case, such a provision is hardly acceptable.
99. Case C-158/97, Badeck and Others v. Hessischer Ministerpräsident and Landesanwalt beim Staatsgerichtshof des Landes Hessen, OJ 97/C 199/20 (pending).
100. On Case C-285/98, Kreil v. Federal Republic of Germany, see ECJ Press Release No. 84/ 99 (http://curia.eu.int).
101. On Case C-273/97, Sirdar v. The Army Board and Secretary of State for Defence, judgement of 26 October 1999 (nyr), see ECJ Press Release No. 83/99 (http://curia.eu.int).
102. See note 95.
103. Case C-345/89, Ministère Public v. Stoeckel, ECR 1991, p. I-4047.
104. Case C-197/96, Commission of the European Communities v. French Republic, ECR 1997, p. I-1489.
105. Case C-207/96, Commission of the European Communities v. Italian Republic, ECR 1997, p. I-6869.
106. See Equality Quarterly News (http://europe.eu.int/comm/dg05/equ_opp/index_en.htm), No. 2/99.
107. See note 32 above.
108. Case 14/83, ECR 1984, p. 1891.
109. Case 79/83, ECR 1984, p. 1921.
110. Case C-180//95, Draehmpaehl v. Urania Immobilienservice OHG, ECR 1997, p. 1-2195.