Defending the Guarded Domain: Epidemics and the Emergence of an International Sanitary Policy in Iran

Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East

Volumn 19, Issue 1, 1999, Pages 122-136

  Afkhami, Amir Arsalan ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

HEALTH SERVICES; NINETEENTH CENTURY; PUBLIC HEALTH; SANITATION;

IRAN;

EID: 0033499170     PISSN: 1089201X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1215/1089201X-19-1-122     Document Type: Article

References (127)

1. Roderic Davidson, Reform in the Ottoman Empire, 1856-1876 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1963); Bernard Lewis, The Emergence of Modern Turkey (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1968); Camal Kafadar, Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995); Albert Hourani, et. al. (eds.) The Modern Middle East: A Reader (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993).
2. Roderic Davidson, Reform in the Ottoman Empire, 1856-1876 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1963); Bernard Lewis, The Emergence of Modern Turkey (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1968); Camal Kafadar, Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995); Albert Hourani, et. al. (eds.) The Modern Middle East: A Reader (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993).
3. Roderic Davidson, Reform in the Ottoman Empire, 1856-1876 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1963); Bernard Lewis, The Emergence of Modern Turkey (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1968); Camal Kafadar, Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995); Albert Hourani, et. al. (eds.) The Modern Middle East: A Reader (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993).
4. Roderic Davidson, Reform in the Ottoman Empire, 1856-1876 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1963); Bernard Lewis, The Emergence of Modern Turkey (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1968); Camal Kafadar, Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995); Albert Hourani, et. al. (eds.) The Modern Middle East: A Reader (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993).
5. Fereydoon Adamiyat, Amir Kabir va Iran (Tehran: Khawrazmi Press, 1969); Hamid Algar, Mirza Malkum Khan: A Study in Iranian Modernism (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973); Abbas Amanat, Pivot of the Universe: Nasir al-Din Shah and the Iranian Monarchy (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997); Shaul Bakhash, Iran: Monarchy, Bureaucracy and Reform under the Qajars, 1858-1896 (London: Ithaca Press, 1978); Amin Banani, The Modernization of Iran (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1961); Ann K. S. Lambton, Qajar Persia: Eleven Studies (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1987), pp.194-222; Hafez F. Farmayan, "The Forces of Modernization in Nineteenth Century Iran: A Historic Survey," in William R. Polk & Richard L. Chambers, (eds.) Beginnings of Modernization in the Middle East: The Nineteenth Century (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1966), pp.119-151; David Menashri, Education and the Making of Modern Iran (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1992); Guity Nashat, The Origins of Modern Reform in Iran, 1870-80 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1982).
6. Fereydoon Adamiyat, Amir Kabir va Iran (Tehran: Khawrazmi Press, 1969); Hamid Algar, Mirza Malkum Khan: A Study in Iranian Modernism (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973); Abbas Amanat, Pivot of the Universe: Nasir al-Din Shah and the Iranian Monarchy (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997); Shaul Bakhash, Iran: Monarchy, Bureaucracy and Reform under the Qajars, 1858-1896 (London: Ithaca Press, 1978); Amin Banani, The Modernization of Iran (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1961); Ann K. S. Lambton, Qajar Persia: Eleven Studies (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1987), pp.194-222; Hafez F. Farmayan, "The Forces of Modernization in Nineteenth Century Iran: A Historic Survey," in William R. Polk & Richard L. Chambers, (eds.) Beginnings of Modernization in the Middle East: The Nineteenth Century (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1966), pp.119-151; David Menashri, Education and the Making of Modern Iran (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1992); Guity Nashat, The Origins of Modern Reform in Iran, 1870-80 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1982).
7. Fereydoon Adamiyat, Amir Kabir va Iran (Tehran: Khawrazmi Press, 1969); Hamid Algar, Mirza Malkum Khan: A Study in Iranian Modernism (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973); Abbas Amanat, Pivot of the Universe: Nasir al-Din Shah and the Iranian Monarchy (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997); Shaul Bakhash, Iran: Monarchy, Bureaucracy and Reform under the Qajars, 1858-1896 (London: Ithaca Press, 1978); Amin Banani, The Modernization of Iran (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1961); Ann K. S. Lambton, Qajar Persia: Eleven Studies (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1987), pp.194-222; Hafez F. Farmayan, "The Forces of Modernization in Nineteenth Century Iran: A Historic Survey," in William R. Polk & Richard L. Chambers, (eds.) Beginnings of Modernization in the Middle East: The Nineteenth Century (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1966), pp.119-151; David Menashri, Education and the Making of Modern Iran (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1992); Guity Nashat, The Origins of Modern Reform in Iran, 1870-80 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1982).
8. Fereydoon Adamiyat, Amir Kabir va Iran (Tehran: Khawrazmi Press, 1969); Hamid Algar, Mirza Malkum Khan: A Study in Iranian Modernism (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973); Abbas Amanat, Pivot of the Universe: Nasir al-Din Shah and the Iranian Monarchy (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997); Shaul Bakhash, Iran: Monarchy, Bureaucracy and Reform under the Qajars, 1858-1896 (London: Ithaca Press, 1978); Amin Banani, The Modernization of Iran (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1961); Ann K. S. Lambton, Qajar Persia: Eleven Studies (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1987), pp.194-222; Hafez F. Farmayan, "The Forces of Modernization in Nineteenth Century Iran: A Historic Survey," in William R. Polk & Richard L. Chambers, (eds.) Beginnings of Modernization in the Middle East: The Nineteenth Century (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1966), pp.119-151; David Menashri, Education and the Making of Modern Iran (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1992); Guity Nashat, The Origins of Modern Reform in Iran, 1870-80 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1982).
9. Fereydoon Adamiyat, Amir Kabir va Iran (Tehran: Khawrazmi Press, 1969); Hamid Algar, Mirza Malkum Khan: A Study in Iranian Modernism (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973); Abbas Amanat, Pivot of the Universe: Nasir al-Din Shah and the Iranian Monarchy (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997); Shaul Bakhash, Iran: Monarchy, Bureaucracy and Reform under the Qajars, 1858-1896 (London: Ithaca Press, 1978); Amin Banani, The Modernization of Iran (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1961); Ann K. S. Lambton, Qajar Persia: Eleven Studies (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1987), pp.194-222; Hafez F. Farmayan, "The Forces of Modernization in Nineteenth Century Iran: A Historic Survey," in William R. Polk & Richard L. Chambers, (eds.) Beginnings of Modernization in the Middle East: The Nineteenth Century (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1966), pp.119-151; David Menashri, Education and the Making of Modern Iran (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1992); Guity Nashat, The Origins of Modern Reform in Iran, 1870-80 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1982).
10. Fereydoon Adamiyat, Amir Kabir va Iran (Tehran: Khawrazmi Press, 1969); Hamid Algar, Mirza Malkum Khan: A Study in Iranian Modernism (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973); Abbas Amanat, Pivot of the Universe: Nasir al-Din Shah and the Iranian Monarchy (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997); Shaul Bakhash, Iran: Monarchy, Bureaucracy and Reform under the Qajars, 1858-1896 (London: Ithaca Press, 1978); Amin Banani, The Modernization of Iran (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1961); Ann K. S. Lambton, Qajar Persia: Eleven Studies (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1987), pp.194-222; Hafez F. Farmayan, "The Forces of Modernization in Nineteenth Century Iran: A Historic Survey," in William R. Polk & Richard L. Chambers, (eds.) Beginnings of Modernization in the Middle East: The Nineteenth Century (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1966), pp.119-151; David Menashri, Education and the Making of Modern Iran (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1992); Guity Nashat, The Origins of Modern Reform in Iran, 1870-80 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1982).
11. Fereydoon Adamiyat, Amir Kabir va Iran (Tehran: Khawrazmi Press, 1969); Hamid Algar, Mirza Malkum Khan: A Study in Iranian Modernism (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973); Abbas Amanat, Pivot of the Universe: Nasir al-Din Shah and the Iranian Monarchy (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997); Shaul Bakhash, Iran: Monarchy, Bureaucracy and Reform under the Qajars, 1858-1896 (London: Ithaca Press, 1978); Amin Banani, The Modernization of Iran (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1961); Ann K. S. Lambton, Qajar Persia: Eleven Studies (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1987), pp.194-222; Hafez F. Farmayan, "The Forces of Modernization in Nineteenth Century Iran: A Historic Survey," in William R. Polk & Richard L. Chambers, (eds.) Beginnings of Modernization in the Middle East: The Nineteenth Century (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1966), pp.119-151; David Menashri, Education and the Making of Modern Iran (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1992); Guity Nashat, The Origins of Modern Reform in Iran, 1870-80 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1982).
12. Fereydoon Adamiyat, Amir Kabir va Iran (Tehran: Khawrazmi Press, 1969); Hamid Algar, Mirza Malkum Khan: A Study in Iranian Modernism (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973); Abbas Amanat, Pivot of the Universe: Nasir al-Din Shah and the Iranian Monarchy (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997); Shaul Bakhash, Iran: Monarchy, Bureaucracy and Reform under the Qajars, 1858-1896 (London: Ithaca Press, 1978); Amin Banani, The Modernization of Iran (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1961); Ann K. S. Lambton, Qajar Persia: Eleven Studies (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1987), pp.194-222; Hafez F. Farmayan, "The Forces of Modernization in Nineteenth Century Iran: A Historic Survey," in William R. Polk & Richard L. Chambers, (eds.) Beginnings of Modernization in the Middle East: The Nineteenth Century (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1966), pp.119-151; David Menashri, Education and the Making of Modern Iran (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1992); Guity Nashat, The Origins of Modern Reform in Iran, 1870-80 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1982).
13. Fereydoon Adamiyat, Amir Kabir va Iran (Tehran: Khawrazmi Press, 1969); Hamid Algar, Mirza Malkum Khan: A Study in Iranian Modernism (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973); Abbas Amanat, Pivot of the Universe: Nasir al-Din Shah and the Iranian Monarchy (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997); Shaul Bakhash, Iran: Monarchy, Bureaucracy and Reform under the Qajars, 1858-1896 (London: Ithaca Press, 1978); Amin Banani, The Modernization of Iran (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1961); Ann K. S. Lambton, Qajar Persia: Eleven Studies (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1987), pp.194-222; Hafez F. Farmayan, "The Forces of Modernization in Nineteenth Century Iran: A Historic Survey," in William R. Polk & Richard L. Chambers, (eds.) Beginnings of Modernization in the Middle East: The Nineteenth Century (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1966), pp.119-151; David Menashri, Education and the Making of Modern Iran (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1992); Guity Nashat, The Origins of Modern Reform in Iran, 1870-80 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1982).
14. Transcending the miseries and shame associated with widespread illness, Iranian reformers came to use epidemic diseases as a metaphor for the portrayal of country's administrative decay and dysfunction.
15. It should be recognized that the concept of "health maintenance" or bifz al-Sihhah is as old as civilization itself. Nearly every Iranian physician-author since Razi has written a tract or at least dedicated part of a treatise to this subject. Nevertheless, personal hygiene and preventive medicine (whether conscious or ritualized) cannot be confounded with a deliberate state-sponsored public health and contagious disease prevention. Indeed, by its very nature public health is intrusive and authoritarian, irrespective of the will of the individual and its mission lies in promoting the health and welfare of the community even at the expense of individual freedom in decision making.
16. Dr. Andrew Jukes, a surgeon of the East India Company, arrived in Iran in 1808 as a member Sir Harford Jones' diplomatic mission. Jukes remained in Iran until his death (probably due to Asiatic cholera) in 1821. He is buried in the Armenian Monastery of Sourp Amenaprgich in New Julfa, Isfahan.
17. Abbas Iqbal, "Abilah Kûbî [Smallpox Inoculation]," Yadigar 4, 3 (1326) [1947]:69; James Morier, A Second Journey Through Persia, Armenia, and Asia Minor, to Constantinople, Between the Years 1810 and 1816 (London: Longman 1818), p.191.
18. Abbas Iqbal, "Abilah Kûbî [Smallpox Inoculation]," Yadigar 4, 3 (1326) [1947]:69; James Morier, A Second Journey Through Persia, Armenia, and Asia Minor, to Constantinople, Between the Years 1810 and 1816 (London: Longman 1818), p.191.
19. John Malcom, The History of Persia from the Most Early Period to the Present Times, vol. 2 (London: John Murrey, 1815), p.383.
20. See Schlimmer's work on variolation among Bakhtiyari in the 1870s in Johanne L. Schlimmer, Terminologie médico-pharmaceutique et anthropologique français-persane, avec des traductions anglais et allemende des termes français (Tehran: Lithographie d'Ali Gouli Khan, 1874).
21. Dr. James Campbell also arrived in Iran as a member of Sir Harford Jones' suite in 1808. An assistant-surgeon to the Mission, he also served in 'Abbas Mirza's army during the latter's campaigns against the Russians. On his return to Tehran, following his service with the Crown Prince, Campbell perished in 1818.
22. It is interesting to note that this change of heart occurred in the very same year (1813) when the attempts to inoculate were being forestalled in Tehran: Cyril Elgood, A Medical History Of Persia and the Eastern Caliphate From the Earliest Times Until the Year A.D. 1932 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1951), p.456; Kentchurch Papers 9016, Lindesay-Bethune to Harford Jones, March 17, 1812; Malcom, The History of Persia, p.382; M. Nadjmabadi, "Les relation médicales entre la Grande Bretagne et l'Iran et les médecins anglais serviteurs de la médecine contemporaine de l'Iran," Proceedings of the XXIII International Congress of the History of Medicine (London: Wellcome Institute of the History of Medicine, 1974), p.704.
23. It is interesting to note that this change of heart occurred in the very same year (1813) when the attempts to inoculate were being forestalled in Tehran: Cyril Elgood, A Medical History Of Persia and the Eastern Caliphate From the Earliest Times Until the Year A.D. 1932 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1951), p.456; Kentchurch Papers 9016, Lindesay-Bethune to Harford Jones, March 17, 1812; Malcom, The History of Persia, p.382; M. Nadjmabadi, "Les relation médicales entre la Grande Bretagne et l'Iran et les médecins anglais serviteurs de la médecine contemporaine de l'Iran," Proceedings of the XXIII International Congress of the History of Medicine (London: Wellcome Institute of the History of Medicine, 1974), p.704.
24. It is interesting to note that this change of heart occurred in the very same year (1813) when the attempts to inoculate were being forestalled in Tehran: Cyril Elgood, A Medical History Of Persia and the Eastern Caliphate From the Earliest Times Until the Year A.D. 1932 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1951), p.456; Kentchurch Papers 9016, Lindesay-Bethune to Harford Jones, March 17, 1812; Malcom, The History of Persia, p.382; M. Nadjmabadi, "Les relation médicales entre la Grande Bretagne et l'Iran et les médecins anglais serviteurs de la médecine contemporaine de l'Iran," Proceedings of the XXIII International Congress of the History of Medicine (London: Wellcome Institute of the History of Medicine, 1974), p.704.
25. It is interesting to note that this change of heart occurred in the very same year (1813) when the attempts to inoculate were being forestalled in Tehran: Cyril Elgood, A Medical History Of Persia and the Eastern Caliphate From the Earliest Times Until the Year A.D. 1932 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1951), p.456; Kentchurch Papers 9016, Lindesay-Bethune to Harford Jones, March 17, 1812; Malcom, The History of Persia, p.382; M. Nadjmabadi, "Les relation médicales entre la Grande Bretagne et l'Iran et les médecins anglais serviteurs de la médecine contemporaine de l'Iran," Proceedings of the XXIII International Congress of the History of Medicine (London: Wellcome Institute of the History of Medicine, 1974), p.704.
26. Dr. Cormick's treatise was appended to Hakim Qubuli's own works; see: Hakim Mohammad 'ibn-i Abd al-Sabur, Anwar alNasiriyah or Mir'at al-hikmat al-Nasiriyah (Tabriz: Lithograph, 1245 A.H. [1829-30 A.D.]).
27. A survey of the correspondences (in the Ghani Papers at Yale University), between Mohammad Shah and his premier, Mirza Aghasi splendidly illustrates this attribute, to a degree that even the political dialogue between these men reveals an almost poignant concern with sickness (nakhoshi) and the menace of new diseases.
28. Mohammad Hussein Qajar was later to become Joseph Polak's translator during the latter's ten year residence as medical professor at the Dar al-Fonun; see: Jakob Eduard Polak, Persien, das Land und seine Bewohner. Ethnographische Schilderungen (Leipzig: Broukhaus, 1865); Persian trans., Safarnama i Polak: Iran va Iranian, trans. Jahandari (Tehran: Khawrazmi, 1361/1982), p.5.
29. Mohammad Hussein Qajar was later to become Joseph Polak's translator during the latter's ten year residence as medical professor at the Dar al-Fonun; see: Jakob Eduard Polak, Persien, das Land und seine Bewohner. Ethnographische Schilderungen (Leipzig: Broukhaus, 1865); Persian trans., Safarnama i Polak: Iran va Iranian, trans. Jahandari (Tehran: Khawrazmi, 1361/1982), p.5.
30. Mons. Jibril and Mohammad Hussein Qajar, Risalah dar vaba (Tehran: Lithograph, 1262 A.H. [1846 A.D.]).
31. FO 60/126 Keith Abbot to Viscount Palmerston, No. 23, Tabriz: December 6, 1846. Transcripts of unpublished Crown Copyright material in the Public Record Office appear by permission of Her Majesty's Stationary Office (cited as FO hitherto).
32. th century.
33. Johanne L. Schlimmer, Terminologie médico-pharmaceutique et anthropologique français-persane.
34. Jakob Eduard Polak was born in what is today considered the Czech Republic, but was then under the rule of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. He was a member of the first group of instructors at the Dar al-Fonun and lived in Iran between 1851-1860.
35. Jakob Eduard Polak, Bimari i vaba (Tehran: Nast'aliq, 1269).
36. Jakob Eduard Polak, "La médicine militaire en Perse. Par le docteur J. E. Polak, ancien médecin particulier du schah de Perse," Revue scientifique et administrative des médecins des armées de terre et de mer vii (1865), pp.649-651.
37. Ibid., p.651.
38. Vaqgha i Ittifaghiya, Safer 1267; cited in M. Hassan Beygi, Tehran i Ghadim (Tehran: Ghafhoos, 1366 A.H. [1946-1947A.D.]), p.199.
39. Ibid.
40. Naser al-Din Shah undertook this route during his pilgrimage to Mecca in 1885 see: Mirza Mohammad Hosayn Farahani, English Trans.: Hafez Farmayan and Elton L. Daniel (eds.), A Shi'ite Pilgrimage to Mecca 1885-1886: The "Safarnameh" of Mirza Mohammad Hosayn Farahani (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1990).
41. LaVerne Kuhnke, Lives at Risk: Public Health in Nineteenth-Century Egypt (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990), p.65.
42. There is an indication that Dr. Joséph Désiree Tholozan was approached by the conference conveners to represent Iran in Constantinople. However, because Dr. Tholozan felt that such a conference brought to bear important issues of national sovereignty, he voiced the opinion that Iranian representation at the meeting should be fulfilled by a native of the country and not a foreigner, consequently he turned down the offer. But, with the lack of adequate native medical expertise in the field of public health, Iranians had no option but turn to an Ottoman physician to advise Mirza Malkam Khan on sanitary matters, see Persian transcript of Tholozan's response to Dr. Proust in Qasim Ghani, Collection of Qajar Documents, Manuscripts and Archives, Sterling Memorial Library, Yale University. Box 2, 2: 18, (cited as Ghani hereafter).
43. A. Flauvel, Le Choléra: Étiologie et Prophelaxie (Paris: J.-B. Balliére et Fils, 1868), p.91.
44. A. Flauvel, Le Choléra, pp.484-490.
45. Pettenkofer dedicated a good deal of his research to the etiology of cholera. He postulated that although individuals did indeed transmit cholera to healthy individuals, certain additional predisposition and accessory causes, such as climate, elevation, etc., needed to exist for the epidemic to be propagated. Hence, contagion alone was not the cause for the epidemics of cholera. See Max Joseph von Pettenkofer, Untersuchungen und Beobachtunen uber die Verbreitungsart der Cholera, (Munchen: J.G. Cotta, 1855).
46. To an extent, the Ottomans fall into this category by default as their sanitary administration was primarily staffed by Spaniards and Italians such as Dr. Bartoletti, who was the Chief Inspector of the Ottoman sanitary service and the Port's representative at the conference.
47. nd ser. 4, (1854), pp.397-401, 405-412; John Snow, "On the pathology and mode of communication of the cholera," London Medical Gazette, 44, (1849), pp.730-732, 745-52, 923-29.
48. nd ser. 4, (1854), pp.397-401, 405-412; John Snow, "On the pathology and mode of communication of the cholera," London Medical Gazette, 44, (1849), pp.730-732, 745-52, 923-29.
49. A. Flauvel, Le Choléra, p.645.
50. Ibid., pp.648-652.
51. Conférence Sanitaire International, Rapport sur Les Mesures á Prendre en Orient Pour Prevenir de Nouvelles Invasions du Choléra en Europe [Août, 1866] (Constantinople: Imprimerie du Levant Herald, 1866), p.53.
52. Conférence Sanitaire International, Rapport, p.52.
53. Ibid., p.53.
54. Ibid.
55. Ibid. The need for a significant European presence reflected the view that Iranians could not be trusted with the efficient operation of this system due to a lack of competence and resolve, which restrictive sanitary measures required.
56. Ibid., p.54.
57. Ibid., pp.54-55.
58. A. Flauvel, Le Choléra, p.652.
59. N. Howard-Jones, "The Scientific background of the International Sanitary Conferences," WHO Chronicle 28 (1974), p.236.
60. N. Howard-Jones, "The Scientific Background," p.239.
61. Ibid., p.240.
62. Only during the Great War would Iran have a demographic disaster akin to these years; see Amir A. Afkhami, "Disease and Water Supply: The Case of Cholera in Nineteenth-Century Iran," in J. Albert et al. (eds.), Bulletin Series: Yale School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, 103 (New Haven: Yale University Press); and my forthcoming article "Compromised Constitutions: The Iranian Experience with the 1918-1919 Influenza Pandemic."
63. FO 60/300, Abbot to Clarendon, no. 13, June 10, 1866.
64. This development had come about after Amir Kabir's demise as Premier.
65. FO 60/258, Alison to Russell, no. 95, Secret, Gulahak, October 13, 1864.
66. FO 60/320, Thomson to Clarendon, no. 58, September 22, 1869.
67. FO 60/334 Mirza Sa'id Khan Mo'Tamen-al-Molk Ansari to Mohammad Qassim Khan Vali, Tehran, June 22, 1871, encl. 1; in Alison to Granville, no. 84, Gulhak, July 5, 1871.
68. IO/R/15/1/182 Pelly to Mirza Mohammad Khan, no. 399, Bushire, July 24, 1871. Transcripts of unpublished Crown Copyright material in the India Office Records appear by permission of Her Majesty's Stationary Office (cited as IO hitherto).
69. IO/R/15/1/182 Pelly to Mirza Mohammad Khan, no. 390, Bushire, July 21, 1871.
70. FO 60/334 Mirza Sa'id Khan Mo'Tamen-al-Molk Ansari to Mohammad Qassim Khan Vali, Tehran, June 22, 1871, encl. 2 in Alison to Granville, no. 84, Gulhak, July 5, 1871.
71. Joséph Desirée Tholozan, Rapport á Sa Majesté le Chah sur l'état actuel de l'hygiéne en Perse (Tehran: Lithography, 1869); FO 60/323 Earl of Clarendon to Privy Council, no. 50, London, November 13, 1869.
72. Ibid.
73. Baron Hausmann, famed sanitarian and architect of Paris, was responsible for the French capital's renovation, which started in the 1850s under the reign of Napoleon III. This endeavor was motivated in part on the conviction of the city's insalubrity; see David Pinkney, Napoleon III and the Rebuilding of Paris (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1958).
74. Muhammad Hassan Khan I'timad al-Saltana, (ed.), "Jenab i Doktor Tholozan," Sharaf, No. 35, 1303 A.H. [1885-1886 A.D.].
75. Tholazan's mouthpiece was the Gazette Medical de Paris which he edited from 1850 to 1856. After his arrival in Iran, as a corresponding member of the Epidemiological Society of London and Académie de médecine de Paris, Tholozan's theories were primarily disseminated through their respective scholarly journals and proceedings.
76. Joseph Desirée Tholozan, "Plague in the Caucasus: A Study in Sanitary Science," The Practitioner, XXIII (1879), p.225.
77. N. Howard-Jones, "The Scientific Background" p.236.
78. Joseph Desirée Tholozan, Durée du Choléra Asiatique en Europe et en Amérique (Paris: Libraire de G. Masson, 1872), p.2.
79. Joseph Desirée Tholozan, "Le choléra et la peste en Perse sans les quarantaines," Comptes Rendus des Séances de L'Académie des Sciences, 101 (1885), pp.496-497.
80. Tholozan's to Dr. Proust; Ghani, Box 2, 2:18.
81. Docteur Schneider, Médecine Persane: Les Médecins Français en Perse - Leur Influence (Paris: Sociéte Anonyme des Imprimeries Wellhoff & Roche, 1911), p.2. It should be remarked that, prompted by his government in 1878, Dr. Tholozan did seek an irrigation concession in Ahwaz for a French firm. The concession, though initially granted, was subsequently cancelled by Nasir al-Din Shah due to British hostility; see FO 60/408, W. Taylor Thomson to Earl of Derby, no. 118, Tehran, December 16, 1878.
82. FO 60/326 Alison to Granville, no. 58, Gulhak, September 26, 1870.
83. The Shah was set on making this "pilgrimage to Iraq" because he had dreamt of doing so during the plague of 1869-1870 and made a vow to undertake such a trip should he escape the epidemic; Mirza Malkam Khan, Majmu'a-yi Asar-i Mirza Malkam Khan, (ed.) M. Muhit Tabataba'i (Tehran, 1328/1949), p-33, cited in Bakhash, Iran: Monarchy, Bureaucracy and Reform, p.74.
84. The Shah was set on making this "pilgrimage to Iraq" because he had dreamt of doing so during the plague of 1869-1870 and made a vow to undertake such a trip should he escape the epidemic; Mirza Malkam Khan, Majmu'a-yi Asar-i Mirza Malkam Khan, (ed.) M. Muhit Tabataba'i (Tehran, 1328/1949), p-33, cited in Bakhash, Iran: Monarchy, Bureaucracy and Reform, p.74.
85. Mirza Husayn Khan, at that time, was the Shah's envoy to the Sublime Porte.
86. Joseph J. Malone, "Surgeon Colvill's Fight Against Plague and Cholera in Iraq, 1868-1878," in American University of Beirut Festival Book. Fuad Sarruf and Suha Tamim, (eds.), (Beirut: American University of Beirut, 1967).
87. Ali Haydar Midhat Bey, The Life of Midhat Pasha (London: John Murray, 1903), p.51.
88. Ibid., p.53.
89. Guity Nashat, The Origins of Modern Reform in Iran, 1870-1880 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1982), p.74.
90. Shaul Bakhash, Iran: Monarchy, Bureaucracy & Reform under the Qajars 1858-1896 (London: Ithaca Press, 1978), p.44.
91. Steven Rosenthal, "Foreigners and Municipal Reform in Istanbul: 1855-1865," Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, 11 (1980), pp.227-245.
92. FO 60/642 Thomson to Granville, copy, Tehran, March 20, 1872.
93. FO 60/342 Translation of the Tehran Gazette, November 21, 1871; encl. 1 in Alison to Granville, no. 2, Gulhak, January 1, 1872.
94. Guity Nashat, The Origins of Modern Reform in Iran, p.159.
95. Shaul Bakhash, Iran: Monarchy, Bureaucracy, p.90.
96. Nashat, p.157.
97. Ibid., p.158.
98. Mirrikh, 8 Jamadi ul-Avval 1296/May 30, 1879;
99. cited in Ibid., p.69.
100. Tholozan, Durée du Choléra Asiatique en Europe. 82 FO 60/345 Radcliffe to Simon, London, May 7, 1872; encl. 1 in Simon to Granville, no. 417, London, June 8, 1872.
101. J. C. McDonald, "The History of Quarantine in Britain During the Nineteenth Century," Bulletin of the History of Medicine, XXV (1951), p.38.
102. Dr. John Simon had replaced Edwin Chadwick, a Bentham disciple and father of English "sanitary engineering," as the spokesman and leader of the sanitary movement in mid-Victorian England. More eloquent and tactful than his predecessor, Simon was able to enact a number of laws and measures that transformed public health in England into a more patrimonial system akin to her continental "absolutist" neighbors.
103. FO 60/343 Mirza Sa'id Khan to Thompson, Tehran, November 24, 1872; encl. 2 in Thompson to Granville, no. 91, Tehran, December 3, 1872.
104. Charles Issawi, "The Tabriz-Trabazon Trade 1830-1900, Rise and Decline of a Route," International Journal of Middle East Studies, 1 (1970), pp.18-27.
105. FO 60/286 Abbot to Alison, no. 54, Tabriz, December 26, 1863.
106. FO 60/286 Abbot to Alison, no. 51, Tabriz, December 11, 1863.
107. Ibid.
108. FO 60/645 Radcliffe to Simon, London, May 7, 1872; encl. 1 in Simon to Granville, no. 417, London, June 8, 1872.
109. Ibid.
110. "Editorial" The Lancet, 2 (1874), p.20.
111. FO 60/645 Lambert to Secretary of Privy Consul, London, March 18, 1872.
112. FO 248/297 Derby to Thomson, circular, London, December 22, 1874.
113. E. C. Seaton, "A Brief Account of the Proceedings of the International Sanitary Conference held at Vienna in 1874," Transaction of the Epidemiological Society of London, III (1874), pp.556-570.
114. See: Tholozan, Durée du Choléra Asiatique en Europe et en Amérique; and Dr. Fauvel, [Communication to the Académie de médecine by Dr. Pelican on the recent cholera outbreak in Kiev], Bulletin de l'Académie de Médecine, xxxvi (1871), p.649.
115. See: Tholozan, Durée du Choléra Asiatique en Europe et en Amérique; and Dr. Fauvel, [Communication to the Académie de médecine by Dr. Pelican on the recent cholera outbreak in Kiev], Bulletin de l'Académie de Médecine, xxxvi (1871), p.649.
116. Seaton, pp.556-570.
117. er juillet 1874 (Vienne: Imprimerie impériale et royale, 1874).
118. Ibid.
119. Ibid.
120. Ibid.
121. Ibid.
122. FO 248/297 Derby to Thomson, circular, London, December 22, 1874.
123. FO 881/3332 Beust to Derby, no. 1, Belgrave Square, June 27, 1877.
124. FO 60/382 Dickson to Thomson, memo., Tehran, April 14, 1876; end. 1 in Thomson to Derby, no. 45, April 20, 1876.
125. Ibid.
126. Ibid.
127. E. G. Browne, A Year Amongst The Persians (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1959), p.108.