The impact of violence on children

Future of Children

Volumn 9, Issue 3, 1999, Pages 33-49

  Osofsky, Joy D ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CHILD; CHILD BEHAVIOR; CHILD DEVELOPMENT; CHILD HEALTH CARE; CHILD PARENT RELATION; CHILDHOOD; COMMUNITY; EXPERIENCE; FAMILY VIOLENCE; HUMAN; REVIEW;

EID: 0033493174     PISSN: 10548289     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/1602780     Document Type: Review

References (113)

1. Flannery, D., and Huff, C.R. Youth violence: Prevention, intervention, and social policy. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, 1998; Osofsky, J.D., ed. Children in a violent society. New York: Guilford Press, 1997; Finkelhor, D., and Dziuba-Leatherman, J. Victimization of children. American Psychologist (1994) 49:173-83; Bell, C.C., and Jenkins, E.J. Community violence and children on Chicago's Southside. Psychiatry (1993) 56:46-54; Federal Bureau of Investigation. Uniform Crime Reports for the United States. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1992; Fingerhut, L.A., Ingram, D.D., and Feldman, J.J. Firearm homicide among black teenage males in metropolitan counties. Journal of the American Medical Association (1992) 267:3054-58; Rosenberg, M.L., O'Carroll, P., and Powell, K. Let's be clear: Violence is a public health problem. Journal of the American Medical Association (1992) 267:3071-72; Rosenberg, M.L., and Fenley, M.A. Violence in America: A public health approach. New York: Oxford University Press, 1991; Prothrow-Stith, D. Deadly consequences. New York: HarperCollins, 1991.
2. Flannery, D., and Huff, C.R. Youth violence: Prevention, intervention, and social policy. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, 1998; Osofsky, J.D., ed. Children in a violent society. New York: Guilford Press, 1997; Finkelhor, D., and Dziuba-Leatherman, J. Victimization of children. American Psychologist (1994) 49:173-83; Bell, C.C., and Jenkins, E.J. Community violence and children on Chicago's Southside. Psychiatry (1993) 56:46-54; Federal Bureau of Investigation. Uniform Crime Reports for the United States. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1992; Fingerhut, L.A., Ingram, D.D., and Feldman, J.J. Firearm homicide among black teenage males in metropolitan counties. Journal of the American Medical Association (1992) 267:3054-58; Rosenberg, M.L., O'Carroll, P., and Powell, K. Let's be clear: Violence is a public health problem. Journal of the American Medical Association (1992) 267:3071-72; Rosenberg, M.L., and Fenley, M.A. Violence in America: A public health approach. New York: Oxford University Press, 1991; Prothrow-Stith, D. Deadly consequences. New York: HarperCollins, 1991.
3. Flannery, D., and Huff, C.R. Youth violence: Prevention, intervention, and social policy. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, 1998; Osofsky, J.D., ed. Children in a violent society. New York: Guilford Press, 1997; Finkelhor, D., and Dziuba-Leatherman, J. Victimization of children. American Psychologist (1994) 49:173-83; Bell, C.C., and Jenkins, E.J. Community violence and children on Chicago's Southside. Psychiatry (1993) 56:46-54; Federal Bureau of Investigation. Uniform Crime Reports for the United States. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1992; Fingerhut, L.A., Ingram, D.D., and Feldman, J.J. Firearm homicide among black teenage males in metropolitan counties. Journal of the American Medical Association (1992) 267:3054-58; Rosenberg, M.L., O'Carroll, P., and Powell, K. Let's be clear: Violence is a public health problem. Journal of the American Medical Association (1992) 267:3071-72; Rosenberg, M.L., and Fenley, M.A. Violence in America: A public health approach. New York: Oxford University Press, 1991; Prothrow-Stith, D. Deadly consequences. New York: HarperCollins, 1991.
4. Flannery, D., and Huff, C.R. Youth violence: Prevention, intervention, and social policy. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, 1998; Osofsky, J.D., ed. Children in a violent society. New York: Guilford Press, 1997; Finkelhor, D., and Dziuba-Leatherman, J. Victimization of children. American Psychologist (1994) 49:173-83; Bell, C.C., and Jenkins, E.J. Community violence and children on Chicago's Southside. Psychiatry (1993) 56:46-54; Federal Bureau of Investigation. Uniform Crime Reports for the United States. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1992; Fingerhut, L.A., Ingram, D.D., and Feldman, J.J. Firearm homicide among black teenage males in metropolitan counties. Journal of the American Medical Association (1992) 267:3054-58; Rosenberg, M.L., O'Carroll, P., and Powell, K. Let's be clear: Violence is a public health problem. Journal of the American Medical Association (1992) 267:3071-72; Rosenberg, M.L., and Fenley, M.A. Violence in America: A public health approach. New York: Oxford University Press, 1991; Prothrow-Stith, D. Deadly consequences. New York: HarperCollins, 1991.
5. Flannery, D., and Huff, C.R. Youth violence: Prevention, intervention, and social policy. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, 1998; Osofsky, J.D., ed. Children in a violent society. New York: Guilford Press, 1997; Finkelhor, D., and Dziuba-Leatherman, J. Victimization of children. American Psychologist (1994) 49:173-83; Bell, C.C., and Jenkins, E.J. Community violence and children on Chicago's Southside. Psychiatry (1993) 56:46-54; Federal Bureau of Investigation. Uniform Crime Reports for the United States. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1992; Fingerhut, L.A., Ingram, D.D., and Feldman, J.J. Firearm homicide among black teenage males in metropolitan counties. Journal of the American Medical Association (1992) 267:3054-58; Rosenberg, M.L., O'Carroll, P., and Powell, K. Let's be clear: Violence is a public health problem. Journal of the American Medical Association (1992) 267:3071-72; Rosenberg, M.L., and Fenley, M.A. Violence in America: A public health approach. New York: Oxford University Press, 1991; Prothrow-Stith, D. Deadly consequences. New York: HarperCollins, 1991.
6. Flannery, D., and Huff, C.R. Youth violence: Prevention, intervention, and social policy. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, 1998; Osofsky, J.D., ed. Children in a violent society. New York: Guilford Press, 1997; Finkelhor, D., and Dziuba-Leatherman, J. Victimization of children. American Psychologist (1994) 49:173-83; Bell, C.C., and Jenkins, E.J. Community violence and children on Chicago's Southside. Psychiatry (1993) 56:46-54; Federal Bureau of Investigation. Uniform Crime Reports for the United States. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1992; Fingerhut, L.A., Ingram, D.D., and Feldman, J.J. Firearm homicide among black teenage males in metropolitan counties. Journal of the American Medical Association (1992) 267:3054-58; Rosenberg, M.L., O'Carroll, P., and Powell, K. Let's be clear: Violence is a public health problem. Journal of the American Medical Association (1992) 267:3071-72; Rosenberg, M.L., and Fenley, M.A. Violence in America: A public health approach. New York: Oxford University Press, 1991; Prothrow-Stith, D. Deadly consequences. New York: HarperCollins, 1991.
7. Flannery, D., and Huff, C.R. Youth violence: Prevention, intervention, and social policy. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, 1998; Osofsky, J.D., ed. Children in a violent society. New York: Guilford Press, 1997; Finkelhor, D., and Dziuba-Leatherman, J. Victimization of children. American Psychologist (1994) 49:173-83; Bell, C.C., and Jenkins, E.J. Community violence and children on Chicago's Southside. Psychiatry (1993) 56:46-54; Federal Bureau of Investigation. Uniform Crime Reports for the United States. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1992; Fingerhut, L.A., Ingram, D.D., and Feldman, J.J. Firearm homicide among black teenage males in metropolitan counties. Journal of the American Medical Association (1992) 267:3054-58; Rosenberg, M.L., O'Carroll, P., and Powell, K. Let's be clear: Violence is a public health problem. Journal of the American Medical Association (1992) 267:3071-72; Rosenberg, M.L., and Fenley, M.A. Violence in America: A public health approach. New York: Oxford University Press, 1991; Prothrow-Stith, D. Deadly consequences. New York: HarperCollins, 1991.
8. Flannery, D., and Huff, C.R. Youth violence: Prevention, intervention, and social policy. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, 1998; Osofsky, J.D., ed. Children in a violent society. New York: Guilford Press, 1997; Finkelhor, D., and Dziuba-Leatherman, J. Victimization of children. American Psychologist (1994) 49:173-83; Bell, C.C., and Jenkins, E.J. Community violence and children on Chicago's Southside. Psychiatry (1993) 56:46-54; Federal Bureau of Investigation. Uniform Crime Reports for the United States. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1992; Fingerhut, L.A., Ingram, D.D., and Feldman, J.J. Firearm homicide among black teenage males in metropolitan counties. Journal of the American Medical Association (1992) 267:3054-58; Rosenberg, M.L., O'Carroll, P., and Powell, K. Let's be clear: Violence is a public health problem. Journal of the American Medical Association (1992) 267:3071-72; Rosenberg, M.L., and Fenley, M.A. Violence in America: A public health approach. New York: Oxford University Press, 1991; Prothrow-Stith, D. Deadly consequences. New York: HarperCollins, 1991.
9. Flannery, D., and Huff, C.R. Youth violence: Prevention, intervention, and social policy. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, 1998; Osofsky, J.D., ed. Children in a violent society. New York: Guilford Press, 1997; Finkelhor, D., and Dziuba-Leatherman, J. Victimization of children. American Psychologist (1994) 49:173-83; Bell, C.C., and Jenkins, E.J. Community violence and children on Chicago's Southside. Psychiatry (1993) 56:46-54; Federal Bureau of Investigation. Uniform Crime Reports for the United States. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1992; Fingerhut, L.A., Ingram, D.D., and Feldman, J.J. Firearm homicide among black teenage males in metropolitan counties. Journal of the American Medical Association (1992) 267:3054-58; Rosenberg, M.L., O'Carroll, P., and Powell, K. Let's be clear: Violence is a public health problem. Journal of the American Medical Association (1992) 267:3071-72; Rosenberg, M.L., and Fenley, M.A. Violence in America: A public health approach. New York: Oxford University Press, 1991; Prothrow-Stith, D. Deadly consequences. New York: HarperCollins, 1991.
10. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National summary of injury mortality data, 1987-1994. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, CDC, November 1996; Rosenberg, M.L. Violence prevention: Integrating public health and criminal justice. Paper presented at the U.S. Attorney's Conference. Washington, DC, January 1994.
11. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National summary of injury mortality data, 1987-1994. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, CDC, November 1996; Rosenberg, M.L. Violence prevention: Integrating public health and criminal justice. Paper presented at the U.S. Attorney's Conference. Washington, DC, January 1994.
12. World Health Organization. World health statistics annual, 1994. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization, 1995.
13. Osofsky, J.D. Children who witness domestic violence: The invisible victims. Social Policy Reports: Society for Research in Child Development (1995) 9:3.
14. American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on Communications. Policy statement: Media violence. Pediatrics (June 1995) 95:949-51.
15. Murray, J.P. Media violence and youth. In Children in a violent society. J.D. Osofsky, ed. New York: Guilford Press, 1997; Huesmann, L.R., and Moise, J. Media violence: A demonstrated public health threat to children. The Harvard Mental Health Letter (June 1996) 12:5-7; Eron, L., and Huesmann, L.R. Television as a source of maltreatment of children. School Psychology Review (1987) 16:195-202.
16. Murray, J.P. Media violence and youth. In Children in a violent society. J.D. Osofsky, ed. New York: Guilford Press, 1997; Huesmann, L.R., and Moise, J. Media violence: A demonstrated public health threat to children. The Harvard Mental Health Letter (June 1996) 12:5-7; Eron, L., and Huesmann, L.R. Television as a source of maltreatment of children. School Psychology Review (1987) 16:195-202.
17. Murray, J.P. Media violence and youth. In Children in a violent society. J.D. Osofsky, ed. New York: Guilford Press, 1997; Huesmann, L.R., and Moise, J. Media violence: A demonstrated public health threat to children. The Harvard Mental Health Letter (June 1996) 12:5-7; Eron, L., and Huesmann, L.R. Television as a source of maltreatment of children. School Psychology Review (1987) 16:195-202.
18. Pagelow, M.D. Family violence. New York: Praeger Publishing, 1984; Straus, M., and Gelles, R., eds. Physical violence in American families: Risk factors and adaptations to violence in 8,145 families. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 1990; Frieze, I.H., and Browne, A. Violence in marriage. In Family violence. L. Ohlin and M. Tonry, eds. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989, pp. 163-218.
19. Pagelow, M.D. Family violence. New York: Praeger Publishing, 1984; Straus, M., and Gelles, R., eds. Physical violence in American families: Risk factors and adaptations to violence in 8,145 families. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 1990; Frieze, I.H., and Browne, A. Violence in marriage. In Family violence. L. Ohlin and M. Tonry, eds. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989, pp. 163-218.
20. Pagelow, M.D. Family violence. New York: Praeger Publishing, 1984; Straus, M., and Gelles, R., eds. Physical violence in American families: Risk factors and adaptations to violence in 8,145 families. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 1990; Frieze, I.H., and Browne, A. Violence in marriage. In Family violence. L. Ohlin and M. Tonry, eds. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989, pp. 163-218.
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22. See note no. 7, Straus and Gelles; Plichta, S. The effects of woman abuse on health care utilization and health status: A literature review. Women's Health Issues (1992) 2:154-63.
23. National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Division of Violence Prevention, Family and Intimate Violence. Fact sheet on dating violence. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, NCIPC, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1998.
24. Jaffe, P.G., Wolfe, D., and Wilson, S. Children of battered women. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, 1990; Carlson, B.E. Children's observations of interparental violence. In Battered women and their families. A.R. Roberts, ed. New York: Springer Publishing, 1984, pp. 147-67.
25. Jaffe, P.G., Wolfe, D., and Wilson, S. Children of battered women. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, 1990; Carlson, B.E. Children's observations of interparental violence. In Battered women and their families. A.R. Roberts, ed. New York: Springer Publishing, 1984, pp. 147-67.
26. English, D. The extent and consequences of child maltreatment. The Future, of Children (Spring 1998) 8,1:39-53.
27. Fantuzzo, J., Boruch, R., Beriama, A., et al. Domestic violence and children: Prevalence and risk in five major U.S. cities. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry (1997) 36:116-22; McKibben, L., DeVos, E., and Newberger, E. Victimization of mothers of abused children: A controlled study. Pediatrics (1989) 84:531-35; Bowker, L.H. On the relationship between wife beating and child abuse. In Feminist perspectives on wife abuse. K. Yllo and M. Bograd, eds. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, 1988; Straus, M. Measuring intrafamilial conflict and violence: The Conflict Tactics Scales. Journal of Marriage and Family (1979) 41:75-88;
28. Fantuzzo, J., Boruch, R., Beriama, A., et al. Domestic violence and children: Prevalence and risk in five major U.S. cities. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry (1997) 36:116-22; McKibben, L., DeVos, E., and Newberger, E. Victimization of mothers of abused children: A controlled study. Pediatrics (1989) 84:531-35; Bowker, L.H. On the relationship between wife beating and child abuse. In Feminist perspectives on wife abuse. K. Yllo and M. Bograd, eds. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, 1988; Straus, M. Measuring intrafamilial conflict and violence: The Conflict Tactics Scales. Journal of Marriage and Family (1979) 41:75-88;
29. Fantuzzo, J., Boruch, R., Beriama, A., et al. Domestic violence and children: Prevalence and risk in five major U.S. cities. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry (1997) 36:116-22; McKibben, L., DeVos, E., and Newberger, E. Victimization of mothers of abused children: A controlled study. Pediatrics (1989) 84:531-35; Bowker, L.H. On the relationship between wife beating and child abuse. In Feminist perspectives on wife abuse. K. Yllo and M. Bograd, eds. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, 1988; Straus, M. Measuring intrafamilial conflict and violence: The Conflict Tactics Scales. Journal of Marriage and Family (1979) 41:75-88;
30. Fantuzzo, J., Boruch, R., Beriama, A., et al. Domestic violence and children: Prevalence and risk in five major U.S. cities. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry (1997) 36:116-22; McKibben, L., DeVos, E., and Newberger, E. Victimization of mothers of abused children: A controlled study. Pediatrics (1989) 84:531-35; Bowker, L.H. On the relationship between wife beating and child abuse. In Feminist perspectives on wife abuse. K. Yllo and M. Bograd, eds. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, 1988; Straus, M. Measuring intrafamilial conflict and violence: The Conflict Tactics Scales. Journal of Marriage and Family (1979) 41:75-88;
31. see note no. 7, Straus and Gelles. 14. American Psychiatric Association. Psychiatric effects of media violence. APA fact sheet series. APA Online Public Information. Available online at http://www.psych.org/public_info/media_violence.html. Last modified October 1998.
32. Lynch, M., and Cicchetti, D. An ecological-transactional analysis of children and contexts: The longitudinal interplay among child maltreatment, community violence, and children's symptomatology. Development and Psychopathology (1998) 10:235-58; Duncan, D.F. Growing up under the gun: Children and adolescents coping with violent neighborhoods. The Journal of Primary Prevention (1996) 16:343-56; Osofsky, J.D., and Fenichel, E., eds. Islands of safety: Assessing and treating young victims of violence. Zero to Three (April/May 1996) 16:1-48; Attar, B.K., Guerra, N.G., and Tolan, P.H. Neighborhood disadvantage, stressful life events, and adjustment in urban elementary school children. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology (1994) 23:391-400; Taylor, L., Zuckerman, B., Harik, V., and Groves, B. Witnessing violence by young children and their mothers. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics (1994) 15:120-23; Cicchetti, D., and Lynch, M. Toward an ecological/transactional model of community violence and child maltreatment: Consequences for children's development. Psychiatry (1993) 56:96-118;
33. Lynch, M., and Cicchetti, D. An ecological-transactional analysis of children and contexts: The longitudinal interplay among child maltreatment, community violence, and children's symptomatology. Development and Psychopathology (1998) 10:235-58; Duncan, D.F. Growing up under the gun: Children and adolescents coping with violent neighborhoods. The Journal of Primary Prevention (1996) 16:343-56; Osofsky, J.D., and Fenichel, E., eds. Islands of safety: Assessing and treating young victims of violence. Zero to Three (April/May 1996) 16:1-48; Attar, B.K., Guerra, N.G., and Tolan, P.H. Neighborhood disadvantage, stressful life events, and adjustment in urban elementary school children. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology (1994) 23:391-400; Taylor, L., Zuckerman, B., Harik, V., and Groves, B. Witnessing violence by young children and their mothers. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics (1994) 15:120-23; Cicchetti, D., and Lynch, M. Toward an ecological/transactional model of community violence and child maltreatment: Consequences for children's development. Psychiatry (1993) 56:96-118;
34. Lynch, M., and Cicchetti, D. An ecological-transactional analysis of children and contexts: The longitudinal interplay among child maltreatment, community violence, and children's symptomatology. Development and Psychopathology (1998) 10:235-58; Duncan, D.F. Growing up under the gun: Children and adolescents coping with violent neighborhoods. The Journal of Primary Prevention (1996) 16:343-56; Osofsky, J.D., and Fenichel, E., eds. Islands of safety: Assessing and treating young victims of violence. Zero to Three (April/May 1996) 16:1-48; Attar, B.K., Guerra, N.G., and Tolan, P.H. Neighborhood disadvantage, stressful life events, and adjustment in urban elementary school children. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology (1994) 23:391-400; Taylor, L., Zuckerman, B., Harik, V., and Groves, B. Witnessing violence by young children and their mothers. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics (1994) 15:120-23; Cicchetti, D., and Lynch, M. Toward an ecological/transactional model of community violence and child maltreatment: Consequences for children's development. Psychiatry (1993) 56:96-118;
35. Lynch, M., and Cicchetti, D. An ecological-transactional analysis of children and contexts: The longitudinal interplay among child maltreatment, community violence, and children's symptomatology. Development and Psychopathology (1998) 10:235-58; Duncan, D.F. Growing up under the gun: Children and adolescents coping with violent neighborhoods. The Journal of Primary Prevention (1996) 16:343-56; Osofsky, J.D., and Fenichel, E., eds. Islands of safety: Assessing and treating young victims of violence. Zero to Three (April/May 1996) 16:1-48; Attar, B.K., Guerra, N.G., and Tolan, P.H. Neighborhood disadvantage, stressful life events, and adjustment in urban elementary school children. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology (1994) 23:391-400; Taylor, L., Zuckerman, B., Harik, V., and Groves, B. Witnessing violence by young children and their mothers. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics (1994) 15:120-23; Cicchetti, D., and Lynch, M. Toward an ecological/transactional model of community violence and child maltreatment: Consequences for children's development. Psychiatry (1993) 56:96-118;
36. Lynch, M., and Cicchetti, D. An ecological-transactional analysis of children and contexts: The longitudinal interplay among child maltreatment, community violence, and children's symptomatology. Development and Psychopathology (1998) 10:235-58; Duncan, D.F. Growing up under the gun: Children and adolescents coping with violent neighborhoods. The Journal of Primary Prevention (1996) 16:343-56; Osofsky, J.D., and Fenichel, E., eds. Islands of safety: Assessing and treating young victims of violence. Zero to Three (April/May 1996) 16:1-48; Attar, B.K., Guerra, N.G., and Tolan, P.H. Neighborhood disadvantage, stressful life events, and adjustment in urban elementary school children. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology (1994) 23:391-400; Taylor, L., Zuckerman, B., Harik, V., and Groves, B. Witnessing violence by young children and their mothers. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics (1994) 15:120-23; Cicchetti, D., and Lynch, M. Toward an ecological/transactional model of community violence and child maltreatment: Consequences for children's development. Psychiatry (1993) 56:96-118;
37. Lynch, M., and Cicchetti, D. An ecological-transactional analysis of children and contexts: The longitudinal interplay among child maltreatment, community violence, and children's symptomatology. Development and Psychopathology (1998) 10:235-58; Duncan, D.F. Growing up under the gun: Children and adolescents coping with violent neighborhoods. The Journal of Primary Prevention (1996) 16:343-56; Osofsky, J.D., and Fenichel, E., eds. Islands of safety: Assessing and treating young victims of violence. Zero to Three (April/May 1996) 16:1-48; Attar, B.K., Guerra, N.G., and Tolan, P.H. Neighborhood disadvantage, stressful life events, and adjustment in urban elementary school children. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology (1994) 23:391-400; Taylor, L., Zuckerman, B., Harik, V., and Groves, B. Witnessing violence by young children and their mothers. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics (1994) 15:120-23; Cicchetti, D., and Lynch, M. Toward an ecological/transactional model of community violence and child maltreatment: Consequences for children's development. Psychiatry (1993) 56:96-118;
38. Fitzpatrick, K.M., and Boldizar, J.P. The prevalence and consequences of exposure to violence among African-American youth. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry (1993) 32:424-30; see note no. 1, Osofsky.
39. Osofsky, J.D., and Fenichel, E., eds. Caring for infants and toddlers in violent environments: Hurt, healing, and hope. Zero to Three (December 1993/January 1994) 14:1-48; Leavitt, L. A., and Fox, N.A. The psychological effects of war and violence on children. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1993; Garbarino, J., Dubrow, N., Kostelny, K., and Pardo, C. Children in danger: Coping with the consequences of community violence. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1992; Bell, C.G., and Jenkins, E.J. Traumatic stress and children. Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved (1991) 2:175-85.
40. Osofsky, J.D., and Fenichel, E., eds. Caring for infants and toddlers in violent environments: Hurt, healing, and hope. Zero to Three (December 1993/January 1994) 14:1-48; Leavitt, L. A., and Fox, N.A. The psychological effects of war and violence on children. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1993; Garbarino, J., Dubrow, N., Kostelny, K., and Pardo, C. Children in danger: Coping with the consequences of community violence. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1992; Bell, C.G., and Jenkins, E.J. Traumatic stress and children. Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved (1991) 2:175-85.
41. Osofsky, J.D., and Fenichel, E., eds. Caring for infants and toddlers in violent environments: Hurt, healing, and hope. Zero to Three (December 1993/January 1994) 14:1-48; Leavitt, L. A., and Fox, N.A. The psychological effects of war and violence on children. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1993; Garbarino, J., Dubrow, N., Kostelny, K., and Pardo, C. Children in danger: Coping with the consequences of community violence. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1992; Bell, C.G., and Jenkins, E.J. Traumatic stress and children. Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved (1991) 2:175-85.
42. Osofsky, J.D., and Fenichel, E., eds. Caring for infants and toddlers in violent environments: Hurt, healing, and hope. Zero to Three (December 1993/January 1994) 14:1-48; Leavitt, L. A., and Fox, N.A. The psychological effects of war and violence on children. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1993; Garbarino, J., Dubrow, N., Kostelny, K., and Pardo, C. Children in danger: Coping with the consequences of community violence. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1992; Bell, C.G., and Jenkins, E.J. Traumatic stress and children. Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved (1991) 2:175-85.
43. Pynoos, R.S. Traumatic stress and developmental psychopathology in children and adolescents. In American Psychiatric Press review of psychiatry. Vol. 12. J.M. Oldham, M.B. Riba, and A. Tasman, eds. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, 1993, pp. 205-38; Nader, K.O., Pynoos, R.S., Fairbanks, L.A., et al. A preliminary study of PTSD and grief among the children of Kuwait following the Gulf crisis. British Journal of Clinical Psychology (1993) 32:407-16; Terr, L. Too scared to cry. New York: Harper and Row, 1990; Pynoos, R.S., and Eth, S. Developmental perspectives on psychic trauma in childhood. In Trauma and its wake. R.C. Figley, ed. New York: Brunner/Mazel, 1985; see note no. 16, Osofsky and Fenichel; see note no. 16, Garbarino, Dubrow, Kostelny, and Pardo.
44. Pynoos, R.S. Traumatic stress and developmental psychopathology in children and adolescents. In American Psychiatric Press review of psychiatry. Vol. 12. J.M. Oldham, M.B. Riba, and A. Tasman, eds. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, 1993, pp. 205-38; Nader, K.O., Pynoos, R.S., Fairbanks, L.A., et al. A preliminary study of PTSD and grief among the children of Kuwait following the Gulf crisis. British Journal of Clinical Psychology (1993) 32:407-16; Terr, L. Too scared to cry. New York: Harper and Row, 1990; Pynoos, R.S., and Eth, S. Developmental perspectives on psychic trauma in childhood. In Trauma and its wake. R.C. Figley, ed. New York: Brunner/Mazel, 1985; see note no. 16, Osofsky and Fenichel; see note no. 16, Garbarino, Dubrow, Kostelny, and Pardo.
45. Pynoos, R.S. Traumatic stress and developmental psychopathology in children and adolescents. In American Psychiatric Press review of psychiatry. Vol. 12. J.M. Oldham, M.B. Riba, and A. Tasman, eds. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, 1993, pp. 205-38; Nader, K.O., Pynoos, R.S., Fairbanks, L.A., et al. A preliminary study of PTSD and grief among the children of Kuwait following the Gulf crisis. British Journal of Clinical Psychology (1993) 32:407-16; Terr, L. Too scared to cry. New York: Harper and Row, 1990; Pynoos, R.S., and Eth, S. Developmental perspectives on psychic trauma in childhood. In Trauma and its wake. R.C. Figley, ed. New York: Brunner/Mazel, 1985; see note no. 16, Osofsky and Fenichel; see note no. 16, Garbarino, Dubrow, Kostelny, and Pardo.
46. Pynoos, R.S. Traumatic stress and developmental psychopathology in children and adolescents. In American Psychiatric Press review of psychiatry. Vol. 12. J.M. Oldham, M.B. Riba, and A. Tasman, eds. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, 1993, pp. 205-38; Nader, K.O., Pynoos, R.S., Fairbanks, L.A., et al. A preliminary study of PTSD and grief among the children of Kuwait following the Gulf crisis. British Journal of Clinical Psychology (1993) 32:407-16; Terr, L. Too scared to cry. New York: Harper and Row, 1990; Pynoos, R.S., and Eth, S. Developmental perspectives on psychic trauma in childhood. In Trauma and its wake. R.C. Figley, ed. New York: Brunner/Mazel, 1985; see note no. 16, Osofsky and Fenichel; see note no. 16, Garbarino, Dubrow, Kostelny, and Pardo.
47. Research data on outcomes of children's adaptation following exposure to violence are not available; however, reactions are likely to be similar to those of children who suffer early abuse and neglect, and such research has emphasized that early abusive and neglectful experiences may not lead directly to increased aggression and violence. See Widom, K. Does violence beget violence? A critical examination of the literature. Psychological Bulletin (1989) 106:3-28.
48. Zeanah, C.Z., and Scheeringa, M. Evaluation of posttraumatic symptomatology in infants and young children exposed to violence. Zero to Three (April/May 1996) 16:9-14; Bell, C. Exposure to violence distresses children and may lead to their becoming violent. Psychiatric News (January 6, 1995) 6-8, 15; Drell, M., Siegel, C., and Gaensbauer, T. Posttraumatic stress disorders. In Handbook of infant mental health. C. Zeanah, ed. New York: The Guilford Press, 1993, pp. 291-304; Jaffe, P., Wilson, S., and Wolfe, D. Promoting changes in attitudes and understanding of conflict resolution among child victims of family violence. Canadian Journal of Behavior Sciences (1986) 18:356-66; see note no. 15, Osofsky and Fenichel; see note no. 17, Pynoos.
49. Zeanah, C.Z., and Scheeringa, M. Evaluation of posttraumatic symptomatology in infants and young children exposed to violence. Zero to Three (April/May 1996) 16:9-14; Bell, C. Exposure to violence distresses children and may lead to their becoming violent. Psychiatric News (January 6, 1995) 6-8, 15; Drell, M., Siegel, C., and Gaensbauer, T. Posttraumatic stress disorders. In Handbook of infant mental health. C. Zeanah, ed. New York: The Guilford Press, 1993, pp. 291-304; Jaffe, P., Wilson, S., and Wolfe, D. Promoting changes in attitudes and understanding of conflict resolution among child victims of family violence. Canadian Journal of Behavior Sciences (1986) 18:356-66; see note no. 15, Osofsky and Fenichel; see note no. 17, Pynoos.
50. Zeanah, C.Z., and Scheeringa, M. Evaluation of posttraumatic symptomatology in infants and young children exposed to violence. Zero to Three (April/May 1996) 16:9-14; Bell, C. Exposure to violence distresses children and may lead to their becoming violent. Psychiatric News (January 6, 1995) 6-8, 15; Drell, M., Siegel, C., and Gaensbauer, T. Posttraumatic stress disorders. In Handbook of infant mental health. C. Zeanah, ed. New York: The Guilford Press, 1993, pp. 291-304; Jaffe, P., Wilson, S., and Wolfe, D. Promoting changes in attitudes and understanding of conflict resolution among child victims of family violence. Canadian Journal of Behavior Sciences (1986) 18:356-66; see note no. 15, Osofsky and Fenichel; see note no. 17, Pynoos.
51. Zeanah, C.Z., and Scheeringa, M. Evaluation of posttraumatic symptomatology in infants and young children exposed to violence. Zero to Three (April/May 1996) 16:9-14; Bell, C. Exposure to violence distresses children and may lead to their becoming violent. Psychiatric News (January 6, 1995) 6-8, 15; Drell, M., Siegel, C., and Gaensbauer, T. Posttraumatic stress disorders. In Handbook of infant mental health. C. Zeanah, ed. New York: The Guilford Press, 1993, pp. 291-304; Jaffe, P., Wilson, S., and Wolfe, D. Promoting changes in attitudes and understanding of conflict resolution among child victims of family violence. Canadian Journal of Behavior Sciences (1986) 18:356-66; see note no. 15, Osofsky and Fenichel; see note no. 17, Pynoos.
52. See note no. 16, Osofsky and Fenichel.
53. Osofsky, J.D., Cohen, G., and Drell, M. The effects of trauma on young children: A case of two-year-old twins. International Journal of Psychoanalysis (1995) 76:595-607; see note no. 19, Drell, Siegel, and Gaensbauer; see note no. 16, Osofsky and Fenichel.
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55. Gorman-Smith, D., and Tolan, P. The role of exposure to community violence and developmental problems among inner-city youth. Development and Psychopathology (1998) 10:99-114; Cooley-Quille, M.R., Turner, S.M., and Beidel, D.C. Emotional impact of children's exposure to community violence: A preliminary study. The American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry (1995) 34:1362-68; Schwab-Stone, M.E., Ayers, T.S., Kasprow, W., et al. No safe haven: A study of violence exposure in an urban community. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry (1995) 34:1343-52.
56. Gorman-Smith, D., and Tolan, P. The role of exposure to community violence and developmental problems among inner-city youth. Development and Psychopathology (1998) 10:99-114; Cooley-Quille, M.R., Turner, S.M., and Beidel, D.C. Emotional impact of children's exposure to community violence: A preliminary study. The American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry (1995) 34:1362-68; Schwab-Stone, M.E., Ayers, T.S., Kasprow, W., et al. No safe haven: A study of violence exposure in an urban community. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry (1995) 34:1343-52.
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58. See note no. 19, Drell, Siegel, and Gaensbauer.
59. In the Washington, D.C., study, r=.39, p<.05; in the New Orleans study, r=.42, p<.01. Richters, J.E., and Martinez, P. The NIMH community violence project: I. Children as victims of and witnesses to violence. Psychiatry (1993) 56:7-21; Osofsky, J.D., Wewers, S., Hann, D.M., and Fick, A.C. Chronic community violence: What is happening to our children? Psychiatry (1993) 56:36-45.
60. In the Washington, D.C., study, r=.39, p<.05; in the New Orleans study, r=.42, p<.01. Richters, J.E., and Martinez, P. The NIMH community violence project: I. Children as victims of and witnesses to violence. Psychiatry (1993) 56:7-21; Osofsky, J.D., Wewers, S., Hann, D.M., and Fick, A.C. Chronic community violence: What is happening to our children? Psychiatry (1993) 56:36-45.
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73. Li, X., Howard, D., Stanton, B., et al. Distress symptoms among urban African-American children and adolescents: A psychometric evaluation of the Checklist of Children's Distress Symptoms. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine (1998) 152:569-77. Similarly, such symptoms were identified in an evaluation of children in Kuwait during the occupation and the Gulf War. Though the sample was relatively small and selective, the results are informative. Forty-five children ranging in age from 5 to 13 years who were exposed to the horrors of war were interviewed and drew pictures of their experiences. The study found that the majority of the children (62%) reported direct experience with a traumatic event, and many children (at least 20%) experienced the death of a close relative. More than half of the children reported psychological effects of the trauma with repetitive dreams, fears, uncontrollable crying, and/or sleep disturbances. The study also found that girls were more sheltered during the occupation and less likely to witness traumatic events, but that all children felt vulnerable and fearful of future harm or occupation/war. See Garbarino, J. The experience of children in Kuwait: Occupation, war and liberation. The Child, Youth and Family Services Quarterly (1991) 14:2.
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