Why Islam is like Spanish: Cultural incorporation in Europe and the United States

Politics and Society

Volumn 27, Issue 1, 1999, Pages 5-38

  Zolberg, Aristide R ^a   Woon, Long Litt ^a  

^a NONE

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0033481718     PISSN: 00323292     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0032329299027001002     Document Type: Article

References (104)

1. The Rushdie affair provides an excellent example: while it prompted demonstrations by South Asian Muslims throughout Europe, it was hardly addressed by their fellow believers from North Africa or Turkey, perhaps because South Asian Muslims are also distinctly involved in an English-language culture.
2. Zianuddin Sardar, "Introduction," in Syed Z. Abedin and Zianuddin Sardar, eds., Muslim Minorities in the West (London: Grey Seal, 1995), 1-17; Joseph Carens and Melissa S. Williams, "Muslim Minorities in Liberal Democracies: The Politics of Misrecognition," in Rainer Bauboeck, Agnes Heller, and Aristide R. Zolberg, eds., The Challenge of Diversity (Hunts: Avebury, 1996), 157-86. It is noteworthy that although Carens and Williams refer in their title to liberal democracies as a whole, their discussion of misrecognition is devoted almost entirely to Europe. We are, of course, fully aware that by treating Europe as a single case, we ignore important national-level variations. However, we believe that with respect to the phenomenon under consideration, similarities outweigh differences, some of which will be referred to in the discussion.
3. Zianuddin Sardar, "Introduction," in Syed Z. Abedin and Zianuddin Sardar, eds., Muslim Minorities in the West (London: Grey Seal, 1995), 1-17; Joseph Carens and Melissa S. Williams, "Muslim Minorities in Liberal Democracies: The Politics of Misrecognition," in Rainer Bauboeck, Agnes Heller, and Aristide R. Zolberg, eds., The Challenge of Diversity (Hunts: Avebury, 1996), 157-86. It is noteworthy that although Carens and Williams refer in their title to liberal democracies as a whole, their discussion of misrecognition is devoted almost entirely to Europe. We are, of course, fully aware that by treating Europe as a single case, we ignore important national-level variations. However, we believe that with respect to the phenomenon under consideration, similarities outweigh differences, some of which will be referred to in the discussion.
4. Robert L. Bach, Changing Relations: Newcomers and Established Residents in U.S. Communities (New York: Ford Foundation, 1993), 7.
5. Guillermina Jasso and M. R. Rosenzweig, The New Chosen People: Immigrants in the United States (New York: Russell Sage, 1990), 25.
6. Douglas S. Massey, Rafael Alarcon, Jorge Durand, and Humberto Gonzales, Return to Aztlan: The Social Process of International Migration from Western Mexico (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987), 22-27.
7. The largest groups, each with more than two million speakers, are the Turkish and Maghrebi communities based mainly in Germany and France, respectively; Peter Broeder and Guus Extra, "Language," in Hans Vermeulen, ed., Immigration Policy for a Multicultural Society (Brussels: Minority Policy Group, 1997), 23-32.
8. Robert Bellah, Richard Madsen, William M. Sullivan, Ann Swidler, and Steven M. Tipton, Habits of the Heart: Individualism and Commitment in American Life (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985).
9. Joshua A. Fishman, ed., Language Loyalty in the United States (The Hague, the Netherlands: Mouton, 1966).
10. Incorporation is used here as a comprehensive and value-neutral term to refer to the institutionalization of relationships between hosts and newcomers in any form, ranging from highly unequal arrangements, such as are found in the plural societies issued from plantation colonies, to integration by way of more or less mutual adjustments, such as goes on in many contemporary democracies. On plural society, see especially M. G. Smith, "Institutional and Political Pluralism," in Leo Kuper and M. G. Smith, eds., Pluralism in Africa (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969), 27-66.
11. The most significant exceptions are persons who qualify for immigration as "patrials" (e.g., Jews to Israel, ethnic Germans to Germany, or the descendants of British, Italian, Greek, or Spanish emigrants to their ancestral homeland). By extension, this is sometimes applicable also to co-religionists (e.g., Malaysia's informal policy toward rebel Muslims from the Philippines) or ideological comrades (e.g., U.S. policy toward anti-Castro Cubans).
12. An important conceptual source is Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (London: New Left Books, 1983); see also Liah Greenfeld, Nationalism: Five Roads to Modernity (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992). The more dialectical approach followed here is derived from Fredrik Barth, ed., Ethnic Groups and Boundaries (Boston: Little, Brown, 1969). We prefer "not us" to "them" because it highlights the ethnocentricity of self-definition.
13. An important conceptual source is Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (London: New Left Books, 1983); see also Liah Greenfeld, Nationalism: Five Roads to Modernity (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992). The more dialectical approach followed here is derived from Fredrik Barth, ed., Ethnic Groups and Boundaries (Boston: Little, Brown, 1969). We prefer "not us" to "them" because it highlights the ethnocentricity of self-definition.
14. An important conceptual source is Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (London: New Left Books, 1983); see also Liah Greenfeld, Nationalism: Five Roads to Modernity (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992). The more dialectical approach followed here is derived from Fredrik Barth, ed., Ethnic Groups and Boundaries (Boston: Little, Brown, 1969). We prefer "not us" to "them" because it highlights the ethnocentricity of self-definition.
15. Rainer Bauboeck, The Integration of Immigrants (Strasbourg: Council of Europe, PO-S-MG (94), 1994). Bauboeck's framework emphasizes boundary crossing and boundary blurring; we have added boundary shifting and extended the whole set of concepts to all parties involved, both newcomers and hosts.
16. A further distinction can be made between legal and social boundaries. While new-comers might be accepted as formal members of the polity (e.g., through naturalization), they might still be held at arm's length as not being "real" co-nationals. A case in point is that of an immigrant who has acquired citizenship in a Western European country but is not viewed by respectable and well-informed persons as a real European.
17. Victor W. Turner, The Ritual Process: Structure and Anti-Structure (Chicago: Aldine, 1969).
18. An example in the field of American immigration is the changing status of the Japanese in the early decades of the century - from the blurred boundary established by way of the Gentleman's Agreement of 1907, whereby the Japanese were not formally excluded on the condition that Japan restrain its emigration, to their formal exclusion alongside all other Asians in 1924.
19. Veit Bader, "Incorporation and Egalitarian Multiculturalism" (paper presented at the conference on the Integration of Immigrant and Ethnic Minorities in Liberal Democracies, Melbourne, Australia, July 1996).
20. Michael Fix and Jeffrey S. Passell, Immigration and Immigrants: Setting the Record Straight (Washington, DC: Urban Institute, 1994), 12.
21. Yet, it should be noted that in proportion to population, the recent U.S. intake is much smaller than that of the other traditional immigration countries. As of 1994, the foreign born constituted about 16 percent in Canada and 23 percent in Australia. Israel, after a period of much reduced immigration, recently experienced a wave amounting to some 10 percent of its population in five years.
22. In the decade 1901-1910, the annual recorded average was 879,539; Jasso and Rosenzweig, The New Chosen People, 18. Because immigration visas were not yet required, the distinction between visitors and immigrants was far from clear, and there are no good estimates of overstaying or other forms of "illegal" immigration for that period.
23. Though often lumped together, recent research distinguishes between immigrant children, children of immigrants, and native-born children of native parentage. The second category includes native-born children of immigrant parents and children born abroad who came at a very early age - sometimes referred to as the "one and a half generation." See Alejandro Portes, ed., The New Second Generation (New York: Russell Sage, 1996), 1-8.
24. In 1990 they were, in descending order of size, Los Angeles, New York City, San Francisco, Chicago, and Philadelphia.
25. The relative decline in the proportions of recent immigrants from Europe is further emphasized when we take into consideration emigration from the United States: persons from Europe have the highest propensity to leave the United States and persons from Asia the lowest; Jasso and Rosenzweig, The New Chosen People, 182.
26. European readers might note that this figure does not include Puerto Ricans who also are Spanish speaking, as they are U.S. citizens. While a common language -Spanish - dominates current immigration to the United States, there is no equivalent among immigrants to Europe.
27. Leslie Moch, Moving Europeans: Migrations in Western Europe since 1650 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1992); Aristide R. Zolberg, "The Patterning of International Migration Policies in a Changing World System," in William H. McNeill and Ruth S. Adams, eds., Human Migration: Patterns and Policies (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1978), 241-86.
28. Leslie Moch, Moving Europeans: Migrations in Western Europe since 1650 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1992); Aristide R. Zolberg, "The Patterning of International Migration Policies in a Changing World System," in William H. McNeill and Ruth S. Adams, eds., Human Migration: Patterns and Policies (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1978), 241-86.
29. Gerard Noiriel, Le Creuset Français: Histoire de l'Immigration, XIXe-XXe Siècles (Paris: Le Seuil, 1988); Michele Tribalat, Cent Ans d'Immigration, Etrangers d'Hier, Français d'Aujourd'hui (Paris: INED, Cahier no. 131, 1991); Alec G. Hargreaves, Immigration, "Race" and Ethnicity in Contemporary France (London: Routledge Kegan Paul, 1995).
30. Gerard Noiriel, Le Creuset Français: Histoire de l'Immigration, XIXe-XXe Siècles (Paris: Le Seuil, 1988); Michele Tribalat, Cent Ans d'Immigration, Etrangers d'Hier, Français d'Aujourd'hui (Paris: INED, Cahier no. 131, 1991); Alec G. Hargreaves, Immigration, "Race" and Ethnicity in Contemporary France (London: Routledge Kegan Paul, 1995).
31. Gerard Noiriel, Le Creuset Français: Histoire de l'Immigration, XIXe-XXe Siècles (Paris: Le Seuil, 1988); Michele Tribalat, Cent Ans d'Immigration, Etrangers d'Hier, Français d'Aujourd'hui (Paris: INED, Cahier no. 131, 1991); Alec G. Hargreaves, Immigration, "Race" and Ethnicity in Contemporary France (London: Routledge Kegan Paul, 1995).
32. Jorgen S. Nielsen, Muslims in Western Europe (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1992). According to governmental figures on immigration submitted in 1995 by nineteen Council of Europe countries, Muslims are followed by Roman Catholics (over 900,000), Buddhists (over 400,000), and Hindus (over 390,000).
33. Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), SOPEMI: Trends in International Migration: Annual Report, 1996 (Paris: OECD, 1997), Table A1, 218.
34. Unofficial figures from OECD, Trends in International Migration 1996. The experience of immigration has now extended even to former emigration countries such as Italy and Spain and, most recently, the more successful countries of the formerly Communist world - notably, Poland and the Czech Republic.
35. Except for England and Ireland, locally born children of immigrant parentage are not automatically citizens; however, in France, jus soli comes into play more or less automatically for the locally born children of foreign nationals who reside continuously in France until adolescence. This has been a contentious issue in recent years; requirements were raised by a conservative government in the early 1990s, but its Socialist successor largely reversed the situation in 1998.
36. At the international level, the most relevant instruments are the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (United Nations, 10 December 1948; in particular, article 18), the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (United Nations, 16 December 1966; in particular, article 18), the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (Council of Europe, 4 November 1950; articles 9 and 14), and the final act of the Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe (Helsinki, 1 August , 1975, paragraph 1,a VII).
37. The distinction between freedom from and freedom to is drawn from Isaiah Berlin. See Alan Ryan, ed., The Idea of Freedom: Essays in Honour of Isaiah Berlin (New York: Oxford University Press, 1979), 12-13.
38. Philip Gleason, Keeping the Faith: American Catholicism Past and Present (South Bend, IN: Notre Dame University Press, 1987); Einar Vetvik, "Religion and State from a Western Perspective," in Jorgen S. Nielsen, ed., Religion and Citizenship in Europe and the Arab World (London: Grey Seal, 1992), 7-24; Pierre Birnbaum and Ira Katznelson, Paths of Emancipation (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995).
39. Philip Gleason, Keeping the Faith: American Catholicism Past and Present (South Bend, IN: Notre Dame University Press, 1987); Einar Vetvik, "Religion and State from a Western Perspective," in Jorgen S. Nielsen, ed., Religion and Citizenship in Europe and the Arab World (London: Grey Seal, 1992), 7-24; Pierre Birnbaum and Ira Katznelson, Paths of Emancipation (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995).
40. Philip Gleason, Keeping the Faith: American Catholicism Past and Present (South Bend, IN: Notre Dame University Press, 1987); Einar Vetvik, "Religion and State from a Western Perspective," in Jorgen S. Nielsen, ed., Religion and Citizenship in Europe and the Arab World (London: Grey Seal, 1992), 7-24; Pierre Birnbaum and Ira Katznelson, Paths of Emancipation (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995).
41. In France, for example, the display of nativity scenes in post offices and on the public square facing the Paris city hall are not considered violations of the separation of church and state, as they would be in the United States. In France, Catholic days of obligation are celebrated as public holidays. Likewise, in the United States, Protestant holidays are celebrated - but neither Catholic nor Jewish ones, despite the "recognition" accorded to these religions in such matters as public invocations in opening of the Congress.
42. Jorgen S. Nielsen et al., "Report of Group of Consultants on Religious and Cultural Aspects of Equality of Opportunities for Immigrants," Council of Europe, MG-S-Rel (95) 3 final (Strasbourg, 25 January 1996).
43. For example, non-Catholic Christian denominations were recognized in Italy only in 1984 and in Spain in 1992.
44. It is useful to note that in some countries, this is a fairly recent development: in France, for example, requirements that leadership in organizations needed to have a minimum number of citizens was clearly an obstacle for many immigrant organizations, including the religious ones. This was abolished only in 1981. 37. Noel Ignatiev, How the Irish Became White (New York: Routledge Kegan Paul, 1995); Karen Brodkin Sacks, "How Did Jews Become White Folks?" in Steven Gregory and Roger Sanjek, eds., Race (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1994), 89-97.
45. It is useful to note that in some countries, this is a fairly recent development: in France, for example, requirements that leadership in organizations needed to have a minimum number of citizens was clearly an obstacle for many immigrant organizations, including the religious ones. This was abolished only in 1981. 37. Noel Ignatiev, How the Irish Became White (New York: Routledge Kegan Paul, 1995); Karen Brodkin Sacks, "How Did Jews Become White Folks?" in Steven Gregory and Roger Sanjek, eds., Race (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1994), 89-97.
46. Peter G. J. Pulzer, The Rise of Political Anti-Semitism in Germany and Austria (New York: John Wiley, 1964).
47. For a brief history, see Nielsen, Muslims in Western Europe.
48. Stephen Castles and Godula Kossack, Immigrant Workers and Class Structure in Western Europe, 2nd ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985).
49. Nielsen, Muslims in Western Europe, 37-42.
50. Ibid., 37; Felice Dassetto and Gerd Nonneman, "Islam in Belgium and the Netherlands: Towards a Typology of 'Transplanted' Islam," in Gerd Nonneman, Tim Niblock, and Bodgan Szajkowski, eds., Muslim Communities in the New Europe (London: Ithaca Press, 1996), 187-218.
51. Ibid., 37; Felice Dassetto and Gerd Nonneman, "Islam in Belgium and the Netherlands: Towards a Typology of 'Transplanted' Islam," in Gerd Nonneman, Tim Niblock, and Bodgan Szajkowski, eds., Muslim Communities in the New Europe (London: Ithaca Press, 1996), 187-218.
52. Baha Abu-Laban, "The Muslim Community in Canada," in Abedin and Sardar, eds., Muslim Minorities in the West, 134-49; Barbara Metcalf, "Introduction: Sacred Words, Sanctioned Practice, New Communities," in Barbara Metcalf, ed., Making Muslim Space (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996), 1-21; Mehdi Bozorgmehr, Claudia Der-Martirosian, and Georges Sabagh, "Middle Easterners: A New Kind of Immigrants," in Roger Waldinger and Mehdi Bozorgmeht, eds., Ethnic Los Angeles (New York: Russell Sage, 1996), 345-78.
53. Baha Abu-Laban, "The Muslim Community in Canada," in Abedin and Sardar, eds., Muslim Minorities in the West, 134-49; Barbara Metcalf, "Introduction: Sacred Words, Sanctioned Practice, New Communities," in Barbara Metcalf, ed., Making Muslim Space (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996), 1-21; Mehdi Bozorgmehr, Claudia Der-Martirosian, and Georges Sabagh, "Middle Easterners: A New Kind of Immigrants," in Roger Waldinger and Mehdi Bozorgmeht, eds., Ethnic Los Angeles (New York: Russell Sage, 1996), 345-78.
54. Baha Abu-Laban, "The Muslim Community in Canada," in Abedin and Sardar, eds., Muslim Minorities in the West, 134-49; Barbara Metcalf, "Introduction: Sacred Words, Sanctioned Practice, New Communities," in Barbara Metcalf, ed., Making Muslim Space (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996), 1-21; Mehdi Bozorgmehr, Claudia Der-Martirosian, and Georges Sabagh, "Middle Easterners: A New Kind of Immigrants," in Roger Waldinger and Mehdi Bozorgmeht, eds., Ethnic Los Angeles (New York: Russell Sage, 1996), 345-78.
55. The new ideological representation of Islam at the level of international relations is epitomized by Samuel Huntington's notorious "The Coming Clash of Civilizations," Foreign Affairs 72, no. 4 (1993): 22-49.
56. Thigal Sunier and Astrid Meyer, "Religion," in Vermeulen, ed., Immigrant Policy for a Multicultural Society, 23-45.
57. Dassetto and Nonneman, "Islam in Belgium and the Netherlands," 193.
58. Nielsen, Muslims in Western Europe, 147.
59. Jocelyne Césari, Être musulman en France aujourd'hui (Paris: Hachette, 1997).
60. Sardar, "Introduction," 15.
61. Ibid.
62. Carens and Williams, "Muslim Minorities."
63. Lars Pedersen, "Islam in the Discourse of Public Authorities and Institutions in Denmark," in W.A.R. Shadid and P. S. Van Koningsveld, eds., Muslims in the Margins: Political Responses to the Presence of Islam in Western Europe (The Hague, the Netherlands: Pharos, 1996), 202-17; Abu-Laban, "The Muslim Community in Canada."
64. Lars Pedersen, "Islam in the Discourse of Public Authorities and Institutions in Denmark," in W.A.R. Shadid and P. S. Van Koningsveld, eds., Muslims in the Margins: Political Responses to the Presence of Islam in Western Europe (The Hague, the Netherlands: Pharos, 1996), 202-17; Abu-Laban, "The Muslim Community in Canada."
65. Recognition was in effect accorded in the United States by the White House on the occasion of the Id al Fitr in Spring 1996; "The White House Recognizes Ramadan," Washington Post, 24 February 1996, B7. First Lady Hillary Rodham Clinton said on the occasion of the family event, held in the Old Executive Office Building, that the "Eid (sic) [is] an American event" and that White House recognition of the holiday was "historic and overdue." Invited guests included African American converts, as well as Muslims from the Middle East, India, Pakistan, Indonesia, and elsewhere. According to Khaled Saffuri, assistant executive director of the American Muslim Council, Muslims had "asked before for recognition of the Eid, but our request always went unanswered." He also said that the Clinton White House has been more welcoming to Muslims than any previous administration.
66. Sebastian Poulter, "Cultural Pluralism and Its Limits: A Legal Perspective," in Britain: A Plural Society (London: Council on Religious Education and the Runnymede Trust, 1990), 3-29.
67. A telling indicator of this process are the assurances given by Prime Minister Edouard Balladur to leaders of the French Jewish community in 1994, following the Islamic "headscarf" affair, that the government's decree prohibiting the wearing of "ostentatious" religious symbols in the schools did not apply to the wearing of the yarmulke. See Arun Kapil, "On Islam in the West and Muslims in France: Views from the Hexagon," Third World Quarterly 18, no. 2 (1997): 377-89.
68. Steve Vertovec, "Muslims, the State, and the Public Sphere in Britain," in Nonneman, Niblock, and Szajkowski, eds., Muslim Communities in the New Europe, 169-86; Dassetto and Nonneman, "Islam in Belgium and the Netherlands"; Claire Dwyer and Astrid Meyer, "The Establishment of Islamic Schools: A Controversial Phenomenon in Three European Countries," in Shadid and Van Koningsveld, eds, Muslims in the Margin, 219-42; Ruben Gowricharn and Bim Mungra, "The Politics of Integration in the Netherlands," in Shadid and Van Koningsveld, eds., Muslims in the Margin, 114-29. However, some upper limit seems to have been reached. In July 1997, the Council of State upheld the decision of the Ministry of Education to prohibit the setting up of a seventh Islamic primary school in Amsterdam (Migration News Sheet, August 1997, 20).
69. Steve Vertovec, "Muslims, the State, and the Public Sphere in Britain," in Nonneman, Niblock, and Szajkowski, eds., Muslim Communities in the New Europe, 169-86; Dassetto and Nonneman, "Islam in Belgium and the Netherlands"; Claire Dwyer and Astrid Meyer, "The Establishment of Islamic Schools: A Controversial Phenomenon in Three European Countries," in Shadid and Van Koningsveld, eds, Muslims in the Margin, 219-42; Ruben Gowricharn and Bim Mungra, "The Politics of Integration in the Netherlands," in Shadid and Van Koningsveld, eds., Muslims in the Margin, 114-29. However, some upper limit seems to have been reached. In July 1997, the Council of State upheld the decision of the Ministry of Education to prohibit the setting up of a seventh Islamic primary school in Amsterdam (Migration News Sheet, August 1997, 20).
70. Steve Vertovec, "Muslims, the State, and the Public Sphere in Britain," in Nonneman, Niblock, and Szajkowski, eds., Muslim Communities in the New Europe, 169-86; Dassetto and Nonneman, "Islam in Belgium and the Netherlands"; Claire Dwyer and Astrid Meyer, "The Establishment of Islamic Schools: A Controversial Phenomenon in Three European Countries," in Shadid and Van Koningsveld, eds, Muslims in the Margin, 219-42; Ruben Gowricharn and Bim Mungra, "The Politics of Integration in the Netherlands," in Shadid and Van Koningsveld, eds., Muslims in the Margin, 114-29. However, some upper limit seems to have been reached. In July 1997, the Council of State upheld the decision of the Ministry of Education to prohibit the setting up of a seventh Islamic primary school in Amsterdam (Migration News Sheet, August 1997, 20).
71. Steve Vertovec, "Muslims, the State, and the Public Sphere in Britain," in Nonneman, Niblock, and Szajkowski, eds., Muslim Communities in the New Europe, 169-86; Dassetto and Nonneman, "Islam in Belgium and the Netherlands"; Claire Dwyer and Astrid Meyer, "The Establishment of Islamic Schools: A Controversial Phenomenon in Three European Countries," in Shadid and Van Koningsveld, eds, Muslims in the Margin, 219-42; Ruben Gowricharn and Bim Mungra, "The Politics of Integration in the Netherlands," in Shadid and Van Koningsveld, eds., Muslims in the Margin, 114-29. However, some upper limit seems to have been reached. In July 1997, the Council of State upheld the decision of the Ministry of Education to prohibit the setting up of a seventh Islamic primary school in Amsterdam (Migration News Sheet, August 1997, 20).
72. Sardar, "Introduction," 15; Dwyer and Meyer, "The Establishment of Islamic Schools," 227; The New York Times, 10 January 1998, A6.
73. Sardar, "Introduction," 15; Dwyer and Meyer, "The Establishment of Islamic Schools," 227; The New York Times, 10 January 1998, A6.
74. Sardar, "Introduction," 15; Dwyer and Meyer, "The Establishment of Islamic Schools," 227; The New York Times, 10 January 1998, A6.
75. Sunier and Meyer, "Religion," 37.
76. Ibid.
77. Abram de Swaan, "The Emergent World Language System: An Introduction," International Political Science Review 14, no. 3 (1993): 219-26, and "The Evolving European Language System: A Theory of Communication Potential and Language Competition," International Political Science Review 14, no. 3 (1993): 241-56.
78. Abram de Swaan, "The Emergent World Language System: An Introduction," International Political Science Review 14, no. 3 (1993): 219-26, and "The Evolving European Language System: A Theory of Communication Potential and Language Competition," International Political Science Review 14, no. 3 (1993): 241-56.
79. However it should be noted that the situation with regard to electronic media is more ambiguous. Because the state has played a major role in allocating wavelengths or regulating the market for them, a place for minority languages has had to be negotiated with the public authorities, as in the case of religion. But the established dynamics in this sphere have begun to change with the generalization of cable.
80. However, freedom of speech - for hosts - has usually been interpreted broadly in practice almost absolutely, for example, when in conflict with freedom from racial discrimination, as apparent in some countries where it is has been difficult to punish racially abusive language in public or incitement to racial hatred.
81. Lucien Fèbvre and Henri-Jean Martin, L'apparition du livre (Paris: Albin Michel, 1971); Anderson, Imagined Communities.
82. "Cultural capital" is from Pierre Bourdieu, Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgment of Taste (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1984). In a few cases, where a sizable segment of the elite or of the historically resident population at large spoke other languages, this gave rise to a protracted struggle on behalf of their recognition in specified spheres - notably, state services, justice, education, and eventually work; see, for example, Aristide R. Zolberg, "The Making of Flemings and Walloons, 1830-1910," Journal of Interdisciplinary History 5, no. 2 (1974): 127-73. Some of them achieved a status akin to that of "minority" religions in the form of regional bilingualism (e.g., Sami in northern Norway, German in Italy's Alto Adige) and, in rare instances, parity (Belgium, Switzerland, Canada).
83. "Cultural capital" is from Pierre Bourdieu, Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgment of Taste (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1984). In a few cases, where a sizable segment of the elite or of the historically resident population at large spoke other languages, this gave rise to a protracted struggle on behalf of their recognition in specified spheres - notably, state services, justice, education, and eventually work; see, for example, Aristide R. Zolberg, "The Making of Flemings and Walloons, 1830-1910," Journal of Interdisciplinary History 5, no. 2 (1974): 127-73. Some of them achieved a status akin to that of "minority" religions in the form of regional bilingualism (e.g., Sami in northern Norway, German in Italy's Alto Adige) and, in rare instances, parity (Belgium, Switzerland, Canada).
84. Paralleling what was done in France to discourage the use of Breton or in its colonies with regard to African tongues. Norway and the United States long imposed similar policies on their "indigenous" populations.
85. This also had other implications, notably with regard to class and education.
86. In France, where language is highly emphasized as a marker of national identity, foreign-language education was provided to the children of immigrant workers m the 1970s as part of a policy to encourage return. Likewise, whereas Norway provides bilingual education for the children of ordinary immigrants to facilitate learning of the host language and incorporation more generally, Bosnian children, as "temporary protected persons," are educated in their mother tongue, thus emphasizing the likelihood of their repatriation.
87. Arthur Mann, The One and the Many: Reflections on the American Identity (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979).
88. Arnold H. Leibowitz, Educational Policy and Political Acceptance: The Imposition of English as the Language of Instruction in American Schools (Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics); Sigmund Diamond, "Historical Aspects of Bilingualism in the United States" (unpublished paper, Immigration Research Program, 1982).
89. Arnold H. Leibowitz, Educational Policy and Political Acceptance: The Imposition of English as the Language of Instruction in American Schools (Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics); Sigmund Diamond, "Historical Aspects of Bilingualism in the United States" (unpublished paper, Immigration Research Program, 1982).
90. Edward George Hartmann, The Movement to Americanize the Immigrant (New York: Columbia University Press, 1948).
91. Kenji Hakuta, Mirror of Language: The Debate on Bilingualism (New York: Basic Books, 1986).
92. However, although the establishment of bilingual education also provided an opportunity for black nationalists to advance claims on behalf of "ebonics" as a distinct language, these have by and large been unsuccessful.
93. For a useful overview of the political configuration, see "For Hispanic Lawmakers, Time to Take the Offensive: Immigration Battles Lead to a New Focus," The New York Times, 25 August 1997, A14.
94. This was illustrated by an advertisement in the business section of The New York Times, 5 August 1997, D7. Raising the question, "Why Hispanic?" it answered that "because in the next 15 years Hispanic buying power in New York will double to $89.9 Billion Dollars!" It is noteworthy that the newspaper's parent company recently acquired a Spanish-language daily and that the leading newspapers in Los Angeles and Miami publish Spanish-language editions. Also in 1997, the leading Los Angeles radio station became a Spanish-language station.
95. See, for example, Peter Brimelow, Alien Nation: Common Sense about America's Immigration Disaster (New York: Random House, 1995).
96. Gillian Stevens, "The Social and Demographic Context of Language Use in the United States," American Sociological Review 57 (1992): 171-85; Alejandro Portes and Ruben Rumbaut, Immigrant America: A Portrait, 2nd ed. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996), 192-231; Alejandro Portes and R. Schauffler, "Language and the Second Generation: Bilingualism Yesterday and Today," in Alejandro Portes, ed., The Second Generation (New York: Russell Sage, 1996), 8-29; David Lopez, "Language Diversity and Assimilation," in Waldinger and Bozorgmehr, eds., Ethnic Los Angeles, 139-63.
97. Gillian Stevens, "The Social and Demographic Context of Language Use in the United States," American Sociological Review 57 (1992): 171-85; Alejandro Portes and Ruben Rumbaut, Immigrant America: A Portrait, 2nd ed. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996), 192-231; Alejandro Portes and R. Schauffler, "Language and the Second Generation: Bilingualism Yesterday and Today," in Alejandro Portes, ed., The Second Generation (New York: Russell Sage, 1996), 8-29; David Lopez, "Language Diversity and Assimilation," in Waldinger and Bozorgmehr, eds., Ethnic Los Angeles, 139-63.
98. Gillian Stevens, "The Social and Demographic Context of Language Use in the United States," American Sociological Review 57 (1992): 171-85; Alejandro Portes and Ruben Rumbaut, Immigrant America: A Portrait, 2nd ed. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996), 192-231; Alejandro Portes and R. Schauffler, "Language and the Second Generation: Bilingualism Yesterday and Today," in Alejandro Portes, ed., The Second Generation (New York: Russell Sage, 1996), 8-29; David Lopez, "Language Diversity and Assimilation," in Waldinger and Bozorgmehr, eds., Ethnic Los Angeles, 139-63.
99. Gillian Stevens, "The Social and Demographic Context of Language Use in the United States," American Sociological Review 57 (1992): 171-85; Alejandro Portes and Ruben Rumbaut, Immigrant America: A Portrait, 2nd ed. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996), 192-231; Alejandro Portes and R. Schauffler, "Language and the Second Generation: Bilingualism Yesterday and Today," in Alejandro Portes, ed., The Second Generation (New York: Russell Sage, 1996), 8-29; David Lopez, "Language Diversity and Assimilation," in Waldinger and Bozorgmehr, eds., Ethnic Los Angeles, 139-63.
100. Stanely Lieberson and T. J. Curry, "Language Shift in the United States: Some Demographic Clues," International Migration Review 5 (1971): 125-37.
101. The New York Times, 3-4 June 1998; Christian Science Monitor 24 November 1997.
102. The New York Times, 3-4 June 1998; Christian Science Monitor 24 November 1997.
103. Although Europe has a sizable "Arab" population, opportunities for Arabic language products and services are limited because so many Algerians use French almost exclusively. Turkish nationals are quite numerous as well; however, many of them are in fact Kurdish speakers. Moreover, their income distribution is more concentrated at the lower end than is the case for Spanish speakers in the United States. However, a Europe-wide Turkish cable is reported to be under consideration (mid-1998).
104. This is indicated by a quick sample of headlines from The New York Times in recent years: "U.S. Publishers Discover Spanish as a Second Language" (13 March 1995, D6); "Diversity Pays Off in a Babel of Yellow Pages" (3 December 1995, A46); "Westinghouse Seeks Purchase" of Telenoticias, a Miami-based cable news channel begun in 1994, with 14 million subscribers in Latin America and 6 million in the United States, whose rival