Evolutionary narratives and ecological ethics

Political Theory

Volumn 27, Issue 1, 1999, Pages 6-38

  Thiele, Leslie Paul ^a  

^a NONE

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0033476575     PISSN: 00905917     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0090591799027001002     Document Type: Review

References (105)

1. Donald Worster, Nature's Economy (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 335.
2. Edward O. Wilson, Sociobiology: The New Synthesis (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1975), 562.
3. Paul Lawrence Farber, The Temptations of Evolutionary Ethics (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994), 8, 175.
4. David Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature (Oxford: Clarendon, 1978), 469-70.
5. See Anthony Flew, "From Is to Ought," in The Sociobiology Debate, ed. Arthur L. Caplan (New York: Harper and Row, 1978), 142-62, and Elliott Sober, From a Biological Point of View: Essays in Evolutionary Philosophy (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 93-113. For a contrary view, see R. J. Richards, "A Defense of Evolutionary Ethics," Biology and Philosophy 1 (1986): 265-93. Roger Masters provides a fine critique of the debate in Roger D. Masters, Beyond Relativism: Science and Human Values (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1993).
6. See Anthony Flew, "From Is to Ought," in The Sociobiology Debate, ed. Arthur L. Caplan (New York: Harper and Row, 1978), 142-62, and Elliott Sober, From a Biological Point of View: Essays in Evolutionary Philosophy (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 93-113. For a contrary view, see R. J. Richards, "A Defense of Evolutionary Ethics," Biology and Philosophy 1 (1986): 265-93. Roger Masters provides a fine critique of the debate in Roger D. Masters, Beyond Relativism: Science and Human Values (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1993).
7. See Anthony Flew, "From Is to Ought," in The Sociobiology Debate, ed. Arthur L. Caplan (New York: Harper and Row, 1978), 142-62, and Elliott Sober, From a Biological Point of View: Essays in Evolutionary Philosophy (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 93-113. For a contrary view, see R. J. Richards, "A Defense of Evolutionary Ethics," Biology and Philosophy 1 (1986): 265-93. Roger Masters provides a fine critique of the debate in Roger D. Masters, Beyond Relativism: Science and Human Values (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1993).
8. See Anthony Flew, "From Is to Ought," in The Sociobiology Debate, ed. Arthur L. Caplan (New York: Harper and Row, 1978), 142-62, and Elliott Sober, From a Biological Point of View: Essays in Evolutionary Philosophy (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 93-113. For a contrary view, see R. J. Richards, "A Defense of Evolutionary Ethics," Biology and Philosophy 1 (1986): 265-93. Roger Masters provides a fine critique of the debate in Roger D. Masters, Beyond Relativism: Science and Human Values (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1993).
9. In his otherwise excellent discussion of the 'immanent teleology' found in nature, Larry Arnhart obscures this fact. See Larry Arnhart, Darwinian Natural Right: The Biological Ethics of Human Nature (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1998), 82-3, 238-48.
10. See, for instance, the numerous critiques and polemics of E. O. Wilson's work in Sociobiology Debate, ed. Caplan. Critical accounts of evolutionary ethics and its history are provided in Farber, Temptations of Evolutionary Ethics, and Michael Bradie, The Secret Chain: Evolution and Ethics (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1994).
11. See, for instance, the numerous critiques and polemics of E. O. Wilson's work in Sociobiology Debate, ed. Caplan. Critical accounts of evolutionary ethics and its history are provided in Farber, Temptations of Evolutionary Ethics, and Michael Bradie, The Secret Chain: Evolution and Ethics (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1994).
12. See, for instance, the numerous critiques and polemics of E. O. Wilson's work in Sociobiology Debate, ed. Caplan. Critical accounts of evolutionary ethics and its history are provided in Farber, Temptations of Evolutionary Ethics, and Michael Bradie, The Secret Chain: Evolution and Ethics (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1994).
13. Noam Chomsky, Reflections on Language (New York: Random House, 1975), 132. See also James Q. Wilson, The Moral Sense (New York: Free Press, 1993), 250-1.
14. Noam Chomsky, Reflections on Language (New York: Random House, 1975), 132. See also James Q. Wilson, The Moral Sense (New York: Free Press, 1993), 250-1.
15. The "good thing" about his country's peasants, Mao Tse-tung insisted, is that they were "blank." The Chinese people were like "A clean sheet of paper [that] has no blotches, and so the newest and most beautiful words can be written on it, the newest and most beautiful pictures can be painted on it." Quoted in Stuart R. Schram, The Political Thought of Mao Tse-Tung, rev. ed. (New York: Praeger, 1969), 352.
16. Daniel C. Dennett, Darwin's Dangerous Idea: Evolution and the Meanings of Life (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995), 346.
17. Alasdair MacIntyre, After Virtue: A Study in Moral Theory (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1981), 201. See also Alasdair MacIntyre, A Short History of Ethics (New York: Macmillan, 1966), 187.
18. Alasdair MacIntyre, After Virtue: A Study in Moral Theory (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1981), 201. See also Alasdair MacIntyre, A Short History of Ethics (New York: Macmillan, 1966), 187.
19. E. O. Wilson writes that the "evolutionary epic" is "probably the best myth we will ever have" (Edward O. Wilson, On Human Nature [Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1978], 200-1). The mythical aspect of evolutionary biology is tied, in part, to its inability fully to account for the gradualistic development of irreducibly complex systems, such as cells and sophisticated organs. The possibility that intelligent design (e.g., God) is involved in the genesis and development of life cannot be wholly dismissed, though it is entirely lacking in evidence. See Michael J. Behe, Darwin's Black Box: The Biochemical Challenge to Evolution (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996).
20. E. O. Wilson writes that the "evolutionary epic" is "probably the best myth we will ever have" (Edward O. Wilson, On Human Nature [Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1978], 200-1). The mythical aspect of evolutionary biology is tied, in part, to its inability fully to account for the gradualistic development of irreducibly complex systems, such as cells and sophisticated organs. The possibility that intelligent design (e.g., God) is involved in the genesis and development of life cannot be wholly dismissed, though it is entirely lacking in evidence. See Michael J. Behe, Darwin's Black Box: The Biochemical Challenge to Evolution (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996).
21. Fredric Jameson, Foreword to Jean-François Lyotard, The Postmodern Condition (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1984), xii.
22. Richard Dawkins, The Blind Watchmaker (New York: Norton, 1986), 21.
23. Stephen J. Gould, Bully for Brontosaurus: Reflections in Natural History (New York: Norton, 1991), 114.
24. Christopher Wills, The Runaway Brain (New York: Basic Books, 1993), 219.
25. Jacques Monod, Chance and Necessity: An Essay on the Natural Philosophy of Modern Biology, trans. Austryn Wainhouse (New York: Knopf, 1971), 118.
26. Joseph Ford, a physicist and chaos theorist, provided this definition. Quoted in James Gleick, Chaos: Making a New Science (New York: Penguin, 1987), 314.
27. See Michael Gazzaniga, Nature's Mind (New York: Basic Books, 1992), 134.
28. See Roger D. Masters and Margaret Gruter, eds., The Sense of Justice: Biological Foundations of Law (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1992).
29. See F. J. Ayala, "The Biological Roots of Morality," in Issues in Evolutionary Ethics, ed. Paul Thompson (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1995), 293-316.
30. Monod, Chance and Necessity, 128-37.
31. Roger D. Masters, The Nature of Politics (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1989), 26.
32. The chimpanzee brain, in contrast, reaches 80 percent of its adult size by thelime of birth. Other animals are even more viable at an earlier age. The length of time for which parental or social cooperation is necessary for the care of the young is reduced accordingly.
33. Cited in Masters, Nature of Politics, 35.
34. Clifford Geertz, The Interpretation of Cultures (New York: Basic Books, 1973), 49.
35. The patterns of behavior for procreation and the rearing of offspring of many animals, especially social insects and certain primates, go awry unless instinctual capacities are supplemented with appropriate socialization at an early age. See Arnhart, Darwinian Natural Right, 38, 57, 61, 87.
36. Robin Fox, The Search for Society (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1989), 31. Cited in The Sense of Justice, ed. Masters and Gruter, 303.
37. Robin Fox, The Search for Society (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1989), 31. Cited in The Sense of Justice, ed. Masters and Gruter, 303.
38. Wilson, On Human Nature, 78-9.
39. See Wilson, The Moral Sense, 165-90. See also Melvin Konner, The Tangled Wing: Biological Constraints on the Human Spirit (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1982), 111.
40. See Wilson, The Moral Sense, 165-90. See also Melvin Konner, The Tangled Wing: Biological Constraints on the Human Spirit (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1982), 111.
41. Dennett, Darwin's Dangerous Idea, 461.
42. See Donald Griffin, Animal Minds (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992), 10-11, and Gerald Edelman, Bright Air, Brilliant Fire: On the Matter of the Mind (New York: Basic Books, 1992), 123-5.
43. See Donald Griffin, Animal Minds (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992), 10-11, and Gerald Edelman, Bright Air, Brilliant Fire: On the Matter of the Mind (New York: Basic Books, 1992), 123-5.
44. Peter Singer, The Expanding Circle: Ethics and Sociobiology (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1981), 169. Irenäus Eibl-eibesfeldt makes a similar misstep in Human Ethology (New York: Aldine, 1989), 90.
45. Peter Singer, The Expanding Circle: Ethics and Sociobiology (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1981), 169. Irenäus Eibl-eibesfeldt makes a similar misstep in Human Ethology (New York: Aldine, 1989), 90.
46. Antonio R. Damasio, Descartes' Error: Emotion, Reason and the Human Brain (New York: G. P. Putnam, 1994).
47. Singer, Expanding Circle, 71.
48. Del Thiessen, Bittersweet Destiny: The Stormy Evolution of Human Behavior (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 1996), 275.
49. The human brain is made up of 1,011 neural cells with at least 1,015 synaptic connections. See Edelman, Bright Air, Brilliant Fire, 166, and Paul M. Churchland, The Engine of Reason, the Seat of the Soul: A Philosophical Journey into the Brain (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1995), 4, 321.
50. The human brain is made up of 1,011 neural cells with at least 1,015 synaptic connections. See Edelman, Bright Air, Brilliant Fire, 166, and Paul M. Churchland, The Engine of Reason, the Seat of the Soul: A Philosophical Journey into the Brain (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1995), 4, 321.
51. Wilson, The Moral Sense, 122, 218-19.
52. William H. Durham, Coevolution: Genes, Culture and Human Diversity (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1991), 467.
53. Richard Dawkins, The Selfish Gene, new ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989), 20.
54. Ibid., 2.
55. Most of the genes on our chromosomes, over 90 percent, are relatively invariant. They are what make us human. The small portion of genes that vary from individual to individual provides for all the biological differences in humans. Hence it is closer to the truth to say that siblings, for example, have one-half of their genes in common above and beyond the more than 90 percent they already share with the rest of humankind.
56. Dawkins, Selfish Gene, 128.
57. William D. Hamilton, "The Genetical Evolution of Social Behavior," Journal of Theoretical Biology 7 (1964): 1-52.
58. Edmund Burke, Reflections on the Revolution in France (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1961), 59.
59. Richard Alexander, The Biology of Moral Systems (New York: Aldine, 1987), 80.
60. Garrett Hardin, The Limits of Altruism: An Ecologist's View of Survival (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1977), 132-3.
61. Konner, Tangled Wing, 27, 28.
62. Cited in Masters, Nature of Politics, 121.
63. Daniel C. Dennett, Consciousness Explained (Boston: Little, Brown, 1991), 190.
64. See Del Thiessen, Bittersweet Destiny,esp. 194-202. See also Gazzaniga, Nature's Mind.
65. See Del Thiessen, Bittersweet Destiny,esp. 194-202. See also Gazzaniga, Nature's Mind.
66. Margaret Gruter, "An Ethological Perspective on Law and Biology," in The Sense of Justice, ed. Masters and Gruter, 100.
67. Singer, Expanding Circle, 131.
68. Dawkins, Selfish Gene, 332.
69. Quoted in Steven Pinker, The Language Instinct (New York: William Morrow, 1994), 20.
70. Dawkins, Selfish Gene, 3 and cf. 139.
71. Arnhart, Darwinian Natural Right, 87.
72. What Dawkins calls memes, Wilson and Lumsden call culturgens. Charles Lumsden and Edward O. Wilson, Genes, Mind and Culture: The Coevolutionary Process (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1981).
73. Richard Shelly Hartigan, The Future Remembered: An Essay in Biopolitics (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1988), 85. See also Wilson, On Human Nature, 167.
74. Richard Shelly Hartigan, The Future Remembered: An Essay in Biopolitics (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1988), 85. See also Wilson, On Human Nature, 167.
75. Stephen Toulmin, The Return to Cosmology: Postmodern Science and the Theology of Nature (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982), 174.
76. Roger Masters adapts the Dawkinsian notion of a "meme pool" in the direction of linguistics and suggests the term "symbol pool." Masters writes: "A human sociocultural system based on a shared language is thus the functional analog for the species in organic evolution. Just as any biological species can be analyzed in terms of its gene pool and the relative frequency of various alleles or gene combinations within it, so any culture could be described in terms of a 'symbol pool' - that is, the variety and statistical distribution of verbal or cultural symbols shared by a human population. Like genes, which are templates or programs for converting energy and matter into organic cells and behavior, symbols are templates or programs for converting energy and matter into cultural artifacts and behavior." Roger D. Masters, The Nature of Politics (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1989), 109.
77. See R. Lewontin, "The Units of Selection," Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 1 (1970): 1-14, and Elliott Sober, The Nature of Selection: Evolutionary Theory in Philosophical Focus (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1984), 331-4.
78. See R. Lewontin, "The Units of Selection," Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 1 (1970): 1-14, and Elliott Sober, The Nature of Selection: Evolutionary Theory in Philosophical Focus (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1984), 331-4.
79. Likewise, the bubonic plague of the fourteenth century, which killed about a third of Europe's population before subsiding, appears to have become less virulent in time.
80. To the extent that economic growth arises not from an increase in the consumption of raw materials and energy but from increased services that do not degrade the environment, there is no ecological reason to condemn it. In turn, economic growth that ensues from increases in the value of goods bought and sold may be benign if, say, more expensive biodegradables are substituted for less expensive materials that would create unmanageable waste streams. Most of today's economic growth, however, is unsustainable.
81. N. Bischof, "On the Phylogeny of Human Morality," in Morality as a Biological Phenomenon: The Presuppositions of Sociobiological Research, ed. Gunther S. Stent (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980), 56-7. Certain animals, vampire bats and higher primates for example, display what Robert Trivers calls "reciprocal altruism." Individuals receive a benefit, say food or grooming, that is costly to the performer. Performers then expect and generally receive a benefit in return at some later time. In the absence of reciprocation among higher primates, performers may display what is called "moralistic aggression." See Robert L. Trivers, "The Evolution of Reciprocal Altruism," Quarterly Review of Biology 46 (1971): 35-57. See also Frans de Waal, Good Natured: The Origins of Right and Wrong in Humans and Other Animals (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1996), 24-7.
82. N. Bischof, "On the Phylogeny of Human Morality," in Morality as a Biological Phenomenon: The Presuppositions of Sociobiological Research, ed. Gunther S. Stent (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980), 56-7. Certain animals, vampire bats and higher primates for example, display what Robert Trivers calls "reciprocal altruism." Individuals receive a benefit, say food or grooming, that is costly to the performer. Performers then expect and generally receive a benefit in return at some later time. In the absence of reciprocation among higher primates, performers may display what is called "moralistic aggression." See Robert L. Trivers, "The Evolution of Reciprocal Altruism," Quarterly Review of Biology 46 (1971): 35-57. See also Frans de Waal, Good Natured: The Origins of Right and Wrong in Humans and Other Animals (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1996), 24-7.
83. N. Bischof, "On the Phylogeny of Human Morality," in Morality as a Biological Phenomenon: The Presuppositions of Sociobiological Research, ed. Gunther S. Stent (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980), 56-7. Certain animals, vampire bats and higher primates for example, display what Robert Trivers calls "reciprocal altruism." Individuals receive a benefit, say food or grooming, that is costly to the performer. Performers then expect and generally receive a benefit in return at some later time. In the absence of reciprocation among higher primates, performers may display what is called "moralistic aggression." See Robert L. Trivers, "The Evolution of Reciprocal Altruism," Quarterly Review of Biology 46 (1971): 35-57. See also Frans de Waal, Good Natured: The Origins of Right and Wrong in Humans and Other Animals (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1996), 24-7.
84. Hardin, Limits of Altruism, 26.
85. Aldo Leopold, A Sand County Almanac, with Essays on Conservation from Round River (New York: Balantine, 1966), 239.
86. Ibid., 239.
87. Anthony Quinton, "Ethics and the Theory of Evolution," in The Sociobiology Debate, ed. Caplan, 141.
88. See Lynn White Jr., "The Historical Roots of Our Ecological Crisis," Science 155 (March 10, 1967): 1203-7.
89. Andrew Greeley, "Religion and Attitudes toward the Environment," Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 32, no. 1 (March 1993): 19-28; Willett Kempton, James Boster, and Jennifer Hartley, Environmental Values in American Culture (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1995), 87-91.
90. Andrew Greeley, "Religion and Attitudes toward the Environment," Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 32, no. 1 (March 1993): 19-28; Willett Kempton, James Boster, and Jennifer Hartley, Environmental Values in American Culture (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1995), 87-91.
91. See Victor B. Scheffer, The Shaping of Environmentalism in America (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1991), 14; Gregg Easterbrook, A Moment on the Earth: The Coming Age of Environmental Optimism (New York: Viking, 1995), 133; Amicus Journal, spring 1995, 12, fall 1995, 32; Friends of the Earth, January/February 1996, 6; Outside, June 1996, 30; Sierra, November/December 1998, 50-63,76-83; Charlene Spretnak, The Spiritual Dimensions of Green Politics (Santa Fe, NM: Bear, 1986), esp. 66-9; John E. Carroll, Paul Brockelman, and Mary Westfall, eds., The Greening of Faith: God, the Environment, and the Good Life (Durham: University of New Hampshire Press, 1996).
92. See Victor B. Scheffer, The Shaping of Environmentalism in America (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1991), 14; Gregg Easterbrook, A Moment on the Earth: The Coming Age of Environmental Optimism (New York: Viking, 1995), 133; Amicus Journal, spring 1995, 12, fall 1995, 32; Friends of the Earth, January/February 1996, 6; Outside, June 1996, 30; Sierra, November/December 1998, 50-63,76-83; Charlene Spretnak, The Spiritual Dimensions of Green Politics (Santa Fe, NM: Bear, 1986), esp. 66-9; John E. Carroll, Paul Brockelman, and Mary Westfall, eds., The Greening of Faith: God, the Environment, and the Good Life (Durham: University of New Hampshire Press, 1996).
93. See Victor B. Scheffer, The Shaping of Environmentalism in America (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1991), 14; Gregg Easterbrook, A Moment on the Earth: The Coming Age of Environmental Optimism (New York: Viking, 1995), 133; Amicus Journal, spring 1995, 12, fall 1995, 32; Friends of the Earth, January/February 1996, 6; Outside, June 1996, 30; Sierra, November/December 1998, 50-63,76-83; Charlene Spretnak, The Spiritual Dimensions of Green Politics (Santa Fe, NM: Bear, 1986), esp. 66-9; John E. Carroll, Paul Brockelman, and Mary Westfall, eds., The Greening of Faith: God, the Environment, and the Good Life (Durham: University of New Hampshire Press, 1996).
94. See Victor B. Scheffer, The Shaping of Environmentalism in America (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1991), 14; Gregg Easterbrook, A Moment on the Earth: The Coming Age of Environmental Optimism (New York: Viking, 1995), 133; Amicus Journal, spring 1995, 12, fall 1995, 32; Friends of the Earth, January/February 1996, 6; Outside, June 1996, 30; Sierra, November/December 1998, 50-63,76-83; Charlene Spretnak, The Spiritual Dimensions of Green Politics (Santa Fe, NM: Bear, 1986), esp. 66-9; John E. Carroll, Paul Brockelman, and Mary Westfall, eds., The Greening of Faith: God, the Environment, and the Good Life (Durham: University of New Hampshire Press, 1996).
95. See Victor B. Scheffer, The Shaping of Environmentalism in America (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1991), 14; Gregg Easterbrook, A Moment on the Earth: The Coming Age of Environmental Optimism (New York: Viking, 1995), 133; Amicus Journal, spring 1995, 12, fall 1995, 32; Friends of the Earth, January/February 1996, 6; Outside, June 1996, 30; Sierra, November/December 1998, 50-63,76-83; Charlene Spretnak, The Spiritual Dimensions of Green Politics (Santa Fe, NM: Bear, 1986), esp. 66-9; John E. Carroll, Paul Brockelman, and Mary Westfall, eds., The Greening of Faith: God, the Environment, and the Good Life (Durham: University of New Hampshire Press, 1996).
96. See Victor B. Scheffer, The Shaping of Environmentalism in America (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1991), 14; Gregg Easterbrook, A Moment on the Earth: The Coming Age of Environmental Optimism (New York: Viking, 1995), 133; Amicus Journal, spring 1995, 12, fall 1995, 32; Friends of the Earth, January/February 1996, 6; Outside, June 1996, 30; Sierra, November/December 1998, 50-63,76-83; Charlene Spretnak, The Spiritual Dimensions of Green Politics (Santa Fe, NM: Bear, 1986), esp. 66-9; John E. Carroll, Paul Brockelman, and Mary Westfall, eds., The Greening of Faith: God, the Environment, and the Good Life (Durham: University of New Hampshire Press, 1996).
97. See Victor B. Scheffer, The Shaping of Environmentalism in America (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1991), 14; Gregg Easterbrook, A Moment on the Earth: The Coming Age of Environmental Optimism (New York: Viking, 1995), 133; Amicus Journal, spring 1995, 12, fall 1995, 32; Friends of the Earth, January/February 1996, 6; Outside, June 1996, 30; Sierra, November/December 1998, 50-63,76-83; Charlene Spretnak, The Spiritual Dimensions of Green Politics (Santa Fe, NM: Bear, 1986), esp. 66-9; John E. Carroll, Paul Brockelman, and Mary Westfall, eds., The Greening of Faith: God, the Environment, and the Good Life (Durham: University of New Hampshire Press, 1996).
98. See Victor B. Scheffer, The Shaping of Environmentalism in America (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1991), 14; Gregg Easterbrook, A Moment on the Earth: The Coming Age of Environmental Optimism (New York: Viking, 1995), 133; Amicus Journal, spring 1995, 12, fall 1995, 32; Friends of the Earth, January/February 1996, 6; Outside, June 1996, 30; Sierra, November/December 1998, 50-63,76-83; Charlene Spretnak, The Spiritual Dimensions of Green Politics (Santa Fe, NM: Bear, 1986), esp. 66-9; John E. Carroll, Paul Brockelman, and Mary Westfall, eds., The Greening of Faith: God, the Environment, and the Good Life (Durham: University of New Hampshire Press, 1996).
99. Quoted in Philip Shabecoff, A Fierce Green Fire: The American Environmental Movement (New York: Hill and Wang, 1993), 127.
100. See Stephen J. Gould, "Nonoverlapping Magisteria," Natural History, March 1997, 16-22, 60-2.
101. Edward O. Wilson, Biophilia (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1984), 139. See also Stephen Kellert and Edward O. Wilson, eds., Biophilia Hypothesis (Washington, DC: Island Press, 1993).
102. Edward O. Wilson, Biophilia (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1984), 139. See also Stephen Kellert and Edward O. Wilson, eds., Biophilia Hypothesis (Washington, DC: Island Press, 1993).
103. Quoted in Trebbe Johnson, "The Second Creation Story: Redefining the Bond between Religion and Ecology," Sierra, November/December 1998, 54.
104. Arnhart, Darwinian Natural Right, 237.
105. Thiessen, Bittersweet Destiny, 285, 305.