State building and religious resources: An institutional theory of church-state relations in Iran and Mexico

Politics and Society

Volumn 27, Issue 3, 1999, Pages 431-465

  Gill, Anthony ^a   Keshavarzian, Arang ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0033467355     PISSN: 00323292     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0032329299027003006     Document Type: Article

References (150)

1. Samuel P. Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996).
2. See the first volume in the series, Martin E. Marty and R, Scott Appleby, eds., Fundamentalisms Observed (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991).
3. Secularization, as defined here, denotes the transfer of traditionally held religious functions and perquisites to secular leaders. See José Casanova, Public Religions in the Modern World (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994), 13. Such functions and privileges include the allocation and administration of judicial matters, education, documentation of life cycle events (e.g., birth, marriage, death), and social welfare responsibilities. So defined, secularization represents a decline in the sociolegal status of religion in society, rather than broader definitions of the concept that view it as a general decrease in religiosity within society. Cf. Anthony F. C. Wallace, Religion: An Anthropological View (New York: Random House, 1965).
4. Secularization, as defined here, denotes the transfer of traditionally held religious functions and perquisites to secular leaders. See José Casanova, Public Religions in the Modern World (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994), 13. Such functions and privileges include the allocation and administration of judicial matters, education, documentation of life cycle events (e.g., birth, marriage, death), and social welfare responsibilities. So defined, secularization represents a decline in the sociolegal status of religion in society, rather than broader definitions of the concept that view it as a general decrease in religiosity within society. Cf. Anthony F. C. Wallace, Religion: An Anthropological View (New York: Random House, 1965).
5. Samuel Huntington, Political Order in Changing Societies (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1968), 95.
6. Cf. Seymour Martin Lipset, "Some Social Requisites of Democracy: Economic Development and Political Legitimacy," American Political Science Review 53 (1959).
7. John O. Voll, "Fundamentalism in the Sunni Arab World: Egypt and the Sudan," in Martin E. Marty and R. Scott Appleby, eds., Fundamentalisms Observed (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), 352; Pablo A. Deiros, "Protestant Fundamentalism in Latin America," in Fundamentalisms Observed, 155.
8. John O. Voll, "Fundamentalism in the Sunni Arab World: Egypt and the Sudan," in Martin E. Marty and R. Scott Appleby, eds., Fundamentalisms Observed (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), 352; Pablo A. Deiros, "Protestant Fundamentalism in Latin America," in Fundamentalisms Observed, 155.
9. See Fatima Mernissi, Islam and Democracy: Fear of the Modern World (New York: Addison-Wesley, 1992); Martin E. Marty and R. Scott Appleby, eds., Fundamentalisms and the State: Remaking Polities, Economies and Militance (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993); Gilles Kepel, The Revenge of God: The Resurgence of Islam, Christianity and Judaism in the Modern World, trans. Alan Braley (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1994); Mark Juergensmeyer, "The New Religious State," Comparative Politics 27, no. 4 (1995): 379-91.
10. See Fatima Mernissi, Islam and Democracy: Fear of the Modern World (New York: Addison-Wesley, 1992); Martin E. Marty and R. Scott Appleby, eds., Fundamentalisms and the State: Remaking Polities, Economies and Militance (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993); Gilles Kepel, The Revenge of God: The Resurgence of Islam, Christianity and Judaism in the Modern World, trans. Alan Braley (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1994); Mark Juergensmeyer, "The New Religious State," Comparative Politics 27, no. 4 (1995): 379-91.
11. See Fatima Mernissi, Islam and Democracy: Fear of the Modern World (New York: Addison-Wesley, 1992); Martin E. Marty and R. Scott Appleby, eds., Fundamentalisms and the State: Remaking Polities, Economies and Militance (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993); Gilles Kepel, The Revenge of God: The Resurgence of Islam, Christianity and Judaism in the Modern World, trans. Alan Braley (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1994); Mark Juergensmeyer, "The New Religious State," Comparative Politics 27, no. 4 (1995): 379-91.
12. See Fatima Mernissi, Islam and Democracy: Fear of the Modern World (New York: Addison-Wesley, 1992); Martin E. Marty and R. Scott Appleby, eds., Fundamentalisms and the State: Remaking Polities, Economies and Militance (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993); Gilles Kepel, The Revenge of God: The Resurgence of Islam, Christianity and Judaism in the Modern World, trans. Alan Braley (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1994); Mark Juergensmeyer, "The New Religious State," Comparative Politics 27, no. 4 (1995): 379-91.
13. The term church typically implies a Christian understanding of religious organization. Non-Christian religious traditions (e.g., Islam) do not have the same organizational structure as Catholics or Protestants. For this reason, the term church may be somewhat misleading in this analysis given our partial focus on Islam. However, for rhetorical simplicity, the term church will be used to refer broadly to any religious organization.
14. Quoted in Donald N. Wilber, Riza Shah Pahlavi: The Resurrection and Reconstruction of Iran (Hicksville, NY: Exposition Press, 1975), 79.
15. Yahya Dowlatabadi, Hayat-i Yahya, vol. 4 (Tehran: 'Attar, 1982), 292.
16. Muhsin Sadr, Khatirat-I Sadre al-Ashraf (Tehran: Vahid, 1985).
17. Paul V. Murray, The Catholic Church in Mexico, vol. 1 (México, D.F.: Editorial E.P.M., 1965), 124.
18. See the more detailed historical discussion of each case below. It should be noted that Mexico underwent a period of state destruction and subsequent rebuilding during the 1910s and 1920s. A similar pattern of initial church-state cooperation (early 1910s), hostility (1917 to late 1920s), and normalization (1930s) occurred then.
19. Huntington, Political Order in Changing Societies, 95. Our conceptualization of "state building" is also consistent with Rueschemeyer and Evans's definition of the state as "a set of organizations invested with the authority to make binding decisions for people and organizations juridically located in a particular territory and to implement these decisions using, if necessary, force." Dietrich Rueschemeyer and Peter B. Evans, "The State and Economic Transformation: Toward an Analysis of the Conditions Underlying Effective Intervention," in Peter B. Evans, Dietrich Rueschemeyer, and Theda Skocpol, eds., Bringing the State Back In (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 46-47.
20. Huntington, Political Order in Changing Societies, 95. Our conceptualization of "state building" is also consistent with Rueschemeyer and Evans's definition of the state as "a set of organizations invested with the authority to make binding decisions for people and organizations juridically located in a particular territory and to implement these decisions using, if necessary, force." Dietrich Rueschemeyer and Peter B. Evans, "The State and Economic Transformation: Toward an Analysis of the Conditions Underlying Effective Intervention," in Peter B. Evans, Dietrich Rueschemeyer, and Theda Skocpol, eds., Bringing the State Back In (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 46-47.
21. See Adam Przeworski and Henry Teune, The Logic of Comparative Social Inquiry (New York: John Wiley, 1970).
22. Harry Eckstein, "Case Study and Theory in Political Science," in Fred I, Greestein and Nelson W. Polsby, eds., Handbook of Political Science, vol. 7 (Reading: Addison-Wesley, 1975).
23. Anthony Gill, Rendering unto Caesar: The Catholic Church and the State in Latin America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998).
24. Consult Stathis Kalyvas, "Religion and Transition: Belgium and Algeria" (paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Political Science Association, Washington, D.C., September 1997).
25. Douglass C. North, Structure and Change in Economic History (New York: Norton, 1981), 49.
26. Bryan R. Wilson, "Reflections on a Many Sided Controversy," in Steve Bruce, ed., Religion and Modernization: Sociologists and Historians Debate the Secularization Thesis (Oxford, UK: Clarendon, 1992), 202-3. See also Kalyvas, "Religion and Transition."
27. Bryan R. Wilson, "Reflections on a Many Sided Controversy," in Steve Bruce, ed., Religion and Modernization: Sociologists and Historians Debate the Secularization Thesis (Oxford, UK: Clarendon, 1992), 202-3. See also Kalyvas, "Religion and Transition."
28. Robert H. Bates, Avner Grief, Margaret Levi, Jean-Laurent Rosenthal, and Barry R. Weingast, Analytic Narratives (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998).
29. Wallace, Religion, 260-61. Emphasis added.
30. See Lawrence E. Harrison, Underdevelopment Is a State of Mind (Lanham, MD: Madison Books, 1985); Daniel Lerner, The Passing of Traditional Society: Modernizing the Middle East (New York: Free Press, 1964).
31. See Lawrence E. Harrison, Underdevelopment Is a State of Mind (Lanham, MD: Madison Books, 1985); Daniel Lerner, The Passing of Traditional Society: Modernizing the Middle East (New York: Free Press, 1964).
32. Casanova, Public Religions in the Modern World; Bruce, Religion and Modernization.
33. Casanova, Public Religions in the Modern World; Bruce, Religion and Modernization.
34. Hamid Algar, "The Oppositional Role of the Ulama in Twentieth-Century Iran," in Nikki R. Keddie, ed., Scholars, Saints, and Sufis: Muslim Religious Institutions in the Middle East Since 1500 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1972); Samuel P. Huntington, "Religion and the Third Wave," The National Interest 24 (1991): 29-42; Kepel, The Revenge of God; Deiros, "Protestant Fundamentalism in Latin America"; Voll, "Fundamentalism in the Sunni Arab World."
35. Hamid Algar, "The Oppositional Role of the Ulama in Twentieth-Century Iran," in Nikki R. Keddie, ed., Scholars, Saints, and Sufis: Muslim Religious Institutions in the Middle East Since 1500 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1972); Samuel P. Huntington, "Religion and the Third Wave," The National Interest 24 (1991): 29-42; Kepel, The Revenge of God; Deiros, "Protestant Fundamentalism in Latin America"; Voll, "Fundamentalism in the Sunni Arab World."
36. Hamid Algar, "The Oppositional Role of the Ulama in Twentieth-Century Iran," in Nikki R. Keddie, ed., Scholars, Saints, and Sufis: Muslim Religious Institutions in the Middle East Since 1500 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1972); Samuel P. Huntington, "Religion and the Third Wave," The National Interest 24 (1991): 29-42; Kepel, The Revenge of God; Deiros, "Protestant Fundamentalism in Latin America"; Voll, "Fundamentalism in the Sunni Arab World."
37. Hamid Algar, "The Oppositional Role of the Ulama in Twentieth-Century Iran," in Nikki R. Keddie, ed., Scholars, Saints, and Sufis: Muslim Religious Institutions in the Middle East Since 1500 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1972); Samuel P. Huntington, "Religion and the Third Wave," The National Interest 24 (1991): 29-42; Kepel, The Revenge of God; Deiros, "Protestant Fundamentalism in Latin America"; Voll, "Fundamentalism in the Sunni Arab World."
38. Hamid Algar, "The Oppositional Role of the Ulama in Twentieth-Century Iran," in Nikki R. Keddie, ed., Scholars, Saints, and Sufis: Muslim Religious Institutions in the Middle East Since 1500 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1972); Samuel P. Huntington, "Religion and the Third Wave," The National Interest 24 (1991): 29-42; Kepel, The Revenge of God; Deiros, "Protestant Fundamentalism in Latin America"; Voll, "Fundamentalism in the Sunni Arab World."
39. Juergensmeyer, "The New Religious State," 384. Emphasis added.
40. Austen Ivereigh, Catholicism and Politics in Argentina, 1810-1960 (New York: St. Martin's, 1995); Enrique Dussel, A History of the Church in Latin America: Colonialism to Liberation, trans. Alan Neely (Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans, 1981); J. Lloyd Mecham, Church and State in Latin America: A History of Politico-Ecclesiastical Relations (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1966).
41. Austen Ivereigh, Catholicism and Politics in Argentina, 1810-1960 (New York: St. Martin's, 1995); Enrique Dussel, A History of the Church in Latin America: Colonialism to Liberation, trans. Alan Neely (Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans, 1981); J. Lloyd Mecham, Church and State in Latin America: A History of Politico-Ecclesiastical Relations (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1966).
42. Austen Ivereigh, Catholicism and Politics in Argentina, 1810-1960 (New York: St. Martin's, 1995); Enrique Dussel, A History of the Church in Latin America: Colonialism to Liberation, trans. Alan Neely (Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans, 1981); J. Lloyd Mecham, Church and State in Latin America: A History of Politico-Ecclesiastical Relations (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1966).
43. Mernissi, Islam and Democracy; Bernard Lewis, The Political Language of Islam (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988); Hisham Sharabi, Neopartiarchy: A Theory of Distorted Change in Arab Society (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988); S. N. Eisenstadt, "The Kemalist Regime and Modernization: Some Comparative and Analytical Remarks," in Jacob M. Landau, ed., Ataturk and the Modernization of Turkey (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1984); James Bill, The Politics of Iran: Groups, Classes and Modernization (Columbus, OH: Charles E. Merrill, 1972).
44. Mernissi, Islam and Democracy; Bernard Lewis, The Political Language of Islam (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988); Hisham Sharabi, Neopartiarchy: A Theory of Distorted Change in Arab Society (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988); S. N. Eisenstadt, "The Kemalist Regime and Modernization: Some Comparative and Analytical Remarks," in Jacob M. Landau, ed., Ataturk and the Modernization of Turkey (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1984); James Bill, The Politics of Iran: Groups, Classes and Modernization (Columbus, OH: Charles E. Merrill, 1972).
45. Mernissi, Islam and Democracy; Bernard Lewis, The Political Language of Islam (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988); Hisham Sharabi, Neopartiarchy: A Theory of Distorted Change in Arab Society (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988); S. N. Eisenstadt, "The Kemalist Regime and Modernization: Some Comparative and Analytical Remarks," in Jacob M. Landau, ed., Ataturk and the Modernization of Turkey (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1984); James Bill, The Politics of Iran: Groups, Classes and Modernization (Columbus, OH: Charles E. Merrill, 1972).
46. Mernissi, Islam and Democracy; Bernard Lewis, The Political Language of Islam (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988); Hisham Sharabi, Neopartiarchy: A Theory of Distorted Change in Arab Society (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988); S. N. Eisenstadt, "The Kemalist Regime and Modernization: Some Comparative and Analytical Remarks," in Jacob M. Landau, ed., Ataturk and the Modernization of Turkey (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1984); James Bill, The Politics of Iran: Groups, Classes and Modernization (Columbus, OH: Charles E. Merrill, 1972).
47. We do not deny that ideas play important roles in conditioning individual and social behavior. Our argument is merely that strong institutional interests often trump ideological factors. Interestingly, it frequently may be the case that institutional change promotes ideological change, rather than vice versa (though the obverse is possible). For example, Mardin claims that during the late Ottoman era, the weakening of religious institutions led to "a growing number of persons in the religious estate were forced to focus on the primarily religious aspect of their vocation. Religion thus became more of a subject matter or a field of specialization than a pervasive social function. This, in turn, led a number of more intellectualistic [sic] clerics to begin to think of the role of religion to society. The trend emerged towards the end of the [eighteenth] century and produced a mode of argumentation in defense of religion which was entirely novel." Serif Mardin, Religion and Social Change in Modern Turkey: The Case of Bedizzaman Said Nursi (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1989), 112. In Latin America, the rise of socialism and evangelical Protestantism provoked the Catholic Church to rethink its relationship with the poor. See Gill, Rendering unto Caesar, and Anthony Gill, "The Economics of Evangelization," in Paul E. Sigmund, ed., Evangelization and Religious Freedom in Latin America (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1999).
48. We do not deny that ideas play important roles in conditioning individual and social behavior. Our argument is merely that strong institutional interests often trump ideological factors. Interestingly, it frequently may be the case that institutional change promotes ideological change, rather than vice versa (though the obverse is possible). For example, Mardin claims that during the late Ottoman era, the weakening of religious institutions led to "a growing number of persons in the religious estate were forced to focus on the primarily religious aspect of their vocation. Religion thus became more of a subject matter or a field of specialization than a pervasive social function. This, in turn, led a number of more intellectualistic [sic] clerics to begin to think of the role of religion to society. The trend emerged towards the end of the [eighteenth] century and produced a mode of argumentation in defense of religion which was entirely novel." Serif Mardin, Religion and Social Change in Modern Turkey: The Case of Bedizzaman Said Nursi (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1989), 112. In Latin America, the rise of socialism and evangelical Protestantism provoked the Catholic Church to rethink its relationship with the poor. See Gill, Rendering unto Caesar, and Anthony Gill, "The Economics of Evangelization," in Paul E. Sigmund, ed., Evangelization and Religious Freedom in Latin America (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1999).
49. We do not deny that ideas play important roles in conditioning individual and social behavior. Our argument is merely that strong institutional interests often trump ideological factors. Interestingly, it frequently may be the case that institutional change promotes ideological change, rather than vice versa (though the obverse is possible). For example, Mardin claims that during the late Ottoman era, the weakening of religious institutions led to "a growing number of persons in the religious estate were forced to focus on the primarily religious aspect of their vocation. Religion thus became more of a subject matter or a field of specialization than a pervasive social function. This, in turn, led a number of more intellectualistic [sic] clerics to begin to think of the role of religion to society. The trend emerged towards the end of the [eighteenth] century and produced a mode of argumentation in defense of religion which was entirely novel." Serif Mardin, Religion and Social Change in Modern Turkey: The Case of Bedizzaman Said Nursi (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1989), 112. In Latin America, the rise of socialism and evangelical Protestantism provoked the Catholic Church to rethink its relationship with the poor. See Gill, Rendering unto Caesar, and Anthony Gill, "The Economics of Evangelization," in Paul E. Sigmund, ed., Evangelization and Religious Freedom in Latin America (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1999).
50. North, Structure and Change, 45-58.
51. Consider the case of Getûlio Vargas in Brazil. Even though he was an avowed agnostic who audaciously named his two children Luther and Calvin (in a majority Catholic nation), Vargas substantially increased government subsidies to the Catholic Church. The same was true for the early years of Juan Peron's rule in Argentina. See Anthony Gill, "To Fall from Grace: The Church-State Obsolescing Bargain in Latin America" (paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Political Science Association, Washington, D.C., September 1993). For examples in the Middle East, see Tamir Moustafa, "Regulating Religion: Conflict and Cooperation between the State and Religious Institutions in Contemporary Egypt" (paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Political Science Association, Washington, D.C., September 1997) and Arang Keshavarzian, "From Holy Alliance to Enemy of Islam: A Political Economy Theory of Ulama-State Relations in Iran, 1921-1941" (master's thesis, University of Washington, 1996).
52. Consider the case of Getûlio Vargas in Brazil. Even though he was an avowed agnostic who audaciously named his two children Luther and Calvin (in a majority Catholic nation), Vargas substantially increased government subsidies to the Catholic Church. The same was true for the early years of Juan Peron's rule in Argentina. See Anthony Gill, "To Fall from Grace: The Church-State Obsolescing Bargain in Latin America" (paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Political Science Association, Washington, D.C., September 1993). For examples in the Middle East, see Tamir Moustafa, "Regulating Religion: Conflict and Cooperation between the State and Religious Institutions in Contemporary Egypt" (paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Political Science Association, Washington, D.C., September 1997) and Arang Keshavarzian, "From Holy Alliance to Enemy of Islam: A Political Economy Theory of Ulama-State Relations in Iran, 1921-1941" (master's thesis, University of Washington, 1996).
53. Consider the case of Getûlio Vargas in Brazil. Even though he was an avowed agnostic who audaciously named his two children Luther and Calvin (in a majority Catholic nation), Vargas substantially increased government subsidies to the Catholic Church. The same was true for the early years of Juan Peron's rule in Argentina. See Anthony Gill, "To Fall from Grace: The Church-State Obsolescing Bargain in Latin America" (paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Political Science Association, Washington, D.C., September 1993). For examples in the Middle East, see Tamir Moustafa, "Regulating Religion: Conflict and Cooperation between the State and Religious Institutions in Contemporary Egypt" (paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Political Science Association, Washington, D.C., September 1997) and Arang Keshavarzian, "From Holy Alliance to Enemy of Islam: A Political Economy Theory of Ulama-State Relations in Iran, 1921-1941" (master's thesis, University of Washington, 1996).
54. Despite calls for religious toleration and ecumenical relations with other faiths, the Vatican has pursued a two-pronged strategy on the issue of religious liberty. In countries where Catholicism is an expanding faith (e.g., Russia), the Holy See has called for greater religious freedom. On the other hand, where the Catholic Church holds a near monopoly yet is facing upstart competitors (e.g., Mexico), the Vatican has lobbied governments for greater restrictions on "foreign sects."
55. Gill, "The Economics of Evangelization."
56. Laurence R. Iannaccone, "Religious Practice: A Human Capital Approach," Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 29, no. 3 (1990): 297-314.
57. Robert B. Ekelund, Jr., Robert F. Hébert, and Robert D. Tollison, "An Economic Model of the Medieval Church: Usury as a Form of Rent Seeking," Journal of Law, Economics and Organization 5, no. 2 (1989): 309.
58. Barry Ames, Political Survival: Politicians and Public Policy in Latin America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987), 1.
59. See Margaret Levi, Of Rule and Revenue (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988). Levi puts this in terms of transaction costs and discount rates. Transaction costs are, in part, a function of governing experience. A ruler's discount rate is largely affected by the proximity and power of rivals, with a higher discount rate implying that political survival is increasingly being threatened by competitors. Although transaction costs and discount rates may be high at any period of a ruler's tenure, they are more likely to be high early in a leader's rule, ceteris paribus. New rulers are likely to bear higher transaction costs than more seasoned ones because they lack experience and are likely to be oriented toward short-term political gains due to the presence of competing rulers.
60. See Robert B. Ekelund, Robert F. Hébert, Robert D. Tollison, Gary M. Anderson, and Audrey B. Davidson, Sacred Trust: The Medieval Church as an Economic Firm (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996).
61. Bustav Thaiss, "The Bazaar as a Case Study of Religion and Social Change," in Ehsan Yar-Shater, ed., Iran Faces the Seventies (New York: Praeger, 1971), 190; Ekelund et al., Sacred Trust, 77; Jan Bazant, Alienation of Church Wealth in Mexico: Social and Economic Aspects of the Liberal Revolution, 1856-1875 (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1971).
62. Bustav Thaiss, "The Bazaar as a Case Study of Religion and Social Change," in Ehsan Yar-Shater, ed., Iran Faces the Seventies (New York: Praeger, 1971), 190; Ekelund et al., Sacred Trust, 77; Jan Bazant, Alienation of Church Wealth in Mexico: Social and Economic Aspects of the Liberal Revolution, 1856-1875 (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1971).
63. Bustav Thaiss, "The Bazaar as a Case Study of Religion and Social Change," in Ehsan Yar-Shater, ed., Iran Faces the Seventies (New York: Praeger, 1971), 190; Ekelund et al., Sacred Trust, 77; Jan Bazant, Alienation of Church Wealth in Mexico: Social and Economic Aspects of the Liberal Revolution, 1856-1875 (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1971).
64. Levi similarly notes that "[r]ulers will seek to control the supply of resources by either ensuring that they are a party to all exchange of resources or by eliminating rival suppliers." Of Rule and Revenue, 12.
65. Sociologists of religion have noted that the best predictor of adult religious participation is regular participation in religion as a child. See Iannaccone, "Religious Practice," for an economic explanation for this phenomenon based on Gary Becker's work on human capital.
66. Abram de Swaan, In Care of the State (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 1988), 88-117.
67. Keshavarzian, "From Holy Alliance to Enemy of Islam"; Ekelund et al., "An Economic Model of the Medieval Church."
68. Keshavarzian, "From Holy Alliance to Enemy of Islam"; Ekelund et al., "An Economic Model of the Medieval Church."
69. North, Structure and Change.
70. Arang Keshavarzian, "State-Building with and without the Ayatollahs: A Contractual Approach to Ulama-State Relations in Iran, 1921-1941" (paper presented at a conference entitled "Religion, Economics and Politics: Exploring the New Paradigm," University of Washington, June 1997); Timur Kuran, "Islamic Economics and the Islamic Subeconomy," Journal of Economic Perspectives 9, no. 4 (1995): 155-73.
71. Arang Keshavarzian, "State-Building with and without the Ayatollahs: A Contractual Approach to Ulama-State Relations in Iran, 1921-1941" (paper presented at a conference entitled "Religion, Economics and Politics: Exploring the New Paradigm," University of Washington, June 1997); Timur Kuran, "Islamic Economics and the Islamic Subeconomy," Journal of Economic Perspectives 9, no. 4 (1995): 155-73.
72. Lewis, The Political Language of Islam; Sharabi, Neopartiarchy; Merinissi, Islam and Democracy.
73. Lewis, The Political Language of Islam; Sharabi, Neopartiarchy; Merinissi, Islam and Democracy.
74. Lewis, The Political Language of Islam; Sharabi, Neopartiarchy; Merinissi, Islam and Democracy.
75. Nikki R. Keddie, Roots of Revolution: An Interpretive History of Modern Iran (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1981); Said Amir Arjomand, The Turban for the Crown: The Islamic Revolution in Iran (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 1988).
76. Nikki R. Keddie, Roots of Revolution: An Interpretive History of Modern Iran (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1981); Said Amir Arjomand, The Turban for the Crown: The Islamic Revolution in Iran (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 1988).
77. Algar, "The Oppositional Role of the Ulama in Twentieth-Century Iran," 231. For an early counterargument based on socioeconomic and institutional variables, see Joseph Eliash, "Misconceptions Regarding the Juridical Status of Iranian 'Ulama,'" International Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 10, no. 1 (1979): 9-25.
78. Algar, "The Oppositional Role of the Ulama in Twentieth-Century Iran," 231. For an early counterargument based on socioeconomic and institutional variables, see Joseph Eliash, "Misconceptions Regarding the Juridical Status of Iranian 'Ulama,'" International Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 10, no. 1 (1979): 9-25.
79. Said Amir Arjomand, The Shadow of God and the Hidden Imam: Religion, Political Order and Societyal Change in Shi'ite Iran from the Beginning to 1890 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984).
80. Yann Richard, Shiite Islam: Polity, Ideology, and Creed, trans. Antonia Nevill (Oxford, UK: Blackwell, 1995), 208.
81. See Shahrough Akhavi, Religion and Politics in Contemporary Iran (Albany, NY: SUNY Press, 1980); Arjomand, The Turban for the Crown; Keddie, Roots of Revolution.
82. See Shahrough Akhavi, Religion and Politics in Contemporary Iran (Albany, NY: SUNY Press, 1980); Arjomand, The Turban for the Crown; Keddie, Roots of Revolution.
83. Zahra Shaji'i, Namayandigan-i Majlis-e Shura-yi Melli dar 21 Duwreh-yi Qanunguzari: Mutali'i az Nazar-i Jami'i Shinasi-yi Siyasi (Tehran: Tehran University, 1965), 176.
84. Ni'matollah Qazi, 'Elal-e Suqut-i Hukumat-i Reza Shah (Tehran: Asar, 1993), 22.
85. Dowlatabadi, Hayat-i Yahya, 289-91; Muhammad Razi, Athar al-Hujja (Qom: Hikmat, 1953), 24-26; Abdul-Hadi Hairi, Shi'ism and Constitutionalism in Iran: A Study of the Role Played by the Persian Residents of Iraq in Iranian Politics (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1977), 126-28.
86. Dowlatabadi, Hayat-i Yahya, 289-91; Muhammad Razi, Athar al-Hujja (Qom: Hikmat, 1953), 24-26; Abdul-Hadi Hairi, Shi'ism and Constitutionalism in Iran: A Study of the Role Played by the Persian Residents of Iraq in Iranian Politics (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1977), 126-28.
87. Dowlatabadi, Hayat-i Yahya, 289-91; Muhammad Razi, Athar al-Hujja (Qom: Hikmat, 1953), 24-26; Abdul-Hadi Hairi, Shi'ism and Constitutionalism in Iran: A Study of the Role Played by the Persian Residents of Iraq in Iranian Politics (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1977), 126-28.
88. Akhavi, Religion and Politics, 29-30; Dowlatabadi, Hayat-i Yahya, chap. 36; Medi-Qoli Hedayat, Khatirat va Khatarat (Tehran: Kitabfurushi-yi Zavar, 1984), 362-67.
89. Akhavi, Religion and Politics, 29-30; Dowlatabadi, Hayat-i Yahya, chap. 36; Medi-Qoli Hedayat, Khatirat va Khatarat (Tehran: Kitabfurushi-yi Zavar, 1984), 362-67.
90. Akhavi, Religion and Politics, 29-30; Dowlatabadi, Hayat-i Yahya, chap. 36; Medi-Qoli Hedayat, Khatirat va Khatarat (Tehran: Kitabfurushi-yi Zavar, 1984), 362-67.
91. Ervand Abrahamian, Iran between Two Revolutions (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1982), 120-35.
92. Ahmad Ashraf, "Iran: Imperialism, Class and Modernization from Above" (Ph.D. diss., New School for Social Research, 1971), 194.
93. Keddie, Roots of Revolution, 87; Leonard Binder, Iran: Political Development in a Changing Society (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1962), 144.
94. Keddie, Roots of Revolution, 87; Leonard Binder, Iran: Political Development in a Changing Society (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1962), 144.
95. Hedayat, Khatirat va Khatarat, 377-78; Mohammad Faghfoory, "The Impact of Modernization on the Ulama in Iran, 1925-1941," Iranian Studies 26 (1993): 282.
96. Hedayat, Khatirat va Khatarat, 377-78; Mohammad Faghfoory, "The Impact of Modernization on the Ulama in Iran, 1925-1941," Iranian Studies 26 (1993): 282.
97. A. C. Millspaugh, The American Task in Persia (New York: The Century Co., 1925), 187.
98. Juliam Bharier, Economic Development in Iran 1900-1971 (London: Oxford University Press, 1971), 71-78.
99. Binder (Iran, 84) also cites 1928 as the point when Reza Shah's rule becomes more authoritarian.
100. Qazi, 'Elal-e Suquit-i Hukumat-i Reza Shah, 145-46; Wilber, Riza Shah Pahlavi, 117.
101. Qazi, 'Elal-e Suquit-i Hukumat-i Reza Shah, 145-46; Wilber, Riza Shah Pahlavi, 117.
102. Shaji'i, Namayandigan-i Majlis-e Shura-yi Melli dar 21 Duwreh-yi Qanunguzari, 176.
103. Qazi, 'Elal-e Suquit-i Hukumat-i Reza Shah; Razi, Athar al-Hujja; Sadr, Kharirat-i Sadre al-Ashraf,
104. Qazi, 'Elal-e Suquit-i Hukumat-i Reza Shah; Razi, Athar al-Hujja; Sadr, Kharirat-i Sadre al-Ashraf,
105. Qazi, 'Elal-e Suquit-i Hukumat-i Reza Shah; Razi, Athar al-Hujja; Sadr, Kharirat-i Sadre al-Ashraf,
106. Amin Banani, The Modernization of Iran: 1921-1941 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1961), 90.
107. David Menashari, Education and the Making of Modern Iran (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1992).
108. Banani, The Modernization of Iran, 92.
109. Sadr, Kharirat-i Sadre al-Ashraf, 293-95; Ann K. S. Lambton, Landlord and Peasant in Persia: A Study of Land Tenure and Land Revenue Administration (London: Oxford University Press, 1953), 185.
110. Sadr, Kharirat-i Sadre al-Ashraf, 293-95; Ann K. S. Lambton, Landlord and Peasant in Persia: A Study of Land Tenure and Land Revenue Administration (London: Oxford University Press, 1953), 185.
111. Banani, The Modernization of Iran, 72-73; see also Binder, Iran, 271-72 and 304.
112. Banani, The Modernization of Iran, 72-73; see also Binder, Iran, 271-72 and 304.
113. Wilem Floor, "Change and Development in the Judicial System of Qajar Iran (1800-1925)," in Edmund Bosworth and Carole Hillenbrand, eds., Qajar Iran: Political, Social and Cultural Change 1800-1925 (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1983), 129.
114. S. H. Amin, Middle East Legal Systems (Glasgow: Royston Limited, 1985), 63; Roy Mottahedeh, The Mantle of the Prophet: Religion and Politics in Iran (New York: Pantheon, 1985), 227.
115. S. H. Amin, Middle East Legal Systems (Glasgow: Royston Limited, 1985), 63; Roy Mottahedeh, The Mantle of the Prophet: Religion and Politics in Iran (New York: Pantheon, 1985), 227.
116. Lambton, Landlord and Peasant in Persia, 203.
117. Amin, Middle East Legal Systems, 62.
118. I say officially monopolized, for the ulama administered unofficial courts and arbitration hearings in the bazaars and rural areas. See Thaiss, "The Bazaar as a Case Study," 190. Until the Islamic revolution, mollahs functioned as the judges and arbitrators for those who had difficulties gaining equal access to the state system. Therefore, the ulama remained as providers of law for this limited (yet important) and expanding sector of society.
119. Gary King, Reobert O, Keohane, and Sidney Verba, Designing Social Inquiry: Scientific Inference in Qualitative Research (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1984).
120. José Guitérrez Casillas, Historia de la Iglesia en México (México, D.F.: Editorial Porrúa), 229-39.
121. Bazant, Alienation of Church Wealth, 12.
122. Ibid., 6-11. Interest rates are often a good indicator of political conditions. While commercial loans to private interests were between 12 and 24 percent per year, loans to the government were in the neighborhood of 24 percent per month during this period. It is quite obvious that financiers knew that the average life span of any single administration was less than twelve months and adjusted their rates accordingly.
123. Mecham, Church and State, 354.
124. Bazant, Alienation of Church Wealth, 14.
125. Ibid., 14-32.
126. It was also possible that Górmez Farías, who had earlier stated his loyalty to the church (see Murray, The Catholic Church in Mexico, 124), was acting strategically but simply miscalculated. The historical record makes this difficult to determine; thus we conservatively accept that the alternative ideational thesis holds some explanatory power in this instance.
127. Mecham, Church and State, 358.
128. Bazant, Alienation of Church Wealth, 14-31.
129. Kurt Bowen, Evangelism and Apostasy: The Evolution and Impact of Evangelicals in Modern Mexico (Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1996), 24.
130. Bazant, Alienation of Church Wealth, 25.
131. Gutiérrez Casillas, Historia de la Iglesia, 289-90.
132. Ibid., 290-93; Bazant, Alienation of Church Wealth, 52-65.
133. Ibid., 290-93; Bazant, Alienation of Church Wealth, 52-65.
134. Mecham, Church and State, 363.
135. Gutiérrez Casillas, Historia de la Iglesia, 296-300; Karl M. Schmitt, "Church and State in Mexico: A Corporatist Relationship," The Americas 40, no. 3 (1984): 366-68.
136. Gutiérrez Casillas, Historia de la Iglesia, 296-300; Karl M. Schmitt, "Church and State in Mexico: A Corporatist Relationship," The Americas 40, no. 3 (1984): 366-68.
137. Mecham, Church and State, 367.
138. Peter Lester Reich, Mexico's Hidden Revolution: The Catholic Church in Law and Politics since 1929 (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1995), 9.
139. Ibid., 9-10.
140. Jean Meyer, La Cristiada: El conflict entre la Iglesia y el estado, 1926-1929 (México, D.F.: Siglo veintiuno, 1973).
141. See James March and James Olsen, "The New Institutionalism: Organizational Factors in Political Life," American Political Science Review 78, no. 3 (1984): 734-50.
142. For introductory church-state histories of these countries during their relevant state-building periods, consult Daniel Crecelius, "Nonideological Responses of the Egyptian Ulama to Modernization," in Nikki R. Keddie, ed., Scholars, Saints, and Sufis: Muslim Religious Institutions in the Middle East since 1500 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1972); Mary P. Holleran, Church and State in Guatemala (New York: Columbia University Press, 1949); Robert W. Bialek, Catholic Politics: A History Based on Ecuador (New York: Vantage, 1963); Douglass Sullivan-González, Piety Power, and Politics: Religion and Nation Formation in Guatemala 1821-1871 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1998).
143. For introductory church-state histories of these countries during their relevant state-building periods, consult Daniel Crecelius, "Nonideological Responses of the Egyptian Ulama to Modernization," in Nikki R. Keddie, ed., Scholars, Saints, and Sufis: Muslim Religious Institutions in the Middle East since 1500 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1972); Mary P. Holleran, Church and State in Guatemala (New York: Columbia University Press, 1949); Robert W. Bialek, Catholic Politics: A History Based on Ecuador (New York: Vantage, 1963); Douglass Sullivan-González, Piety Power, and Politics: Religion and Nation Formation in Guatemala 1821-1871 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1998).
144. For introductory church-state histories of these countries during their relevant state-building periods, consult Daniel Crecelius, "Nonideological Responses of the Egyptian Ulama to Modernization," in Nikki R. Keddie, ed., Scholars, Saints, and Sufis: Muslim Religious Institutions in the Middle East since 1500 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1972); Mary P. Holleran, Church and State in Guatemala (New York: Columbia University Press, 1949); Robert W. Bialek, Catholic Politics: A History Based on Ecuador (New York: Vantage, 1963); Douglass Sullivan-González, Piety Power, and Politics: Religion and Nation Formation in Guatemala 1821-1871 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1998).
145. For introductory church-state histories of these countries during their relevant state-building periods, consult Daniel Crecelius, "Nonideological Responses of the Egyptian Ulama to Modernization," in Nikki R. Keddie, ed., Scholars, Saints, and Sufis: Muslim Religious Institutions in the Middle East since 1500 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1972); Mary P. Holleran, Church and State in Guatemala (New York: Columbia University Press, 1949); Robert W. Bialek, Catholic Politics: A History Based on Ecuador (New York: Vantage, 1963); Douglass Sullivan-González, Piety Power, and Politics: Religion and Nation Formation in Guatemala 1821-1871 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1998).
146. Crecelius, "Nonideological Responses," 177.
147. Cf. Gill, Rendering unto Caesar, 122-26.
148. Mary Douglas, How Institutions Think (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1986), 23-24.
149. Marty and Appleby, Fundamentalisms Observed; Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations.
150. Marty and Appleby, Fundamentalisms Observed; Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations.