American management consulting companies in Western Europe, 1920 to 1990: Products, reputation, and relationships

Business History Review

Volumn 73, Issue 2, 1999, Pages 190-220

  Kipping, Matthias ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0033465599     PISSN: 00076805     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/3116240     Document Type: Article

References (182)

1. See Geoffrey Jones, ed., Banks as Multinationals (London, 1990); Peter W. Daniels, Nigel J. Thrift and A. Leyshon, "Internationalisation of Professional Producer Services: Accountancy Conglomerates," in Multinational Service Finns, ed. Peter Enderwick (London, 1989), 79-106; Douglas West, "Multinational Competition in the British Advertising Agency Business, 1936-1987," Business History Review 62 (Autumn 1988): 467-501; Geoffrey Jones, ed. The Multinational Traders (London, 1998); for a general overview, see Geoffrey Jones, The Evolution of International Business (London, 1996), chap. 5.
2. See Geoffrey Jones, ed., Banks as Multinationals (London, 1990); Peter W. Daniels, Nigel J. Thrift and A. Leyshon, "Internationalisation of Professional Producer Services: Accountancy Conglomerates," in Multinational Service Finns, ed. Peter Enderwick (London, 1989), 79-106; Douglas West, "Multinational Competition in the British Advertising Agency Business, 1936-1987," Business History Review 62 (Autumn 1988): 467-501; Geoffrey Jones, ed. The Multinational Traders (London, 1998); for a general overview, see Geoffrey Jones, The Evolution of International Business (London, 1996), chap. 5.
3. See Geoffrey Jones, ed., Banks as Multinationals (London, 1990); Peter W. Daniels, Nigel J. Thrift and A. Leyshon, "Internationalisation of Professional Producer Services: Accountancy Conglomerates," in Multinational Service Finns, ed. Peter Enderwick (London, 1989), 79-106; Douglas West, "Multinational Competition in the British Advertising Agency Business, 1936-1987," Business History Review 62 (Autumn 1988): 467-501; Geoffrey Jones, ed. The Multinational Traders (London, 1998); for a general overview, see Geoffrey Jones, The Evolution of International Business (London, 1996), chap. 5.
4. See Geoffrey Jones, ed., Banks as Multinationals (London, 1990); Peter W. Daniels, Nigel J. Thrift and A. Leyshon, "Internationalisation of Professional Producer Services: Accountancy Conglomerates," in Multinational Service Finns, ed. Peter Enderwick (London, 1989), 79-106; Douglas West, "Multinational Competition in the British Advertising Agency Business, 1936-1987," Business History Review 62 (Autumn 1988): 467-501; Geoffrey Jones, ed. The Multinational Traders (London, 1998); for a general overview, see Geoffrey Jones, The Evolution of International Business (London, 1996), chap. 5.
5. See Geoffrey Jones, ed., Banks as Multinationals (London, 1990); Peter W. Daniels, Nigel J. Thrift and A. Leyshon, "Internationalisation of Professional Producer Services: Accountancy Conglomerates," in Multinational Service Finns, ed. Peter Enderwick (London, 1989), 79-106; Douglas West, "Multinational Competition in the British Advertising Agency Business, 1936-1987," Business History Review 62 (Autumn 1988): 467-501; Geoffrey Jones, ed. The Multinational Traders (London, 1998); for a general overview, see Geoffrey Jones, The Evolution of International Business (London, 1996), chap. 5.
6. See Ronald G. Havelock, Planning for Innovation: A Comparative Study of the Literature on the Dissemination and Utilization of Scientific Knowledge (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1969); Stephen R. Barley and Gideon Kunda, "Design and Devotion: Surges of Rational and Normative Ideologies in Managerial Discourse," Administrative Science Quarterly 37 (1992): 363-399; Patrick Fridenson, "La circulation internationale des modes manageriales," in L'invention de la gestion: Histoire et pratiques, eds. J. P. Bouilloud and B. P. Lecuyer (Paris, 1994), 81-89; and Mauro F. Guillén, Models of Management: Work, Authority, and Organization in a Comparative Perspective (Chicago, 1994).
7. See Ronald G. Havelock, Planning for Innovation: A Comparative Study of the Literature on the Dissemination and Utilization of Scientific Knowledge (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1969); Stephen R. Barley and Gideon Kunda, "Design and Devotion: Surges of Rational and Normative Ideologies in Managerial Discourse," Administrative Science Quarterly 37 (1992): 363-399; Patrick Fridenson, "La circulation internationale des modes manageriales," in L'invention de la gestion: Histoire et pratiques, eds. J. P. Bouilloud and B. P. Lecuyer (Paris, 1994), 81-89; and Mauro F. Guillén, Models of Management: Work, Authority, and Organization in a Comparative Perspective (Chicago, 1994).
8. See Ronald G. Havelock, Planning for Innovation: A Comparative Study of the Literature on the Dissemination and Utilization of Scientific Knowledge (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1969); Stephen R. Barley and Gideon Kunda, "Design and Devotion: Surges of Rational and Normative Ideologies in Managerial Discourse," Administrative Science Quarterly 37 (1992): 363-399; Patrick Fridenson, "La circulation internationale des modes manageriales," in L'invention de la gestion: Histoire et pratiques, eds. J. P. Bouilloud and B. P. Lecuyer (Paris, 1994), 81-89; and Mauro F. Guillén, Models of Management: Work, Authority, and Organization in a Comparative Perspective (Chicago, 1994).
9. See Ronald G. Havelock, Planning for Innovation: A Comparative Study of the Literature on the Dissemination and Utilization of Scientific Knowledge (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1969); Stephen R. Barley and Gideon Kunda, "Design and Devotion: Surges of Rational and Normative Ideologies in Managerial Discourse," Administrative Science Quarterly 37 (1992): 363-399; Patrick Fridenson, "La circulation internationale des modes manageriales," in L'invention de la gestion: Histoire et pratiques, eds. J. P. Bouilloud and B. P. Lecuyer (Paris, 1994), 81-89; and Mauro F. Guillén, Models of Management: Work, Authority, and Organization in a Comparative Perspective (Chicago, 1994).
10. See, for example, Thierry J. Novelle and Anna B. Dutka, International Trade in Business Services (Cambridge, Mass., 1988), chap. 3; Alexander Gerybadze, "Strategien der Europäisierung, Diversifikation und Integration im Management-Consulting," in Internationale Management-Beratung, ed. Wilhelm W. Wacker (Berlin, 1991), 23-49.
11. See, for example, Thierry J. Novelle and Anna B. Dutka, International Trade in Business Services (Cambridge, Mass., 1988), chap. 3; Alexander Gerybadze, "Strategien der Europäisierung, Diversifikation und Integration im Management-Consulting," in Internationale Management-Beratung, ed. Wilhelm W. Wacker (Berlin, 1991), 23-49.
12. Gareth P. Dyas and Heinz T. Thanheiser, The Emerging European Enterprise: Strategy and Structure in French and German Industry (London, 1976), 247; and Derek F. Channon, The Strategy and Structure of British Enterprises (London, 1973).
13. Gareth P. Dyas and Heinz T. Thanheiser, The Emerging European Enterprise: Strategy and Structure in French and German Industry (London, 1976), 247; and Derek F. Channon, The Strategy and Structure of British Enterprises (London, 1973).
14. See V-W. Mitchell, "Problems and Risks in the Purchasing of Consultancy Services," The Service Industries Journal 14 (1994): 315-39; Catherine Sauviat, "Le conseil: un marchéréseau singulier," in Relations de service, marchés de service, eds. Jean de Bandt and Jean Gadrey (Paris, 1994), 241-62; Timothy Clark, Managing Consultants: Consultancy as the Management of Impressions (Buckingham, 1995); and Andrew Sturdy, "The Consultancy Process - An Insecure Business," Journal of Management Studies 34:3 (May 1997): 389-413.
15. See V-W. Mitchell, "Problems and Risks in the Purchasing of Consultancy Services," The Service Industries Journal 14 (1994): 315-39; Catherine Sauviat, "Le conseil: un marchéréseau singulier," in Relations de service, marchés de service, eds. Jean de Bandt and Jean Gadrey (Paris, 1994), 241-62; Timothy Clark, Managing Consultants: Consultancy as the Management of Impressions (Buckingham, 1995); and Andrew Sturdy, "The Consultancy Process - An Insecure Business," Journal of Management Studies 34:3 (May 1997): 389-413.
16. See V-W. Mitchell, "Problems and Risks in the Purchasing of Consultancy Services," The Service Industries Journal 14 (1994): 315-39; Catherine Sauviat, "Le conseil: un marchéréseau singulier," in Relations de service, marchés de service, eds. Jean de Bandt and Jean Gadrey (Paris, 1994), 241-62; Timothy Clark, Managing Consultants: Consultancy as the Management of Impressions (Buckingham, 1995); and Andrew Sturdy, "The Consultancy Process - An Insecure Business," Journal of Management Studies 34:3 (May 1997): 389-413.
17. See V-W. Mitchell, "Problems and Risks in the Purchasing of Consultancy Services," The Service Industries Journal 14 (1994): 315-39; Catherine Sauviat, "Le conseil: un marchéréseau singulier," in Relations de service, marchés de service, eds. Jean de Bandt and Jean Gadrey (Paris, 1994), 241-62; Timothy Clark, Managing Consultants: Consultancy as the Management of Impressions (Buckingham, 1995); and Andrew Sturdy, "The Consultancy Process - An Insecure Business," Journal of Management Studies 34:3 (May 1997): 389-413.
18. Paula Kyrö, The Management Consulting Industry Described by Using the Concept of "Profession" (Helsinki, 1995).
19. See Eric Abrahamson, "Management Fashion," Academy of Management Review 21 (1996): 254-85; for the historical succession of different trends, see Barley and Kunda, "Design and Devotion," and Andrzej A. Huczynski, Management Gurus (London, 1993), chap. 4; for an example of how these approaches become commodities, see Robin Fincham, "Business Process Reeingineering and the Commodification of Managerial Knowledge," Journal of Marketing Management 11 (1996): 707-19; and also Jos Benders, Robert-Jan van den Berg and Mark van Bijsterveld, "Hitch-Hiking on a Hype: Dutch Consultants Engineering Re-Engineering," Journal of Organizational Change Management 11:3 (1998): 201-15.
20. See Eric Abrahamson, "Management Fashion," Academy of Management Review 21 (1996): 254-85; for the historical succession of different trends, see Barley and Kunda, "Design and Devotion," and Andrzej A. Huczynski, Management Gurus (London, 1993), chap. 4; for an example of how these approaches become commodities, see Robin Fincham, "Business Process Reeingineering and the Commodification of Managerial Knowledge," Journal of Marketing Management 11 (1996): 707-19; and also Jos Benders, Robert-Jan van den Berg and Mark van Bijsterveld, "Hitch-Hiking on a Hype: Dutch Consultants Engineering Re-Engineering," Journal of Organizational Change Management 11:3 (1998): 201-15.
21. See Eric Abrahamson, "Management Fashion," Academy of Management Review 21 (1996): 254-85; for the historical succession of different trends, see Barley and Kunda, "Design and Devotion," and Andrzej A. Huczynski, Management Gurus (London, 1993), chap. 4; for an example of how these approaches become commodities, see Robin Fincham, "Business Process Reeingineering and the Commodification of Managerial Knowledge," Journal of Marketing Management 11 (1996): 707-19; and also Jos Benders, Robert-Jan van den Berg and Mark van Bijsterveld, "Hitch-Hiking on a Hype: Dutch Consultants Engineering Re-Engineering," Journal of Organizational Change Management 11:3 (1998): 201-15.
22. See Eric Abrahamson, "Management Fashion," Academy of Management Review 21 (1996): 254-85; for the historical succession of different trends, see Barley and Kunda, "Design and Devotion," and Andrzej A. Huczynski, Management Gurus (London, 1993), chap. 4; for an example of how these approaches become commodities, see Robin Fincham, "Business Process Reeingineering and the Commodification of Managerial Knowledge," Journal of Marketing Management 11 (1996): 707-19; and also Jos Benders, Robert-Jan van den Berg and Mark van Bijsterveld, "Hitch-Hiking on a Hype: Dutch Consultants Engineering Re-Engineering," Journal of Organizational Change Management 11:3 (1998): 201-15.
23. See Eric Abrahamson, "Management Fashion," Academy of Management Review 21 (1996): 254-85; for the historical succession of different trends, see Barley and Kunda, "Design and Devotion," and Andrzej A. Huczynski, Management Gurus (London, 1993), chap. 4; for an example of how these approaches become commodities, see Robin Fincham, "Business Process Reeingineering and the Commodification of Managerial Knowledge," Journal of Marketing Management 11 (1996): 707-19; and also Jos Benders, Robert-Jan van den Berg and Mark van Bijsterveld, "Hitch-Hiking on a Hype: Dutch Consultants Engineering Re-Engineering," Journal of Organizational Change Management 11:3 (1998): 201-15.
24. See Michael E. Porter, Competitive Advantage: Creating and Sustaining Superior Performance (New York, 1985), 139.
25. According to interviews with former consultants and industry experts, repeat business with existing clients accounts for between 60 and 80 percent of the revenue for most successful consultancies. In part this is due to the fact that clients face significant transaction costs when they search for, or switch to, a new firm.
26. See David H. Maister, "Balancing the Professional Service Firm," Sloan Management Review (Fall 1982): 15-29.
27. On intermediate and hybrid modes in general, see Oliver E. Williamson, The Economic Institutions of Capitalism: Firms, Markets, Relational Contracting (New York, 1985); and Walter W. Powell, "Neither Market Nor Hierarchy: Network Forms of Organization," Research in Organizational Behaviour 12 (1990): 295-336. For consulting organizations in particular, see Ulrich Becker and Christian Schade, "Betriebsformen der Unteniehmensberatung," Zeitschrift für betriebswirtschaftliche Forschung 47 (Apr. 1995): 327-54.
28. On intermediate and hybrid modes in general, see Oliver E. Williamson, The Economic Institutions of Capitalism: Firms, Markets, Relational Contracting (New York, 1985); and Walter W. Powell, "Neither Market Nor Hierarchy: Network Forms of Organization," Research in Organizational Behaviour 12 (1990): 295-336. For consulting organizations in particular, see Ulrich Becker and Christian Schade, "Betriebsformen der Unteniehmensberatung," Zeitschrift für betriebswirtschaftliche Forschung 47 (Apr. 1995): 327-54.
29. On intermediate and hybrid modes in general, see Oliver E. Williamson, The Economic Institutions of Capitalism: Firms, Markets, Relational Contracting (New York, 1985); and Walter W. Powell, "Neither Market Nor Hierarchy: Network Forms of Organization," Research in Organizational Behaviour 12 (1990): 295-336. For consulting organizations in particular, see Ulrich Becker and Christian Schade, "Betriebsformen der Unteniehmensberatung," Zeitschrift für betriebswirtschaftliche Forschung 47 (Apr. 1995): 327-54.
30. For example, in the case of Australia, see Chris Wright, "From Shopfloor to Boardroom: The Historical Evolution of Australian Management Consulting," Business History (forthcoming); see also "Trimming the Fat: A Survey of Management Consultancy," The Economist, 22 Mar. 1997.
31. For example, in the case of Australia, see Chris Wright, "From Shopfloor to Boardroom: The Historical Evolution of Australian Management Consulting," Business History (forthcoming); see also "Trimming the Fat: A Survey of Management Consultancy," The Economist, 22 Mar. 1997.
32. I am especially indebted to John E. Pleming, who made his extensive collection of personal papers available to me. He is the son of Norman Pleming, who in 1927 became the first British national to join the Bedaux Consultancy and in 1939 became its managing director. I am also grateful to former consultants and executives who agreed to share their experience of the industry with me, namely Len Brooks, Sir Alcon Copisarow, Gerhard Kienbaum, E. N. B. Mitton, and Dr. Helmut Wolf.
33. For the origins and the diffusion of Taylorism, see Lyndall Urwick and E. F. L. Brech, The Making of Scientific Management, 3 vols. (London, 1945-6); Judith A. Merkle, Management and Ideology: The Legacy of the International Scientific Management Movement (Berkelev, Calif. 1982); Daniel Nelson, ed. A Mental Resolution: Scientific Management Since Taylor (Columbus, Ohio. 1992); and Guillén, Models of Management.
34. For the origins and the diffusion of Taylorism, see Lyndall Urwick and E. F. L. Brech, The Making of Scientific Management, 3 vols. (London, 1945-6); Judith A. Merkle, Management and Ideology: The Legacy of the International Scientific Management Movement (Berkelev, Calif. 1982); Daniel Nelson, ed. A Mental Resolution: Scientific Management Since Taylor (Columbus, Ohio. 1992); and Guillén, Models of Management.
35. For the origins and the diffusion of Taylorism, see Lyndall Urwick and E. F. L. Brech, The Making of Scientific Management, 3 vols. (London, 1945-6); Judith A. Merkle, Management and Ideology: The Legacy of the International Scientific Management Movement (Berkelev, Calif. 1982); Daniel Nelson, ed. A Mental Resolution: Scientific Management Since Taylor (Columbus, Ohio. 1992); and Guillén, Models of Management.
36. For the origins and the diffusion of Taylorism, see Lyndall Urwick and E. F. L. Brech, The Making of Scientific Management, 3 vols. (London, 1945-6); Judith A. Merkle, Management and Ideology: The Legacy of the International Scientific Management Movement (Berkelev, Calif. 1982); Daniel Nelson, ed. A Mental Resolution: Scientific Management Since Taylor (Columbus, Ohio. 1992); and Guillén, Models of Management.
37. Gilbreth's work for the Auer Electric Company of Berlin in 1914-15 is mentioned by Guillén, Models of Management, 119; for their activities in Britain, see Patricia Tisdall, Agents of Change: The Development and Practice of Management Consultancy (London, 1982), 16-20.
38. Gilbreth's work for the Auer Electric Company of Berlin in 1914-15 is mentioned by Guillén, Models of Management, 119; for their activities in Britain, see Patricia Tisdall, Agents of Change: The Development and Practice of Management Consultancy (London, 1982), 16-20.
39. Hamilton Emerson, Efficiency as a Basis for Operation and Wages (New York, 1909) and The Twelve Principles of Efficiency, (New York, 1912). For information on Emerson's offices, see Emerson Company, A Comparative Study of Wage and Bonus Plans (New York, 1917). A copy can be found in Baker Library at Harvard Business School.
40. Hamilton Emerson, Efficiency as a Basis for Operation and Wages (New York, 1909) and The Twelve Principles of Efficiency, (New York, 1912). For information on Emerson's offices, see Emerson Company, A Comparative Study of Wage and Bonus Plans (New York, 1917). A copy can be found in Baker Library at Harvard Business School.
41. Hamilton Emerson, Efficiency as a Basis for Operation and Wages (New York, 1909) and The Twelve Principles of Efficiency, (New York, 1912). For information on Emerson's offices, see Emerson Company, A Comparative Study of Wage and Bonus Plans (New York, 1917). A copy can be found in Baker Library at Harvard Business School.
42. For Morinni's "apprenticeship" in the U.S., see Jim Christy, The Price of Power: A Biography of Charles Eugene Bedaux (Toronto, 1984); for his activities in France, see Aimée Moutet, "Les origines du système de Taylor en France. Le point de vue patronal (1907-1914)," Le mouvement social 93 (Oct.-Dec. 1975): 15-49.
43. For Morinni's "apprenticeship" in the U.S., see Jim Christy, The Price of Power: A Biography of Charles Eugene Bedaux (Toronto, 1984); for his activities in France, see Aimée Moutet, "Les origines du système de Taylor en France. Le point de vue patronal (1907-1914)," Le mouvement social 93 (Oct.-Dec. 1975): 15-49.
44. For details and additional references, see Bruce Kogut and David Parkinson, "The Diffusion of American Organizing Principles to Europe," in Country Competitiveness, ed. Bruce Kogut (Oxford, 1993), 179-202; and Matthias Kipping, "Consultancies, Institutions and the Diffusion of Taylorism in Britain, Germany and France, 1920s to 1950s," Business History 37: 4 (Oct. 1997): 66-82.
45. For details and additional references, see Bruce Kogut and David Parkinson, "The Diffusion of American Organizing Principles to Europe," in Country Competitiveness, ed. Bruce Kogut (Oxford, 1993), 179-202; and Matthias Kipping, "Consultancies, Institutions and the Diffusion of Taylorism in Britain, Germany and France, 1920s to 1950s," Business History 37: 4 (Oct. 1997): 66-82.
46. For an overview, see Mira Wilkins, The Maturing of Multinational Enterprise: American Business Abroad from 1914 to 1970 (Cambridge, Mass., 1974), esp. Tables III.l and VII.2; and Jones, The Evolution of International Business, 29-41, 107-12; for Britain, see Geoffrey Jones and Frances BostocK, "U.S. Multinationals in British Manufacturing before 1962," Business History Review 70 (Summer 1996): 207-56.
47. For an overview, see Mira Wilkins, The Maturing of Multinational Enterprise: American Business Abroad from 1914 to 1970 (Cambridge, Mass., 1974), esp. Tables III.l and VII.2; and Jones, The Evolution of International Business, 29-41, 107-12; for Britain, see Geoffrey Jones and Frances BostocK, "U.S. Multinationals in British Manufacturing before 1962," Business History Review 70 (Summer 1996): 207-56.
48. For an overview, see Mira Wilkins, The Maturing of Multinational Enterprise: American Business Abroad from 1914 to 1970 (Cambridge, Mass., 1974), esp. Tables III.l and VII.2; and Jones, The Evolution of International Business, 29-41, 107-12; for Britain, see Geoffrey Jones and Frances BostocK, "U.S. Multinationals in British Manufacturing before 1962," Business History Review 70 (Summer 1996): 207-56.
49. For details, see Janet Flanner, "Annals of Collaboration: Equivalism I-III," The New Yorker 21 (22 Sept. 1945): 28-47; (6 Oct. 1945): 32-45; and (13 Oct. 1945): 32-48; Gaston Bedaux, La vie ardente de Charles E. Bedaux (Paris, 1979); Christy, The Price of Power. All of these works focus on his private life and his alleged, but not proven, collaboration with the Nazis during World War II; see also Karsten Linne, "Ein amerikanischer Geschäftsmann und die Nationalsozialisten: Charles Bedaux," Zeitschrift für Geschichtswissenschaft 44 (1996): 809-26.
50. For details, see Janet Flanner, "Annals of Collaboration: Equivalism I-III," The New Yorker 21 (22 Sept. 1945): 28-47; (6 Oct. 1945): 32-45; and (13 Oct. 1945): 32-48; Gaston Bedaux, La vie ardente de Charles E. Bedaux (Paris, 1979); Christy, The Price of Power. All of these works focus on his private life and his alleged, but not proven, collaboration with the Nazis during World War II; see also Karsten Linne, "Ein amerikanischer Geschäftsmann und die Nationalsozialisten: Charles Bedaux," Zeitschrift für Geschichtswissenschaft 44 (1996): 809-26.
51. For details, see Janet Flanner, "Annals of Collaboration: Equivalism I-III," The New Yorker 21 (22 Sept. 1945): 28-47; (6 Oct. 1945): 32-45; and (13 Oct. 1945): 32-48; Gaston Bedaux, La vie ardente de Charles E. Bedaux (Paris, 1979); Christy, The Price of Power. All of these works focus on his private life and his alleged, but not proven, collaboration with the Nazis during World War II; see also Karsten Linne, "Ein amerikanischer Geschäftsmann und die Nationalsozialisten: Charles Bedaux," Zeitschrift für Geschichtswissenschaft 44 (1996): 809-26.
52. For details, see Janet Flanner, "Annals of Collaboration: Equivalism I-III," The New Yorker 21 (22 Sept. 1945): 28-47; (6 Oct. 1945): 32-45; and (13 Oct. 1945): 32-48; Gaston Bedaux, La vie ardente de Charles E. Bedaux (Paris, 1979); Christy, The Price of Power. All of these works focus on his private life and his alleged, but not proven, collaboration with the Nazis during World War II; see also Karsten Linne, "Ein amerikanischer Geschäftsmann und die Nationalsozialisten: Charles Bedaux," Zeitschrift für Geschichtswissenschaft 44 (1996): 809-26.
53. For details, see Janet Flanner, "Annals of Collaboration: Equivalism I-III," The New Yorker 21 (22 Sept. 1945): 28-47; (6 Oct. 1945): 32-45; and (13 Oct. 1945): 32-48; Gaston Bedaux, La vie ardente de Charles E. Bedaux (Paris, 1979); Christy, The Price of Power. All of these works focus on his private life and his alleged, but not proven, collaboration with the Nazis during World War II; see also Karsten Linne, "Ein amerikanischer Geschäftsmann und die Nationalsozialisten: Charles Bedaux," Zeitschrift für Geschichtswissenschaft 44 (1996): 809-26.
54. For details, see Janet Flanner, "Annals of Collaboration: Equivalism I-III," The New Yorker 21 (22 Sept. 1945): 28-47; (6 Oct. 1945): 32-45; and (13 Oct. 1945): 32-48; Gaston Bedaux, La vie ardente de Charles E. Bedaux (Paris, 1979); Christy, The Price of Power. All of these works focus on his private life and his alleged, but not proven, collaboration with the Nazis during World War II; see also Karsten Linne, "Ein amerikanischer Geschäftsmann und die Nationalsozialisten: Charles Bedaux," Zeitschrift für Geschichtswissenschaft 44 (1996): 809-26.
55. Workers were expected to achieve a minimum of 60B per hour; For more details, see Pierre Laloux, Le système Bedaux de calcul des salaires (Paris, 1950).
56. NICB, Systems of Wage Payment (New York, 1930). While not statistically representative, this survey covered 1,214 plants, employing a total of almost 800,000 workers. The vast majority of them were working under time wages or piece rates. Among the competing incentive systems, Bedaux came first, being applied to more than three times as many workers (33,177) than the next two, Halsey (9,953) and Emerson (9,252).
57. See Craig R. Littler, The Development of the Labour Process in Capitalist Societies (London, 1982), chaps. 8 and 9; David Montgomery, The Fall of the House of Labor (Cambridge, U.K., 1987); Laura Lee Downs, "Industrial Decline, Rationalisation and Equal Pay: The Bedaux Strike at Rover Automobile Company," Social History 15:1 (Jan. 1990): 45-73.
58. See Craig R. Littler, The Development of the Labour Process in Capitalist Societies (London, 1982), chaps. 8 and 9; David Montgomery, The Fall of the House of Labor (Cambridge, U.K., 1987); Laura Lee Downs, "Industrial Decline, Rationalisation and Equal Pay: The Bedaux Strike at Rover Automobile Company," Social History 15:1 (Jan. 1990): 45-73.
59. See Craig R. Littler, The Development of the Labour Process in Capitalist Societies (London, 1982), chaps. 8 and 9; David Montgomery, The Fall of the House of Labor (Cambridge, U.K., 1987); Laura Lee Downs, "Industrial Decline, Rationalisation and Equal Pay: The Bedaux Strike at Rover Automobile Company," Social History 15:1 (Jan. 1990): 45-73.
60. See "Annals of Collaboration I," 30, and "Bedaux, Charles Eugène," in Dictionary of American Biography, Supplement Three (New York, 1973), 49-50.
61. See "Annals of Collaboration I," 30, and "Bedaux, Charles Eugène," in Dictionary of American Biography, Supplement Three (New York, 1973), 49-50.
62. "The Diffusion of Scientific Management: The Bedaux Company in America and Britain, 1926-1945," in A Mental Revolution, 156-74.
63. NICB, Systems of Wage Payment, 8.
64. Thomas H. Sanders, "Wage Systems - An Appraisal," Harvard Business Review 5:1 (Oct. 1926): 19. Numerous articles in the journal of the National Association of Cost Accountants in the United States show indeed how many companies used the system not only to reduce unit labor costs, but also for cost accounting purposes.
65. Craig R. Littler, The Bureaucratization of the Shop-Floor: The Development of Modern Work Systems (Ph.D. diss., London School of Economics, 1980), 403-11. This case study was omitted from the published version of the thesis.
66. For details of the latter, see Paul Erker, "Das Bedaux-Svstem," Zeitschrift für Unternehmensgeschichte 41:2 (1996): 139-58.
67. Aimée Moutet, Les logiques de l'entreprise: L'effort de rationalisation dans l'industrie française de l'entre-deux-guerres (Paris, 1997), 34-5, 212-14 and 261-2.
68. For details of Bedaux's social life, see Christy, The Price of Power.
69. See Personnel of the Chas. E. Bedaux Companies; and International Bedaux Company Inc., Representative List of Clients of all Bedaux Companies (New York, 1934), New York Public Library, in folder "Material on the Bedaux Principle."
70. See Personnel of the Chas. E. Bedaux Companies; and International Bedaux Company Inc., Representative List of Clients of all Bedaux Companies (New York, 1934), New York Public Library, in folder "Material on the Bedaux Principle."
71. The first chairman of Chas. E. Bedaux Ltd. in Britain, Sir Francis Rose, knew many company directors and introduced the consultancy to companies like British American Tobacco. In Italy, the Chairman and owner of Fiat, Giovanni Agnelli, became President of the Società Italiana Bedaux, and one of the Pirelli brothers, Piero, a board member. Both had been among the first Italian companies to install the Bedaux System in their factories and their support undoubtedly played an important role in its subsequent application in other Italian companies. See the unpublished A History of Inbucon, chap. 1, written by Mildred Brownlow in the early 1970s, and an undated draft on Norman Pleming's years with Bedaux/ AIC. Both are located in the Pleming papers. For details and additional references on Bedaux in Italy, see Stefano Musso, La gestione della forza lavoro sotto il fascismo (Milan, 1987), chap. 2; and Giuliano Faliva and Ferdinando Pennarola, Storia della consulenza di direzione in Italia (Milan, 1992), 9-14.
72. The first chairman of Chas. E. Bedaux Ltd. in Britain, Sir Francis Rose, knew many company directors and introduced the consultancy to companies like British American Tobacco. In Italy, the Chairman and owner of Fiat, Giovanni Agnelli, became President of the Società Italiana Bedaux, and one of the Pirelli brothers, Piero, a board member. Both had been among the first Italian companies to install the Bedaux System in their factories and their support undoubtedly played an important role in its subsequent application in other Italian companies. See the unpublished A History of Inbucon, chap. 1, written by Mildred Brownlow in the early 1970s, and an undated draft on Norman Pleming's years with Bedaux/ AIC. Both are located in the Pleming papers. For details and additional references on Bedaux in Italy, see Stefano Musso, La gestione della forza lavoro sotto il fascismo (Milan, 1987), chap. 2; and Giuliano Faliva and Ferdinando Pennarola, Storia della consulenza di direzione in Italia (Milan, 1992), 9-14.
73. The first chairman of Chas. E. Bedaux Ltd. in Britain, Sir Francis Rose, knew many company directors and introduced the consultancy to companies like British American Tobacco. In Italy, the Chairman and owner of Fiat, Giovanni Agnelli, became President of the Società Italiana Bedaux, and one of the Pirelli brothers, Piero, a board member. Both had been among the first Italian companies to install the Bedaux System in their factories and their support undoubtedly played an important role in its subsequent application in other Italian companies. See the unpublished A History of Inbucon, chap. 1, written by Mildred Brownlow in the early 1970s, and an undated draft on Norman Pleming's years with Bedaux/ AIC. Both are located in the Pleming papers. For details and additional references on Bedaux in Italy, see Stefano Musso, La gestione della forza lavoro sotto il fascismo (Milan, 1987), chap. 2; and Giuliano Faliva and Ferdinando Pennarola, Storia della consulenza di direzione in Italia (Milan, 1992), 9-14.
74. Records of such an "Intercompany Meeting," held at the Drake Hotel in Chicago on 4-5 Feb. 1928, were found in the Lucas Archives, Industrial Relations, Bedaux, Folder A/292, British Motor Industry Heritage Trust, Gaydon.
75. Attached to the employment contract between Chas. E. Bedaux Ltd. and Norman Pleming, 1 Feb. 1927, in the Pleming papers.
76. For the activities of Thompson and Planus during the interwar period, see Moutet, Les logiques de l'entreprise.
77. Nicolas Berland, "Consultants, innovation de gestion et contrôle budgétaire: Pechiney et Saint-Gobain entre 1929 et 1960," Cahiers d'histoire de l'aluminium 19 (Winter 1996-1997): 6-23.
78. Arbeitswissenschaftliches Institut der DAF, Das Bedaux-System (Berlin, [1938]), Staatsbibliothek Munich. Bedaux was allowed to re-establish it in 1937, albeit under a different name. The new consultancy had no more success than the earlier one. See the files of Bedaux's German lawyer G. A. Westrick, Bundesarchiv Koblenz, N1200, Box 1045.
79. Flanner, "Annals of Collaboration I," 31 and 41-7; Christy, The Price of Power, chaps. 10-13.
80. Flanner, "Annals of Collaboration I," 31 and 41-7; Christy, The Price of Power, chaps. 10-13.
81. See Tisdall, Agents of Change; and Kipping, "Consultancies, Institutions."
82. See Tisdall, Agents of Change; and Kipping, "Consultancies, Institutions."
83. For Orr's role in Geneva, see Charles D. Wrege, "The International Management Institute and Political Opposition to its Efforts in Europe, 1925-1934," Business and Economic History 16 (1987): 249-65.
84. According to E. N. B. Mitton who had joined AIC in 1937; interview on 23 Apr. 1997. See also Brownlow, A History of Inbucon, chap. 4.
85. The client/assignment list and annual turnover figures for Charles E. Bedaux, British Bedaux and AIC Ltd. are found in Pleming papers.
86. For the government role, see in general Nick Tiratsoo and Jim Tomlinson, Industrial Efficiency and State Intervention: Labour 1939-51 (London, 1993), chap. 4; for the exemption from military service, see Mitton interview on 23 Apr. 1997.
87. See Odile Henry, "Le conseil, un espace professionel autonome?" Entreprises et Histoire 7 (Dec. 1994): 37-58.
88. Interview with Gerhard Kienbaum on 16 Jan. 1997. See also Kienbaum und Partner. Geschichte einer Unternehmensberatung, 1945-1995 (Gummersbach, 1995).
89. Interview with Mitton, 23 Apr. 1997.
90. From £1.9 million in 1952 to £6.9 in 1961; MCA Archives, Box 6. (By 1961, four much smaller consultancies had joined the MCA.) In addition, the British consultancies also expanded abroad, mainly to the Commonwealth countries which accounted for up to one-third of their revenues by the earlv 1960s. Like in the case of the U.S. consultancies in Western Europe, this expansion benefited from the presence of British multinationals there.
91. For more details, see David W. Ellwood, Rebuilding Europe: Western Europe, America and Postwar Reconstruction 1945-1955 (London, 1992); Anthony B. Carew, Labour Under the Marshall Plan (Manchester, 1987), Jacqueline McGlade, The Illusion of Consensus: American Business, Cold War Aid and the Reconstruction of Western Europe, 1948-1958 (Ph.D. diss., George Washington University, Washington, D.C., 1995); and the contributions in The Americanisation of European Business, eds. Matthias Kipping and Ove Bjarnar (London, 1998).
92. For more details, see David W. Ellwood, Rebuilding Europe: Western Europe, America and Postwar Reconstruction 1945-1955 (London, 1992); Anthony B. Carew, Labour Under the Marshall Plan (Manchester, 1987), Jacqueline McGlade, The Illusion of Consensus: American Business, Cold War Aid and the Reconstruction of Western Europe, 1948-1958 (Ph.D. diss., George Washington University, Washington, D.C., 1995); and the contributions in The Americanisation of European Business, eds. Matthias Kipping and Ove Bjarnar (London, 1998).
93. For more details, see David W. Ellwood, Rebuilding Europe: Western Europe, America and Postwar Reconstruction 1945-1955 (London, 1992); Anthony B. Carew, Labour Under the Marshall Plan (Manchester, 1987), Jacqueline McGlade, The Illusion of Consensus: American Business, Cold War Aid and the Reconstruction of Western Europe, 1948-1958 (Ph.D. diss., George Washington University, Washington, D.C., 1995); and the contributions in The Americanisation of European Business, eds. Matthias Kipping and Ove Bjarnar (London, 1998).
94. For more details, see David W. Ellwood, Rebuilding Europe: Western Europe, America and Postwar Reconstruction 1945-1955 (London, 1992); Anthony B. Carew, Labour Under the Marshall Plan (Manchester, 1987), Jacqueline McGlade, The Illusion of Consensus: American Business, Cold War Aid and the Reconstruction of Western Europe, 1948-1958 (Ph.D. diss., George Washington University, Washington, D.C., 1995); and the contributions in The Americanisation of European Business, eds. Matthias Kipping and Ove Bjarnar (London, 1998).
95. See International Cooperation Administration, European Productivity and Technical Assistance Programs: A Summing Up, 1948-1958 (Paris, 1958).
96. This can be gauged from several letters found in the Marshall Plan archives; National Archives and Records Administration, College Park, Md., Record group 469.
97. In 1965, they only employed 22 consultants, compared to 429 for AIC and 480 for PA; MCA Archives, Box 22. They remained marginal and, in 1974, merged with Stevenson, Jordan & Harrison, a long established, but also declining consulting company; MCA Council agenda, 09/26/1974, ibid., Box 4.
98. Ludovic Cailluet, "Selective Adaptation of American Management Models: The Long-term Relationship of Pechiney with the United States," in The Americanisation of European Business, 190-207.
99. "Les sociétés de service," Les dossiers de l'entreprise 10 (Mar. 1969); 36.
100. Interview with Mitton on 23 Apr. 1997.
101. On the MTM system in comparison, see Benjamin W. Niebel, Motion and Time Study: An Introduction to Methods, Time Study, and Wage Payment (Homewood, Ill., 1958).
102. Henrik Glimstedt, "Americanisation and the 'Swedish Model' of Industrial Relations," in The Americanization of European Business, 133-148.
103. Wolfgang Paulsen, "Vormarsch der amerikanischen Unternehmensherater in Europa," Die Welt, 6 Sept. 1969; and Rosemarie Winter, "U.S.-Herausforderung in der Praxis," Industriekurier, 9 Apr. 1970.
104. Wolfgang Paulsen, "Vormarsch der amerikanischen Unternehmensherater in Europa," Die Welt, 6 Sept. 1969; and Rosemarie Winter, "U.S.-Herausforderung in der Praxis," Industriekurier, 9 Apr. 1970.
105. See Hal Higdon, The Business Healers (New York, 1969), chap. 7.
106. See the archives of Lnkens Steel, Hagley Museum and Library, Accession 50, Box 2019. The company's Corporate Secretary, James Stewart Huston, received letters and brochures from May once or twice per month from 1936 to 1943. However, Lukens never became a May client.
107. See ACME's "Code of Professional Ethics" and "Obligations ot Good Practice" in Higdon, The Business Healers, app. D.
108. "Hier wird der Chef aufs Kreuz gelegt," DM, 4 Mar. 1965; quoted by Michael Ricke, "Die freiberufliche Unternehmensberatung 1900 bis 1960" (Masters thesis, University of Munich, 1989), 32.
109. "Hier wird der Chef aufs Kreuz gelegt," DM, 4 Mar. 1965; quoted by Michael Ricke, "Die freiberufliche Unternehmensberatung 1900 bis 1960" (Masters thesis, University of Munich, 1989), 32.
110. See Faliva and Pennarola, Storia della consulenza, 75-7 and Tisdall, Agents of Change, 64-5. May's bad reputation in the U.K. was such that it was still vividly recalled by most of the former British consultants interviewed.
111. See Faliva and Pennarola, Storia della consulenza, 75-7 and Tisdall, Agents of Change, 64-5. May's bad reputation in the U.K. was such that it was still vividly recalled by most of the former British consultants interviewed.
112. For the development and extension of work study, see Brownlow, A History of Inbucon, chap. 7, which focuses on AIC; for its impact on shop floor performance, see J. Johnston, "The Productivity of Management Consultants," Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, series A, 126:2 (1963): 237-249.
113. For the development and extension of work study, see Brownlow, A History of Inbucon, chap. 7, which focuses on AIC; for its impact on shop floor performance, see J. Johnston, "The Productivity of Management Consultants," Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, series A, 126:2 (1963): 237-249.
114. At the end of the decade, none of them appeared any longer in the hit lists published by the popular management journals. However, May remained active in the 1990s in the U.S., with estimated revenues of $56m in 1995; Karin Ronnow, "Corporate upheaval boosts U.S. market," Management Consultant International (Aug. 1996): 10-5.
115. One of the first to highlight these developments was Geoffrey Owen, "Quality Control for the Management Consultants," Financial Times, 18 July 1966.
116. Alfred Chandler, Jr., Strategy and Structure: Chapters in the History of the American Industrial Enterprise (Cambridge, Mass., 1962).
117. See Higdon, The Business Healers, 49.
118. E. J. Kahn, The Problem Solvers: A History of Arthur D. Little, Inc. (Boston, 1986).
119. "Management Experts Thrive on Own Advice," Business Week, 23 Apr. 1960, 104-18 and Higdon, The Business Healers, chap. 5.
120. "Management Experts Thrive on Own Advice," Business Week, 23 Apr. 1960, 104-18 and Higdon, The Business Healers, chap. 5.
121. James O. McKinsey and A. C. Hodge, Principles of Accounting (Chicago, 1920); James O. McKinsey, Bookkeeping and Accounting (Cincinnati, 1920) and Budgetary Control (New York, 1922). For McKinsey's intellectual origins and development, see Walter B. Wolf, Management and Consulting: An Introduction to James O. McKinsey (Ithaca, N.Y., 1978).
122. James O. McKinsey and A. C. Hodge, Principles of Accounting (Chicago, 1920); James O. McKinsey, Bookkeeping and Accounting (Cincinnati, 1920) and Budgetary Control (New York, 1922). For McKinsey's intellectual origins and development, see Walter B. Wolf, Management and Consulting: An Introduction to James O. McKinsey (Ithaca, N.Y., 1978).
123. James O. McKinsey and A. C. Hodge, Principles of Accounting (Chicago, 1920); James O. McKinsey, Bookkeeping and Accounting (Cincinnati, 1920) and Budgetary Control (New York, 1922). For McKinsey's intellectual origins and development, see Walter B. Wolf, Management and Consulting: An Introduction to James O. McKinsey (Ithaca, N.Y., 1978).
124. James O. McKinsey and A. C. Hodge, Principles of Accounting (Chicago, 1920); James O. McKinsey, Bookkeeping and Accounting (Cincinnati, 1920) and Budgetary Control (New York, 1922). For McKinsey's intellectual origins and development, see Walter B. Wolf, Management and Consulting: An Introduction to James O. McKinsey (Ithaca, N.Y., 1978).
125. Higdon, The Business Healers, chap. 6; James O'Shea and Charles Madigan, Dangerous Company: The Consulting Powerhouses and the Business They Save and Ruin (New York, 1997), chaps. 2 and 8. For the crucial role of Bower, see Amar V. Bhide, "Building the Professional Firm: McKinsey and Co., 1939-1968," Harvard Business School Working Paper 95-010 (Boston, 1995).
126. Higdon, The Business Healers, chap. 6; James O'Shea and Charles Madigan, Dangerous Company: The Consulting Powerhouses and the Business They Save and Ruin (New York, 1997), chaps. 2 and 8. For the crucial role of Bower, see Amar V. Bhide, "Building the Professional Firm: McKinsey and Co., 1939-1968," Harvard Business School Working Paper 95-010 (Boston, 1995).
127. Higdon, The Business Healers, chap. 6; James O'Shea and Charles Madigan, Dangerous Company: The Consulting Powerhouses and the Business They Save and Ruin (New York, 1997), chaps. 2 and 8. For the crucial role of Bower, see Amar V. Bhide, "Building the Professional Firm: McKinsey and Co., 1939-1968," Harvard Business School Working Paper 95-010 (Boston, 1995).
128. See Higdon, The Business Healers, 64; and Kahn, The Problem Solvers, 143-50.
129. See Higdon, The Business Healers, 64; and Kahn, The Problem Solvers, 143-50.
130. Hans Martin Kölle, "Amerikanische Unternehmensberater haben Erfolg," Die Welt, 8 July 1969.
131. Michael Shanks, "Management Consultants: Breaking through the British Boardroom," The Director (May 1964): 268-73; see also Kölle, "Amerikanische Unterrnehmensberater" and Wolfgang Paulsen, "Vormarsch der amerikanischen Unternehmensberater in Europa."
132. Michael Shanks, "Management Consultants: Breaking through the British Boardroom," The Director (May 1964): 268-73; see also Kölle, "Amerikanische Unterrnehmensberater" and Wolfgang Paulsen, "Vormarsch der amerikanischen Unternehmensberater in Europa."
133. Michael Shanks, "Management Consultants: Breaking through the British Boardroom," The Director (May 1964): 268-73; see also Kölle, "Amerikanische Unterrnehmensberater" and Wolfgang Paulsen, "Vormarsch der amerikanischen Unternehmensberater in Europa."
134. Jean-Jacques Servan-Schreiber, The American Challenge (London, 1968), 38-9.
135. See Alfred Chandler, Jr. with Takashi Hikino, Scale and Scope: The Dynamics of Industrial Capitalism (Cambridge, Mass., 1990).
136. Channon, The Strategy and Structure of British Enterprises; Dyas and Thanheiser, The Emerging European Enterprise; and Christopher D. McKenna, "The American Challenge: McKinsey & Company's Role in the Transfer of Decentralization to Europe, 1957-1975," paper presented at the Academy of Management Annual Meeting, Boston, 10 Aug. 1997.
137. Channon, The Strategy and Structure of British Enterprises; Dyas and Thanheiser, The Emerging European Enterprise; and Christopher D. McKenna, "The American Challenge: McKinsey & Company's Role in the Transfer of Decentralization to Europe, 1957-1975," paper presented at the Academy of Management Annual Meeting, Boston, 10 Aug. 1997.
138. Channon, The Strategy and Structure of British Enterprises; Dyas and Thanheiser, The Emerging European Enterprise; and Christopher D. McKenna, "The American Challenge: McKinsey & Company's Role in the Transfer of Decentralization to Europe, 1957-1975," paper presented at the Academy of Management Annual Meeting, Boston, 10 Aug. 1997.
139. McCreary, The Americanization of Europe, 160-165.
140. According to Kahn, The Problem Solvers, 150.
141. The booklet can be found in the Pamphlet Collection at the Hagley Museum and Library, Wilmington, Del. The article in question was written by Hugh Parker and John G. Mc-Donald, both of whom played a major role in the expansion of McKinsey in Western Europe.
142. From a book value of $1.73 to $24.52 billion; see Wilkins, The Maturing of Multinational Enterprise, chap. 13, esp. tables 13.2 and 13.3; see also Jones, The Evolution of International Business, 46-9 and 127-37.
143. From a book value of $1.73 to $24.52 billion; see Wilkins, The Maturing of Multinational Enterprise, chap. 13, esp. tables 13.2 and 13.3; see also Jones, The Evolution of International Business, 46-9 and 127-37.
144. Pascale-Marie Deschamps, "McKinsey: Les sorciers de l'entreprise sont de retour," L'Expansion 527 (13-26 June 1996): 116-123.
145. McKenna, "The American Challenge"; for Britain, see also Tisdall, Agents of Change, 72-5.
146. McKenna, "The American Challenge"; for Britain, see also Tisdall, Agents of Change, 72-5.
147. Mira Wilkins, "French Multinationals in the United States: An Historical Perspective," Entreprises et Histoire 3 (May 1993): 14-29. See also Cailluet, "Selective adaptation."
148. Mira Wilkins, "French Multinationals in the United States: An Historical Perspective," Entreprises et Histoire 3 (May 1993): 14-29. See also Cailluet, "Selective adaptation."
149. For additional details and references, see Matthias Kipping, "Bridging the Gap? Consultants and Their Role in France," The University of Reading, Discussion Papers in Economics and Management, Series 8 (1997/98), No. 375. It should be noted that Pechiney had employed Clark, Bedaux, and Planus in the 1930s, but this was long after the first two had established offices in France.
150. See Kahn, The Problem Solvers, chaps. 9 and 10.
151. John Gretton, "Efficiency Unlimited," New Society, 27 Aug. 1970, 357-8.
152. Interview with Sir Alcon Copisarow on 29 July 1996.
153. Ibid.
154. Ibid.
155. Ibid.
156. Interview with Dr. Helmut Wolf, former chief executive of Krauss Maffei, on 10 July 1997. For the Flick group, see also Dyas and Thanheiser, The Emerging European Enterprise, esp. 97.
157. In contrast to the earlier literature which highlighted the scarcity of management skills in Europe, a number of more recent authors have highlighted the considerable problems in the transfer and adaptation of U.S. management models to European companies; see especially Kogut and Parkinson, "The Diffusion of American Organizing Principles" and Matthias Kipping, "The U.S. Influence on the Evolution of Management Consultancies in Britain, France, and Germany since 1945," Business and Economic History 25:1 (Fall 1996): 112-23. McKenna, in "The American Challenge," continued to insist on superior know-how as the basis for the success of McKinsey in Western Europe.
158. In contrast to the earlier literature which highlighted the scarcity of management skills in Europe, a number of more recent authors have highlighted the considerable problems in the transfer and adaptation of U.S. management models to European companies; see especially Kogut and Parkinson, "The Diffusion of American Organizing Principles" and Matthias Kipping, "The U.S. Influence on the Evolution of Management Consultancies in Britain, France, and Germany since 1945," Business and Economic History 25:1 (Fall 1996): 112-23. McKenna, in "The American Challenge," continued to insist on superior know-how as the basis for the success of McKinsey in Western Europe.
159. In contrast to the earlier literature which highlighted the scarcity of management skills in Europe, a number of more recent authors have highlighted the considerable problems in the transfer and adaptation of U.S. management models to European companies; see especially Kogut and Parkinson, "The Diffusion of American Organizing Principles" and Matthias Kipping, "The U.S. Influence on the Evolution of Management Consultancies in Britain, France, and Germany since 1945," Business and Economic History 25:1 (Fall 1996): 112-23. McKenna, in "The American Challenge," continued to insist on superior know-how as the basis for the success of McKinsey in Western Europe.
160. See Kipping, "The U.S. Influence."
161. "Diener vieler Herren," Wirtschaftswoche, 2 Aug. 1974, 72.
162. Gretton, "Efficiency Unlimited," 357-9.
163. For details on these developments see Henry, "Le conseil."
164. Kearney press release, 3 Mar. 1969; MCA Archives, Box 3. Incidentally, after some hesitation, the MCA in 1971 allowed A.T. Kearney to take the place of Norcross among its members.
165. For a detailed presentation of the matrix and its underlying logic, see Barry Hedley, "Strategy and the Business Portfolio," Long Range Planning, (Feb. 1977): 9-15.
166. For BCG's evolution in the U.S., see O'Shea and Madigan, Dangerous Company, chap. 5.
167. Sir Jack later became implicated and was convicted in the scandal surrounding the acquisition of United Distillers by Guinness, one of Bain's major clients at the time; for details, see ibid., chap. 7.
168. See "Diener vieler Herren" (for the 1974 ranking); and "Roland Berger 60 Jahre," Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 21 Nov. 1997.
169. See "Diener vieler Herren" (for the 1974 ranking); and "Roland Berger 60 Jahre," Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 21 Nov. 1997.
170. For the developments in Italy, see Faliva and Pennarola, Storia della consulenza; for Value Partners, see Deschamps, "McKinsey," 121.
171. For the developments in Italy, see Faliva and Pennarola, Storia della consulenza; for Value Partners, see Deschamps, "McKinsey," 121.
172. On the training and selection of German managers in general and the Baden-Baden seminars in particular, see Matthias Kipping, "The Hidden Business Schools: Management Training in Germany since 1945," in Management Education in Historical Perspective, ed. Lars Engwall and Vera Zamagni (Manchester, 1998), 95-110. The Baden-Baden seminars were set up in the early 1950s, inspired by Harvard's Advanced Management Program, but deliberately much less publicized.
173. Rosemarie Winter, "Deutliche Akzente gesetzt," Industriekurier, 21 Feb 1970; according to Dr. Peter Zum, long-time chairman of the Baden-Baden seminars, McKinsey and the leading German consultant Roland Berger are the only ones to be invited there regularly; interview on 24 Sept. 1996.
174. For an overview, see O'Shea and Madigan, Dangerous Company, chap. 8; for a more detailed discussion and additional references, see Matthias Kipping and Celeste Amorim, "Consultancies as Management Schools" (paper presented at the 15th Colloquium of the European Group for Organizational Studies, Warwick University, 4-6 July 1999).
175. For an overview, see O'Shea and Madigan, Dangerous Company, chap. 8; for a more detailed discussion and additional references, see Matthias Kipping and Celeste Amorim, "Consultancies as Management Schools" (paper presented at the 15th Colloquium of the European Group for Organizational Studies, Warwick University, 4-6 July 1999).
176. Catherine Sauviat, "Les reseaux internationaux de services: le cas du conseil et de l'audit," Rapport final pour le Ministère des Enterprises et du Développement Economique, IRES, Apr. 1995.
177. For the earlier practices, Higdon, The Business Healers, chap. 9. Their recent growth has made it difficult for these consultancies to limit their recruitment only to these institutions; O'Shea and Madigan, Dangerous Company, 281-5.
178. For the earlier practices, Higdon, The Business Healers, chap. 9. Their recent growth has made it difficult for these consultancies to limit their recruitment only to these institutions; O'Shea and Madigan, Dangerous Company, 281-5.
179. Guiliana Gemelli, "Per una storia delle business school in Europa: Le origini dell'Insead," Annali di storia dell'impresa 9 (1993): 339-404.
180. Interview with Sir Alcon Copisarow, 29 July 1996.
181. Matthias Kipping and Thomas Armbrüstr, "The Challenges of New Management Knowledge: Beyond Conventional Management Consulting," paper presented at the annual meeting of the Strategic Management Society, Berlin, 3-6 Oct. 1999.
182. Similarly, the extent and the scope of British FDI helps explain why consultancies from the U.K. directed most of their international activities toward the Commonwealth countries where they occupied a predominant position for much of the post-war period. By contrast, the limited development of multinational activities from France, Germany, and Japan held back the internationalization of consulting companies from these countries until the late 1980s.