Images of Europe: Orientations to European Integration among Senior Officials of the Commission

British Journal of Political Science

Volumn 29, Issue 2, 1999, Pages 345-367

  Hooghe, Liesbet ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0033464974     PISSN: 00071234     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0007123499000150     Document Type: Article

References (49)

1. Luciano Bardi and Gianfranco Pasquino, Euroministri: Il governo dell' Europa (Milan: II Saggiatore, 1994); Kent J. Kille and Roger Scully, 'Institutional Leadership and International Collaboration: Evidence from the United Nations and the European Union' (paper delivered at the Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, 1997); Christiane Landfried, 'Beyond Technocratic Governance: The Case of Biotechnology' (paper prepared for the conference on Social Regulation through European Committees, European University Institute, Florence, December 1996); Andrew MacMullen, 'European Commissioners, 1952-95' in Neill Nugent, ed., At the Heart of the Union: Studies of the European Commission (London: Macmillan, 1997), pp. 27-48; Edward Page and Linda Wouters, 'Bureaucratic Politics and Political Leadership in Brussels', Public Administration, 72 (1994), 445-59; George Ross, Jacques Delors and European Integration (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995); Gerald Schneider, 'Choosing Chameleons: National Interests and the Logic of Coalition Building in the Commission of the European Union' (paper prepared for the European Community Studies Association, Seattle, May-June 1997).
2. Luciano Bardi and Gianfranco Pasquino, Euroministri: Il governo dell' Europa (Milan: II Saggiatore, 1994); Kent J. Kille and Roger Scully, 'Institutional Leadership and International Collaboration: Evidence from the United Nations and the European Union' (paper delivered at the Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, 1997); Christiane Landfried, 'Beyond Technocratic Governance: The Case of Biotechnology' (paper prepared for the conference on Social Regulation through European Committees, European University Institute, Florence, December 1996); Andrew MacMullen, 'European Commissioners, 1952-95' in Neill Nugent, ed., At the Heart of the Union: Studies of the European Commission (London: Macmillan, 1997), pp. 27-48; Edward Page and Linda Wouters, 'Bureaucratic Politics and Political Leadership in Brussels', Public Administration, 72 (1994), 445-59; George Ross, Jacques Delors and European Integration (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995); Gerald Schneider, 'Choosing Chameleons: National Interests and the Logic of Coalition Building in the Commission of the European Union' (paper prepared for the European Community Studies Association, Seattle, May-June 1997).
3. Luciano Bardi and Gianfranco Pasquino, Euroministri: Il governo dell' Europa (Milan: II Saggiatore, 1994); Kent J. Kille and Roger Scully, 'Institutional Leadership and International Collaboration: Evidence from the United Nations and the European Union' (paper delivered at the Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, 1997); Christiane Landfried, 'Beyond Technocratic Governance: The Case of Biotechnology' (paper prepared for the conference on Social Regulation through European Committees, European University Institute, Florence, December 1996); Andrew MacMullen, 'European Commissioners, 1952-95' in Neill Nugent, ed., At the Heart of the Union: Studies of the European Commission (London: Macmillan, 1997), pp. 27-48; Edward Page and Linda Wouters, 'Bureaucratic Politics and Political Leadership in Brussels', Public Administration, 72 (1994), 445-59; George Ross, Jacques Delors and European Integration (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995); Gerald Schneider, 'Choosing Chameleons: National Interests and the Logic of Coalition Building in the Commission of the European Union' (paper prepared for the European Community Studies Association, Seattle, May-June 1997).
4. Luciano Bardi and Gianfranco Pasquino, Euroministri: Il governo dell' Europa (Milan: II Saggiatore, 1994); Kent J. Kille and Roger Scully, 'Institutional Leadership and International Collaboration: Evidence from the United Nations and the European Union' (paper delivered at the Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, 1997); Christiane Landfried, 'Beyond Technocratic Governance: The Case of Biotechnology' (paper prepared for the conference on Social Regulation through European Committees, European University Institute, Florence, December 1996); Andrew MacMullen, 'European Commissioners, 1952-95' in Neill Nugent, ed., At the Heart of the Union: Studies of the European Commission (London: Macmillan, 1997), pp. 27-48; Edward Page and Linda Wouters, 'Bureaucratic Politics and Political Leadership in Brussels', Public Administration, 72 (1994), 445-59; George Ross, Jacques Delors and European Integration (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995); Gerald Schneider, 'Choosing Chameleons: National Interests and the Logic of Coalition Building in the Commission of the European Union' (paper prepared for the European Community Studies Association, Seattle, May-June 1997).
5. Luciano Bardi and Gianfranco Pasquino, Euroministri: Il governo dell' Europa (Milan: II Saggiatore, 1994); Kent J. Kille and Roger Scully, 'Institutional Leadership and International Collaboration: Evidence from the United Nations and the European Union' (paper delivered at the Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, 1997); Christiane Landfried, 'Beyond Technocratic Governance: The Case of Biotechnology' (paper prepared for the conference on Social Regulation through European Committees, European University Institute, Florence, December 1996); Andrew MacMullen, 'European Commissioners, 1952-95' in Neill Nugent, ed., At the Heart of the Union: Studies of the European Commission (London: Macmillan, 1997), pp. 27-48; Edward Page and Linda Wouters, 'Bureaucratic Politics and Political Leadership in Brussels', Public Administration, 72 (1994), 445-59; George Ross, Jacques Delors and European Integration (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995); Gerald Schneider, 'Choosing Chameleons: National Interests and the Logic of Coalition Building in the Commission of the European Union' (paper prepared for the European Community Studies Association, Seattle, May-June 1997).
6. Luciano Bardi and Gianfranco Pasquino, Euroministri: Il governo dell' Europa (Milan: II Saggiatore, 1994); Kent J. Kille and Roger Scully, 'Institutional Leadership and International Collaboration: Evidence from the United Nations and the European Union' (paper delivered at the Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, 1997); Christiane Landfried, 'Beyond Technocratic Governance: The Case of Biotechnology' (paper prepared for the conference on Social Regulation through European Committees, European University Institute, Florence, December 1996); Andrew MacMullen, 'European Commissioners, 1952-95' in Neill Nugent, ed., At the Heart of the Union: Studies of the European Commission (London: Macmillan, 1997), pp. 27-48; Edward Page and Linda Wouters, 'Bureaucratic Politics and Political Leadership in Brussels', Public Administration, 72 (1994), 445-59; George Ross, Jacques Delors and European Integration (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995); Gerald Schneider, 'Choosing Chameleons: National Interests and the Logic of Coalition Building in the Commission of the European Union' (paper prepared for the European Community Studies Association, Seattle, May-June 1997).
7. Luciano Bardi and Gianfranco Pasquino, Euroministri: Il governo dell' Europa (Milan: II Saggiatore, 1994); Kent J. Kille and Roger Scully, 'Institutional Leadership and International Collaboration: Evidence from the United Nations and the European Union' (paper delivered at the Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, 1997); Christiane Landfried, 'Beyond Technocratic Governance: The Case of Biotechnology' (paper prepared for the conference on Social Regulation through European Committees, European University Institute, Florence, December 1996); Andrew MacMullen, 'European Commissioners, 1952-95' in Neill Nugent, ed., At the Heart of the Union: Studies of the European Commission (London: Macmillan, 1997), pp. 27-48; Edward Page and Linda Wouters, 'Bureaucratic Politics and Political Leadership in Brussels', Public Administration, 72 (1994), 445-59; George Ross, Jacques Delors and European Integration (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995); Gerald Schneider, 'Choosing Chameleons: National Interests and the Logic of Coalition Building in the Commission of the European Union' (paper prepared for the European Community Studies Association, Seattle, May-June 1997).
8. At the end of the interview, I left a questionnaire, containing behavioural questions and thirty-two statements measuring attitudes to controversial issues. By May 1997 I had received 106 questionnaires out of a maximum of 140. So the questionnaire sample is a subset of the interview sample. A comparison of these samples on key characteristics (nationality, which directorate, length of service, Commission cabinet experience, education, prior state service, 'parachutage') reveals no sample bias (non-parametric chi-square tests). It is of course possible that these 106 interviewees are not representative of the total population of top Commission officials. As socio-demographic data for the Commission's top officials are not published, it is difficult to test sample bias. The one exception is nationality, which can be tested relatively accurately. Though the Commission does not use formal national quotas, it seeks to maintain an informal 'geographical balance' in the top layers of the administration, which is based on the distribution of seats in the Council of Ministers. Using this rule as a yardstick, French, British and to some extent Italian and Dutch citizens appear overrepresented in my sample of 106 officials, while nationals from the second (Greek, Portuguese and Spanish) and third enlargement (Austrian, Finnish and Swedish) are underrepresented. However, the chi-square statistic falls short of rejecting the null-hypothesis that the distribution in the sample and the population is the same (alpha = 0.13).
9. I use masculine pronouns. The 'she'-form would create a false impression of gender balance. Of the 140 interviewed officials, only nine are women, and six of them have gained A1-A2 status since 1995.
10. Simon Hix, 'Parties at the European Level and the Legitimacy of EU Socio-economic Policy', Journal of Common Market Studies, 33 (1995), 526-51; Liesbet Hooghe and Gary Marks, 'The Making of a Polity: The Struggle over European Integration' in Herbert Kitschelt, Peter Lange, Gary Marks and John Stephens, eds, Continuity and Change in Contemporary Capitalism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, forthcoming) pp. 70-97; Philippe Schmitter, 'How to Democratize the Emerging Euro-polity: Citizenship, Representation, Decision-Making' (unpublished paper, Instituto Juan March, 1996).
11. Simon Hix, 'Parties at the European Level and the Legitimacy of EU Socio-economic Policy', Journal of Common Market Studies, 33 (1995), 526-51; Liesbet Hooghe and Gary Marks, 'The Making of a Polity: The Struggle over European Integration' in Herbert Kitschelt, Peter Lange, Gary Marks and John Stephens, eds, Continuity and Change in Contemporary Capitalism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, forthcoming) pp. 70-97; Philippe Schmitter, 'How to Democratize the Emerging Euro-polity: Citizenship, Representation, Decision-Making' (unpublished paper, Instituto Juan March, 1996).
12. Simon Hix, 'Parties at the European Level and the Legitimacy of EU Socio-economic Policy', Journal of Common Market Studies, 33 (1995), 526-51; Liesbet Hooghe and Gary Marks, 'The Making of a Polity: The Struggle over European Integration' in Herbert Kitschelt, Peter Lange, Gary Marks and John Stephens, eds, Continuity and Change in Contemporary Capitalism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, forthcoming) pp. 70-97; Philippe Schmitter, 'How to Democratize the Emerging Euro-polity: Citizenship, Representation, Decision-Making' (unpublished paper, Instituto Juan March, 1996).
13. Though there are very few 'neutrals' it is technically possible that the manner in which they are treated influences the results. I re-ran the factor analysis for the following three alternatives: (a) neutral position as missing value; (b) recalculation of the 4-point scale to a 5-point scale, with 3 as neutral position; (c) for each item, neutral position as the average value of that item (instead of a uniform 2.5). These factor analyses produce the same four dimensions, the same variables loading on these dimensions though with slightly different factor loadings. The results are virtually identical to the ones reported in Table 1.
14. James Caporaso, 'The European Union and Forms of State: Westphalian, Regulatory or Post-Modern?' Journal of Common Market Studies, 34 (1996), 29-52; Gary Marks, Liesbet Hooghe and Kermit Blank, 'European Integration since the 1980s: State-centric Versus Multi-level Governance', Journal of Common Market Studies, 34 (1996), 343-78; Thomas Risse-Kappen, 'Exploring the Nature of the Beast: International Relations Theory and Comparative Policy Analysis Meet the European Union', Journal of Common Market Studies, 34 (1996), 53-80; Wayne Sandholtz and John Zysman, '1992: Recasting the European Bargain', World Politics, 42 (1989), 95-128; William Wallace, 'Rescue or Retreat? The Nation-State in Western Europe, 1945-93', Political Studies, 42 (1996), 52-76.
15. James Caporaso, 'The European Union and Forms of State: Westphalian, Regulatory or Post-Modern?' Journal of Common Market Studies, 34 (1996), 29-52; Gary Marks, Liesbet Hooghe and Kermit Blank, 'European Integration since the 1980s: State-centric Versus Multi-level Governance', Journal of Common Market Studies, 34 (1996), 343-78; Thomas Risse-Kappen, 'Exploring the Nature of the Beast: International Relations Theory and Comparative Policy Analysis Meet the European Union', Journal of Common Market Studies, 34 (1996), 53-80; Wayne Sandholtz and John Zysman, '1992: Recasting the European Bargain', World Politics, 42 (1989), 95-128; William Wallace, 'Rescue or Retreat? The Nation-State in Western Europe, 1945-93', Political Studies, 42 (1996), 52-76.
16. James Caporaso, 'The European Union and Forms of State: Westphalian, Regulatory or Post-Modern?' Journal of Common Market Studies, 34 (1996), 29-52; Gary Marks, Liesbet Hooghe and Kermit Blank, 'European Integration since the 1980s: State-centric Versus Multi-level Governance', Journal of Common Market Studies, 34 (1996), 343-78; Thomas Risse-Kappen, 'Exploring the Nature of the Beast: International Relations Theory and Comparative Policy Analysis Meet the European Union', Journal of Common Market Studies, 34 (1996), 53-80; Wayne Sandholtz and John Zysman, '1992: Recasting the European Bargain', World Politics, 42 (1989), 95-128; William Wallace, 'Rescue or Retreat? The Nation-State in Western Europe, 1945-93', Political Studies, 42 (1996), 52-76.
17. James Caporaso, 'The European Union and Forms of State: Westphalian, Regulatory or Post-Modern?' Journal of Common Market Studies, 34 (1996), 29-52; Gary Marks, Liesbet Hooghe and Kermit Blank, 'European Integration since the 1980s: State-centric Versus Multi-level Governance', Journal of Common Market Studies, 34 (1996), 343-78; Thomas Risse-Kappen, 'Exploring the Nature of the Beast: International Relations Theory and Comparative Policy Analysis Meet the European Union', Journal of Common Market Studies, 34 (1996), 53-80; Wayne Sandholtz and John Zysman, '1992: Recasting the European Bargain', World Politics, 42 (1989), 95-128; William Wallace, 'Rescue or Retreat? The Nation-State in Western Europe, 1945-93', Political Studies, 42 (1996), 52-76.
18. James Caporaso, 'The European Union and Forms of State: Westphalian, Regulatory or Post-Modern?' Journal of Common Market Studies, 34 (1996), 29-52; Gary Marks, Liesbet Hooghe and Kermit Blank, 'European Integration since the 1980s: State-centric Versus Multi-level Governance', Journal of Common Market Studies, 34 (1996), 343-78; Thomas Risse-Kappen, 'Exploring the Nature of the Beast: International Relations Theory and Comparative Policy Analysis Meet the European Union', Journal of Common Market Studies, 34 (1996), 53-80; Wayne Sandholtz and John Zysman, '1992: Recasting the European Bargain', World Politics, 42 (1989), 95-128; William Wallace, 'Rescue or Retreat? The Nation-State in Western Europe, 1945-93', Political Studies, 42 (1996), 52-76.
19. Alberta Sbragia, 'The European Community: A Balancing Act', Publius, 23 (1993), 23-38.
20. See Hix, 'Parties at the European Level'.
21. See Hooghe and Marks, 'The Making of a Polity'; Helen Wallace, 'The Institutions of the EU: Experience and Experiments', in Helen Wallace and William Wallace, eds, Policy Making in the European Union (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996), pp. 37-68; Schmitter, 'How to Democratize the Emerging Euro-polity'.
22. See Hooghe and Marks, 'The Making of a Polity'; Helen Wallace, 'The Institutions of the EU: Experience and Experiments', in Helen Wallace and William Wallace, eds, Policy Making in the European Union (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996), pp. 37-68; Schmitter, 'How to Democratize the Emerging Euro-polity'.
23. See Hooghe and Marks, 'The Making of a Polity' for a detailed analysis; also: Simon Hix and Christopher Lord, Political Parties in the European Union (London: Macmillan, 1997); Martin Rhodes and Bastiaan Van Apeldoorn, 'Capitalism versus Capitalism in Western Europe', in Martin Rhodes, Paul Heywood and Vincent Wright, eds, Developments in West European Politics (New York: St Martin's Press, 1996), 171-89; Stephen Wilks, 'Regulatory Compliance and Capitalist Diversity in Europe', Journal of European Public Policy, 3 (1996), 536-59.
24. See Hooghe and Marks, 'The Making of a Polity' for a detailed analysis; also: Simon Hix and Christopher Lord, Political Parties in the European Union (London: Macmillan, 1997); Martin Rhodes and Bastiaan Van Apeldoorn, 'Capitalism versus Capitalism in Western Europe', in Martin Rhodes, Paul Heywood and Vincent Wright, eds, Developments in West European Politics (New York: St Martin's Press, 1996), 171-89; Stephen Wilks, 'Regulatory Compliance and Capitalist Diversity in Europe', Journal of European Public Policy, 3 (1996), 536-59.
25. See Hooghe and Marks, 'The Making of a Polity' for a detailed analysis; also: Simon Hix and Christopher Lord, Political Parties in the European Union (London: Macmillan, 1997); Martin Rhodes and Bastiaan Van Apeldoorn, 'Capitalism versus Capitalism in Western Europe', in Martin Rhodes, Paul Heywood and Vincent Wright, eds, Developments in West European Politics (New York: St Martin's Press, 1996), 171-89; Stephen Wilks, 'Regulatory Compliance and Capitalist Diversity in Europe', Journal of European Public Policy, 3 (1996), 536-59.
26. Ezra Suleiman, Bureaucrats and Policymaking (New York: Holmes & Meier, 1984).
27. Edward Page, Political Authority and Bureaucratic Power (Whitstable: Harvester Press, 1985); See also: Joel Aberbach, Bert Rockman and Robert Putnam, eds, Bureaucrats and Politicians in Western Democracies (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1981); Joel Aberbach and Bert Rockman, 'The Political Views of US Senior Federal Executives, 1970-1992', Journal of Politics, 57 (1995), 838-52; Barry Z. Pozner and Warren H. Schmidt, 'An Updated Look at the Values and Expectations of Federal Government Executives', Public Administration Review, 54 (1994), 20-4; Ezra Suleiman and Henri Mendras, eds, Le recrutement des élites en Europe (Paris: Editions La Découverte (Collections 'Recherches'), 1995).
28. Edward Page, Political Authority and Bureaucratic Power (Whitstable: Harvester Press, 1985); See also: Joel Aberbach, Bert Rockman and Robert Putnam, eds, Bureaucrats and Politicians in Western Democracies (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1981); Joel Aberbach and Bert Rockman, 'The Political Views of US Senior Federal Executives, 1970-1992', Journal of Politics, 57 (1995), 838-52; Barry Z. Pozner and Warren H. Schmidt, 'An Updated Look at the Values and Expectations of Federal Government Executives', Public Administration Review, 54 (1994), 20-4; Ezra Suleiman and Henri Mendras, eds, Le recrutement des élites en Europe (Paris: Editions La Découverte (Collections 'Recherches'), 1995).
29. Edward Page, Political Authority and Bureaucratic Power (Whitstable: Harvester Press, 1985); See also: Joel Aberbach, Bert Rockman and Robert Putnam, eds, Bureaucrats and Politicians in Western Democracies (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1981); Joel Aberbach and Bert Rockman, 'The Political Views of US Senior Federal Executives, 1970-1992', Journal of Politics, 57 (1995), 838-52; Barry Z. Pozner and Warren H. Schmidt, 'An Updated Look at the Values and Expectations of Federal Government Executives', Public Administration Review, 54 (1994), 20-4; Ezra Suleiman and Henri Mendras, eds, Le recrutement des élites en Europe (Paris: Editions La Découverte (Collections 'Recherches'), 1995).
30. Edward Page, Political Authority and Bureaucratic Power (Whitstable: Harvester Press, 1985); See also: Joel Aberbach, Bert Rockman and Robert Putnam, eds, Bureaucrats and Politicians in Western Democracies (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1981); Joel Aberbach and Bert Rockman, 'The Political Views of US Senior Federal Executives, 1970-1992', Journal of Politics, 57 (1995), 838-52; Barry Z. Pozner and Warren H. Schmidt, 'An Updated Look at the Values and Expectations of Federal Government Executives', Public Administration Review, 54 (1994), 20-4; Ezra Suleiman and Henri Mendras, eds, Le recrutement des élites en Europe (Paris: Editions La Découverte (Collections 'Recherches'), 1995).
31. Edward Page, Political Authority and Bureaucratic Power (Whitstable: Harvester Press, 1985); See also: Joel Aberbach, Bert Rockman and Robert Putnam, eds, Bureaucrats and Politicians in Western Democracies (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1981); Joel Aberbach and Bert Rockman, 'The Political Views of US Senior Federal Executives, 1970-1992', Journal of Politics, 57 (1995), 838-52; Barry Z. Pozner and Warren H. Schmidt, 'An Updated Look at the Values and Expectations of Federal Government Executives', Public Administration Review, 54 (1994), 20-4; Ezra Suleiman and Henri Mendras, eds, Le recrutement des élites en Europe (Paris: Editions La Découverte (Collections 'Recherches'), 1995).
32. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origins and Spread of Nationalism (London: Verso, 1983).
33. Marc Abélès and Irène Bellier, 'La Commission européenne: du compromis culturel à la culture politique du compromis', Revue Française de Science Politique, 46 (1996), 431-56; Edward Page, People Who Run Europe (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997).
34. Marc Abélès and Irène Bellier, 'La Commission européenne: du compromis culturel à la culture politique du compromis', Revue Française de Science Politique, 46 (1996), 431-56; Edward Page, People Who Run Europe (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997).
35. Oblique rotation produces the same four factors. Correlations among the factors are presented in fn. 18. In fn. 5, I report on the marginal effect on the outcome of various treatments of missing values.
36. Each factor has an eigenvalue of more than 1.5. The standard Kaiser's criterion requires a minimal eigenvalue of 1.0, which would have withheld six factors for seventeen variables (with 61 per cent of variance explained). A scree plot demonstrates a downward kick in the curve of variance explained after the fourth factor.
37. See Ernst Haas, The Uniting of Europe (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1958); for an overview, see Laura Cram, 'Integration Theory and the Study of the European Policy Process', in Jeremy Richardson, ed., European Union: Power and Policy Making (London: Routledge, 1997), pp. 40-58. For recent neofunctionalist analyses, see Sandholtz and Zysman, '1992', and Maria Cowles-Green, 'Setting the Agenda for a New Europe: The ERT and 1992', Journal of Common Market Studies, 33 (1995), 501-26.
38. See Ernst Haas, The Uniting of Europe (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1958); for an overview, see Laura Cram, 'Integration Theory and the Study of the European Policy Process', in Jeremy Richardson, ed., European Union: Power and Policy Making (London: Routledge, 1997), pp. 40-58. For recent neofunctionalist analyses, see Sandholtz and Zysman, '1992', and Maria Cowles-Green, 'Setting the Agenda for a New Europe: The ERT and 1992', Journal of Common Market Studies, 33 (1995), 501-26.
39. See Ernst Haas, The Uniting of Europe (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1958); for an overview, see Laura Cram, 'Integration Theory and the Study of the European Policy Process', in Jeremy Richardson, ed., European Union: Power and Policy Making (London: Routledge, 1997), pp. 40-58. For recent neofunctionalist analyses, see Sandholtz and Zysman, '1992', and Maria Cowles-Green, 'Setting the Agenda for a New Europe: The ERT and 1992', Journal of Common Market Studies, 33 (1995), 501-26.
40. Oblique rotation demonstrates that these four factors can be considered orthogonal. The one marginally significant deviation from orthogonality concerns Factors I and II, which suggests that those favouring a more social-orientated EU are also more likely to be believers in the European public interest (p = 0.04, one-tailed significance). The correlation matrix with oblimin procedure gives the following results: Factor II/Factor I, 0.169**; Factor III/Factor I, 0.013; Factor IV/Factor I, 0.050; Factor III/Factor II, - 0.133*; Factor IV/Factor II, - 0.071; Factor IV/Factor III, 0.092 (**p < 0.05, *p < 0.1, one-tailed significance).
41. Scale items are selected on the basis of the exploratory factor analysis (all items with factorloading of 0.40 or more), values are added and the sum is divided by the number of items. Each scale meets the standard criterion of scaling reliability (Cronbach's alpha). The Locus of Authority scale consists of items 1, 2, 3, 4 and 11 (Cronbach's alpha = 0.54). The Decision Making scale consists of items 1,5,6,7 and 15 (Cronbach's alpha = 0.55). The Politics and Market scale has items 9, 10 and 12 (Cronbach's alpha = 0.59; item 6 is excluded because there is virtually no variation and the distribution is highly skewed (mean = 3.9)). And finally, the Public Interest scale consists of items 4, 13, 16 and 17 (Cronbach's alpha = 0.66).
42. Donald Searing makes seminal use of this methodology to unpack British MPs' understanding of their political roles: see Donald Searing, Westminster's World: Understanding Political Roles (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1994).
43. For reasons of space, statistics on individual items are not reported in tabular form, but they can be obtained from the author: lhooghe@chass.utoronto.ca.
44. See Fritz Scharpf, 'Negative and Positive Integration in the Political Economy of European Welfare States', and Wolfgang Streeck, 'Neo-Voluntarism: A New European Social Policy Regime? ' in Gary Marks, Fritz Scharpf, Philippe C. Schmitter, Wolfgang Streeck, eds, Governance in the Emerging Euro-Polity (London: Sage, 1996), pp. 15-39 and 64-94, respectively; also Stephan Leibfried and Paul Pierson, eds, Fragmented Social Policy: The European Union's Social Dimension in Comparative Perspective (Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 1995).
45. See Fritz Scharpf, 'Negative and Positive Integration in the Political Economy of European Welfare States', and Wolfgang Streeck, 'Neo-Voluntarism: A New European Social Policy Regime? ' in Gary Marks, Fritz Scharpf, Philippe C. Schmitter, Wolfgang Streeck, eds, Governance in the Emerging Euro-Polity (London: Sage, 1996), pp. 15-39 and 64-94, respectively; also Stephan Leibfried and Paul Pierson, eds, Fragmented Social Policy: The European Union's Social Dimension in Comparative Perspective (Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 1995).
46. See Fritz Scharpf, 'Negative and Positive Integration in the Political Economy of European Welfare States', and Wolfgang Streeck, 'Neo-Voluntarism: A New European Social Policy Regime? ' in Gary Marks, Fritz Scharpf, Philippe C. Schmitter, Wolfgang Streeck, eds, Governance in the Emerging Euro-Polity (London: Sage, 1996), pp. 15-39 and 64-94, respectively; also Stephan Leibfried and Paul Pierson, eds, Fragmented Social Policy: The European Union's Social Dimension in Comparative Perspective (Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 1995).
47. The mean scores of top and lowest quartile of the Politics/Market scale are significantly different (Bonferroni test, significant at 0.05 level).
48. However, the mean scores of top and lowest quartile do not pass the Bonferroni test (p = 0.13).
49. This work is in progress. For an explanation of variation on the supranational/intergovernmental dimension, see my 'Supranational Activists or Intergovernmental Agents? Explaining Political Orientations of Senior Commission Officials to European Integration', Comparative Political Studies, 32 (1999), forthcoming. For an analysis of the sources of variation on the political regulation/ market liberalism dimension, see my 'Euro-Socialists or Euro-Marketeers? Explaining Contending Orientations to European Capitalism Among Senior Commission Officials' (paper presented at the Conference for Europeanists, Baltimore, February-March 1998).