New Top Elites for Old in Russian Politics

British Journal of Political Science

Volumn 29, Issue 2, 1999, Pages 323-343

  Rigby, T H ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0033464973     PISSN: 00071234     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0007123499000149     Document Type: Article

References (62)

1. See T. H. Rigby, Political Elites in the USSR (Aldershot: Edward Elgar, 1990) chap. 4.
2. See T. H. Rigby and Bohdan Harasymiw, eds, Leadership Selection and Patron-Client Relations in the USSR and Yugoslavia (London: Allen & Unwin, 1983) pp. 9-10; and, more generally, Bohdan Harasymiw, Political Elite Recruitment in the Soviet Union (London: Macmillan, 1994); Michael Vozlensky, 'Nomenklatura: Anatomy of the Soviet Ruling Class (London: The Bodley Head, 1984); and T. P. Korzhikhina and Yu.Yu. Figatner, 'Sovetskaya nomenklatura: stanovlenie, mekhanizmy i deistviya', Voprosy istorii, no. 7 (1993), 25-38.
3. See T. H. Rigby and Bohdan Harasymiw, eds, Leadership Selection and Patron-Client Relations in the USSR and Yugoslavia (London: Allen & Unwin, 1983) pp. 9-10; and, more generally, Bohdan Harasymiw, Political Elite Recruitment in the Soviet Union (London: Macmillan, 1994); Michael Vozlensky, 'Nomenklatura: Anatomy of the Soviet Ruling Class (London: The Bodley Head, 1984); and T. P. Korzhikhina and Yu.Yu. Figatner, 'Sovetskaya nomenklatura: stanovlenie, mekhanizmy i deistviya', Voprosy istorii, no. 7 (1993), 25-38.
4. See T. H. Rigby and Bohdan Harasymiw, eds, Leadership Selection and Patron-Client Relations in the USSR and Yugoslavia (London: Allen & Unwin, 1983) pp. 9-10; and, more generally, Bohdan Harasymiw, Political Elite Recruitment in the Soviet Union (London: Macmillan, 1994); Michael Vozlensky, 'Nomenklatura: Anatomy of the Soviet Ruling Class (London: The Bodley Head, 1984); and T. P. Korzhikhina and Yu.Yu. Figatner, 'Sovetskaya nomenklatura: stanovlenie, mekhanizmy i deistviya', Voprosy istorii, no. 7 (1993), 25-38.
5. See T. H. Rigby and Bohdan Harasymiw, eds, Leadership Selection and Patron-Client Relations in the USSR and Yugoslavia (London: Allen & Unwin, 1983) pp. 9-10; and, more generally, Bohdan Harasymiw, Political Elite Recruitment in the Soviet Union (London: Macmillan, 1994); Michael Vozlensky, 'Nomenklatura: Anatomy of the Soviet Ruling Class (London: The Bodley Head, 1984); and T. P. Korzhikhina and Yu.Yu. Figatner, 'Sovetskaya nomenklatura: stanovlenie, mekhanizmy i deistviya', Voprosy istorii, no. 7 (1993), 25-38.
6. Rigby, Political Elites in the USSR, chap. 5.
7. On this process, see Graeme Gill, in Stephen White, Graeme Gill and Darrell Slider, The Politics of Transition: Shaping a Post-Soviet Future (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), chap. 7.
8. Izvestiya Ts K KPSS, no. 10 (1990), p. 6.
9. Unfortunately, this remains a favoured conceit among some Russian political journalists. For a recent example, see Andrei Kolesnikov, 'New Nomenklatura', New Times (June 1997), 16-19. Even such an acute analyst as Valerii Vyzhutovich could invoke the nomenklatura concept to explain the rise of Yeltsin supporters Yurii Skokov and Oleg Lobov, whereas it was precisely the disintegration of the nomenklatura system that made possible this turn in their political fortunes.
10. David Lane, 'Transition under Eltsin: the Nomenklatura and Political Elite Circulation', Political Studies, 45 (1997), 855-74, p. 860.
11. Lane, 'Transition under Eltsin', p. 873.
12. For an excellent summary account, see Olga Kryshtanovskaya and Stephen White, 'From Soviet Nomenklatura to Russian Elite', Europe-Asia Studies, 48 (1996), 711-33, pp. 716-21.
13. See Olga Kryshtanovskaya, 'Staraya nomenklatura na novyi lad', Obshchestvennye nauki i sovremennost ', no. 1 (1995), pp. 51-65. For a useful summary and discussion of the report's findings, see Olga Kryshtanovskaya, 'The financial oligarchy in Russia', Izvestiya, 10 January 1996. The tabulated results of this study are also reproduced in Kryshtanovskaya and White, 'From Soviet Nomenklatura to Russian Elite', p. 729. For further comment, see M. M. Afanasiev, Pravyashchie elity i gosudarstvennost' v posttotalitarnoi Rossii (Moscow-Voronezh: NPO MODEK, 1996), pp. 168 ff.
14. See Olga Kryshtanovskaya, 'Staraya nomenklatura na novyi lad', Obshchestvennye nauki i sovremennost ', no. 1 (1995), pp. 51-65. For a useful summary and discussion of the report's findings, see Olga Kryshtanovskaya, 'The financial oligarchy in Russia', Izvestiya, 10 January 1996. The tabulated results of this study are also reproduced in Kryshtanovskaya and White, 'From Soviet Nomenklatura to Russian Elite', p. 729. For further comment, see M. M. Afanasiev, Pravyashchie elity i gosudarstvennost' v posttotalitarnoi Rossii (Moscow-Voronezh: NPO MODEK, 1996), pp. 168 ff.
15. See Olga Kryshtanovskaya, 'Staraya nomenklatura na novyi lad', Obshchestvennye nauki i sovremennost ', no. 1 (1995), pp. 51-65. For a useful summary and discussion of the report's findings, see Olga Kryshtanovskaya, 'The financial oligarchy in Russia', Izvestiya, 10 January 1996. The tabulated results of this study are also reproduced in Kryshtanovskaya and White, 'From Soviet Nomenklatura to Russian Elite', p. 729. For further comment, see M. M. Afanasiev, Pravyashchie elity i gosudarstvennost' v posttotalitarnoi Rossii (Moscow-Voronezh: NPO MODEK, 1996), pp. 168 ff.
16. See Olga Kryshtanovskaya, 'Staraya nomenklatura na novyi lad', Obshchestvennye nauki i sovremennost ', no. 1 (1995), pp. 51-65. For a useful summary and discussion of the report's findings, see Olga Kryshtanovskaya, 'The financial oligarchy in Russia', Izvestiya, 10 January 1996. The tabulated results of this study are also reproduced in Kryshtanovskaya and White, 'From Soviet Nomenklatura to Russian Elite', p. 729. For further comment, see M. M. Afanasiev, Pravyashchie elity i gosudarstvennost' v posttotalitarnoi Rossii (Moscow-Voronezh: NPO MODEK, 1996), pp. 168 ff.
17. Kryshtanovskaya and White, 'From Soviet Nomenklatura to Russian Elite', pp. 724-5.
18. Kryshtanovskaya and White, 'From Soviet Nomenklatura to Russian Elite', p. 725.
19. Kryshtanovskaya and White, 'From Soviet Nomenklatura Russian Elite', p. 736.
20. The findings were reported in a special issue of Theory and Society, 24, No. 5 (1995). Of particular interest are the articles by Ivan Szelényi and Szonja Szelényi, 'Circulation or Reproduction of Elites during the Post-Communist Transformation of Eastern Europe: Introduction' (pp. 615-38), and by Eric Hanley, Natasha Yershova and Richard Anderson, 'Old Wine in a New Bottle? The Circulation and Reproduction of Russian Elites' (pp. 639-68). For a brief earlier report on the Russian findings, see N. S. Yershova, 'Transformatsiya pravyashchei elity Rossii v usloviyakh sotsial' nogo pereloma', in T. I. Zaslavskaya and L. A. Arutyunyan, eds, Kuda idet Rossiya? Al'ternativy obshchestvennogo razvitiya, vol. 1. (Moscow: Interpraks, 1994), pp. 151-5. For further details and discussion, see the two-part article by B. V. Golovachev, L. B. Kosova and L. A. Khakhulina, Formirovanie pravyashchei elity v Rossii', Ekonomicheskie i sotsial' nye peremeny: monitoring obshchestvennogo mneniya, No. 6 (1995), 18-24 (Part I), and No. 1 (1996), 32-8 (Part II). Other pertinent publications include Natalya Lapina, 'Die Formierung der neuen russländischen Elite. Probleme der übergangsperiode' (Cologne: BIOst, 1997), Bericht No. 7, and Eberhard Schneider, 'Die Formierung der neuen russländischen politischen Elite' (Cologne. BIOst, 1997) Bericht No. 51.
21. The findings were reported in a special issue of Theory and Society, 24, No. 5 (1995). Of particular interest are the articles by Ivan Szelényi and Szonja Szelényi, 'Circulation or Reproduction of Elites during the Post-Communist Transformation of Eastern Europe: Introduction' (pp. 615-38), and by Eric Hanley, Natasha Yershova and Richard Anderson, 'Old Wine in a New Bottle? The Circulation and Reproduction of Russian Elites' (pp. 639-68). For a brief earlier report on the Russian findings, see N. S. Yershova, 'Transformatsiya pravyashchei elity Rossii v usloviyakh sotsial' nogo pereloma', in T. I. Zaslavskaya and L. A. Arutyunyan, eds, Kuda idet Rossiya? Al'ternativy obshchestvennogo razvitiya, vol. 1. (Moscow: Interpraks, 1994), pp. 151-5. For further details and discussion, see the two-part article by B. V. Golovachev, L. B. Kosova and L. A. Khakhulina, Formirovanie pravyashchei elity v Rossii', Ekonomicheskie i sotsial' nye peremeny: monitoring obshchestvennogo mneniya, No. 6 (1995), 18-24 (Part I), and No. 1 (1996), 32-8 (Part II). Other pertinent publications include Natalya Lapina, 'Die Formierung der neuen russländischen Elite. Probleme der übergangsperiode' (Cologne: BIOst, 1997), Bericht No. 7, and Eberhard Schneider, 'Die Formierung der neuen russländischen politischen Elite' (Cologne. BIOst, 1997) Bericht No. 51.
22. The findings were reported in a special issue of Theory and Society, 24, No. 5 (1995). Of particular interest are the articles by Ivan Szelényi and Szonja Szelényi, 'Circulation or Reproduction of Elites during the Post-Communist Transformation of Eastern Europe: Introduction' (pp. 615-38), and by Eric Hanley, Natasha Yershova and Richard Anderson, 'Old Wine in a New Bottle? The Circulation and Reproduction of Russian Elites' (pp. 639-68). For a brief earlier report on the Russian findings, see N. S. Yershova, 'Transformatsiya pravyashchei elity Rossii v usloviyakh sotsial' nogo pereloma', in T. I. Zaslavskaya and L. A. Arutyunyan, eds, Kuda idet Rossiya? Al'ternativy obshchestvennogo razvitiya, vol. 1. (Moscow: Interpraks, 1994), pp. 151-5. For further details and discussion, see the two-part article by B. V. Golovachev, L. B. Kosova and L. A. Khakhulina, Formirovanie pravyashchei elity v Rossii', Ekonomicheskie i sotsial' nye peremeny: monitoring obshchestvennogo mneniya, No. 6 (1995), 18-24 (Part I), and No. 1 (1996), 32-8 (Part II). Other pertinent publications include Natalya Lapina, 'Die Formierung der neuen russländischen Elite. Probleme der übergangsperiode' (Cologne: BIOst, 1997), Bericht No. 7, and Eberhard Schneider, 'Die Formierung der neuen russländischen politischen Elite' (Cologne. BIOst, 1997) Bericht No. 51.
23. The findings were reported in a special issue of Theory and Society, 24, No. 5 (1995). Of particular interest are the articles by Ivan Szelényi and Szonja Szelényi, 'Circulation or Reproduction of Elites during the Post-Communist Transformation of Eastern Europe: Introduction' (pp. 615-38), and by Eric Hanley, Natasha Yershova and Richard Anderson, 'Old Wine in a New Bottle? The Circulation and Reproduction of Russian Elites' (pp. 639-68). For a brief earlier report on the Russian findings, see N. S. Yershova, 'Transformatsiya pravyashchei elity Rossii v usloviyakh sotsial' nogo pereloma', in T. I. Zaslavskaya and L. A. Arutyunyan, eds, Kuda idet Rossiya? Al'ternativy obshchestvennogo razvitiya, vol. 1. (Moscow: Interpraks, 1994), pp. 151-5. For further details and discussion, see the two-part article by B. V. Golovachev, L. B. Kosova and L. A. Khakhulina, Formirovanie pravyashchei elity v Rossii', Ekonomicheskie i sotsial' nye peremeny: monitoring obshchestvennogo mneniya, No. 6 (1995), 18-24 (Part I), and No. 1 (1996), 32-8 (Part II). Other pertinent publications include Natalya Lapina, 'Die Formierung der neuen russländischen Elite. Probleme der übergangsperiode' (Cologne: BIOst, 1997), Bericht No. 7, and Eberhard Schneider, 'Die Formierung der neuen russländischen politischen Elite' (Cologne. BIOst, 1997) Bericht No. 51.
24. The findings were reported in a special issue of Theory and Society, 24, No. 5 (1995). Of particular interest are the articles by Ivan Szelényi and Szonja Szelényi, 'Circulation or Reproduction of Elites during the Post-Communist Transformation of Eastern Europe: Introduction' (pp. 615-38), and by Eric Hanley, Natasha Yershova and Richard Anderson, 'Old Wine in a New Bottle? The Circulation and Reproduction of Russian Elites' (pp. 639-68). For a brief earlier report on the Russian findings, see N. S. Yershova, 'Transformatsiya pravyashchei elity Rossii v usloviyakh sotsial' nogo pereloma', in T. I. Zaslavskaya and L. A. Arutyunyan, eds, Kuda idet Rossiya? Al'ternativy obshchestvennogo razvitiya, vol. 1. (Moscow: Interpraks, 1994), pp. 151-5. For further details and discussion, see the two-part article by B. V. Golovachev, L. B. Kosova and L. A. Khakhulina, Formirovanie pravyashchei elity v Rossii', Ekonomicheskie i sotsial' nye peremeny: monitoring obshchestvennogo mneniya, No. 6 (1995), 18-24 (Part I), and No. 1 (1996), 32-8 (Part II). Other pertinent publications include Natalya Lapina, 'Die Formierung der neuen russländischen Elite. Probleme der übergangsperiode' (Cologne: BIOst, 1997), Bericht No. 7, and Eberhard Schneider, 'Die Formierung der neuen russländischen politischen Elite' (Cologne. BIOst, 1997) Bericht No. 51.
25. The findings were reported in a special issue of Theory and Society, 24, No. 5 (1995). Of particular interest are the articles by Ivan Szelényi and Szonja Szelényi, 'Circulation or Reproduction of Elites during the Post-Communist Transformation of Eastern Europe: Introduction' (pp. 615-38), and by Eric Hanley, Natasha Yershova and Richard Anderson, 'Old Wine in a New Bottle? The Circulation and Reproduction of Russian Elites' (pp. 639-68). For a brief earlier report on the Russian findings, see N. S. Yershova, 'Transformatsiya pravyashchei elity Rossii v usloviyakh sotsial' nogo pereloma', in T. I. Zaslavskaya and L. A. Arutyunyan, eds, Kuda idet Rossiya? Al'ternativy obshchestvennogo razvitiya, vol. 1. (Moscow: Interpraks, 1994), pp. 151-5. For further details and discussion, see the two-part article by B. V. Golovachev, L. B. Kosova and L. A. Khakhulina, Formirovanie pravyashchei elity v Rossii', Ekonomicheskie i sotsial' nye peremeny: monitoring obshchestvennogo mneniya, No. 6 (1995), 18-24 (Part I), and No. 1 (1996), 32-8 (Part II). Other pertinent publications include Natalya Lapina, 'Die Formierung der neuen russländischen Elite. Probleme der übergangsperiode' (Cologne: BIOst, 1997), Bericht No. 7, and Eberhard Schneider, 'Die Formierung der neuen russländischen politischen Elite' (Cologne. BIOst, 1997) Bericht No. 51.
26. Szelényi and Szelényi, 'Circulation and Reproduction of Elites', p. 620. For a fuller description of the Russian interviewees, see Golovachev, Kosova and Khakhulina, 'Formirovanie pravyaschei elity', Part I, p. 19.
27. Szelényi and Szelényi, 'Circulation and Reproduction of Elites', p. 620. For a fuller description of the Russian interviewees, see Golovachev, Kosova and Khakhulina, 'Formirovanie pravyaschei elity', Part I, p. 19.
28. Kto est' kto v Rossii i v blizhnem zarubezh'e: Spravochnik (Moscow: Novoye vremya, 1993).
29. Hanley, Yershova and Anderson, 'Old Wine in a New Bottle?', Table 3, p. 657. What 'nomenklatura' meant in concrete terms in this context is not fully explained. See also p. 661 for further data on the scale and direction of elite flows between 1988 and 1993.
30. Szelényi and Szelényi, 'Circulation and Reproduction of Elites', Table 9, p. 629.
31. Including Aleksandr Lebed', not formally a faction chairman: see below.
32. The upper house of parliament, the Federation Council, comprises ex officio the legislative and executive chiefs of Russia's eighty-nine regions and republics, which is where their primary responsibilities lie, so they are properly seen as the core of the regional elite. It is arguable, however, that the Federation Council Chairman should be included in our top elite, in view of his substantial role in national politics. The incumbent in 1996, Yegor Stroyev, a 59-year-old ex-Communist Party official, was elected in 1993 as 'governor' of the Orel region where he had been CPSU First Secretary under Gorbachev. Although closer to the communists in policy, he was consistently co-operative with President Yeltsin, which is seen as helping him secure benefits for his region as well as easing his election as Federation Council chairman in January 1996.
33. See A. F. Nozdrachev and Yu. A. Tikhomirov, eds, Ispolnitel'naya vlast' v Rossiiskoi Federatsii (Moscow: Izdatel'stvo Bek, 1996) p. 135.
34. The chief source of biographical data is Pavel Gazukin and Vladimir Pribylovsky, Pravitel'stvo Rossiiskoi Federatsii (1996): Biograficheskii spravochnik (Moscow: Panorama, 1996), supplemented by details culled from a variety of other Russian sources.
35. V. E. Fortov, V. A. Mikhailov, V. N. Mikhailov, V. P. Orlov, Z. P. Pak, E. M. Primakov, I. N. Rodionov, N. P. Tsakh and Yu. A. Bespalov.
36. 'Connections' normally involve a reciprocity of informal favour, and the terms 'patron' and 'client' may occasionally exaggerate the verticality of the connection involved, inviting us to substitute 'allies', but they are generally appropriate in the present context. David Lane has shown that 'connections' were seen as the most important determinant of promotion by a sample of 100 leading Russian politicians interviewed in 1994. See Lane, 'Transition under Eltsin', p. 864. The Russian component of the Szelényi-Treiman project found that 'knowing the right people' was seen as the third (out of ten) most important condition of success by leading politicians in both 1988 and 1993 (preceded in the former year only by 'having a good education' and 'working hard', and in the latter by 'working hard' and 'being prepared to take risks'). See Golovachev, Kosova and Khakhulina, 'Formirovanie pravyashchei elity', Part II, p. 34. The patron-client linkages posited below are largely deduced by the author from career histories, supplemented by media sources, and the lists are not claimed to be either exhaustive or infallible.
37. 'Connections' normally involve a reciprocity of informal favour, and the terms 'patron' and 'client' may occasionally exaggerate the verticality of the connection involved, inviting us to substitute 'allies', but they are generally appropriate in the present context. David Lane has shown that 'connections' were seen as the most important determinant of promotion by a sample of 100 leading Russian politicians interviewed in 1994. See Lane, 'Transition under Eltsin', p. 864. The Russian component of the Szelényi-Treiman project found that 'knowing the right people' was seen as the third (out of ten) most important condition of success by leading politicians in both 1988 and 1993 (preceded in the former year only by 'having a good education' and 'working hard', and in the latter by 'working hard' and 'being prepared to take risks'). See Golovachev, Kosova and Khakhulina, 'Formirovanie pravyashchei elity', Part II, p. 34. The patron-client linkages posited below are largely deduced by the author from career histories, supplemented by media sources, and the lists are not claimed to be either exhaustive or infallible.
38. V. V. Ilyushin, A. Ya. Livshits, O. I. Lobov, V. M. Serov, V. B. Bulgak and A. S. Kulikov. Note that Ilyushin was one of the two first deputy premiers while Livshits, Lobov and Serov were all deputy premiers (of whom there were five others). Thus only two of Yeltsin's 'clients' in the government were ordinary ministers.
39. Deputy Premiers V. S. Babichev and O. D. Davydov and ministers V. G. Kinelev, P. I . Rodionov and E. Yu. Sidorov.
40. Premier V. S. Chernomyrdin, first Deputy Premier A. A. Bol'shakov, Deputy Premiers A. Kh. Zaveryukha and V. N. Ignatenko, and ministers E. V. Basin, A. A. Zaitsev, A. M. Tuleev, V. N. Khlystun, S. N. Shoigu and V. A. Kovalev.
41. Physically as well as functionally, since presidential officials quickly populated the warren of office buildings in and around Old Square, a few minutes walk from the Kremlin, which had been the CC's 'Vatican' for decades.
42. Schneider, 'Die Formierung der russischen politischen Elite', p. 8. Many thousands of other personnel are employed by the presidential administration as junior office personnel, technicians, guards, maintenance and transport personnel, etc.
43. In 1988 there were 1,940 executive officials in the Central Committee apparatus. The radical narrowing of party functions that ensued brought the number down to 1,260 by July 1989. See Izvestiya Tsentral'nogo Komiteta KPSS, No. 1 (1989), p. 85, and Gordon M. Hahn, 'The First Reorganization of the Central Committee apparat under Perestroika', Europe-Asia Studies, 49 (1997), 281-302, p. 284.
44. In 1988 there were 1,940 executive officials in the Central Committee apparatus. The radical narrowing of party functions that ensued brought the number down to 1,260 by July 1989. See Izvestiya Tsentral'nogo Komiteta KPSS, No. 1 (1989), p. 85, and Gordon M. Hahn, 'The First Reorganization of the Central Committee apparat under Perestroika', Europe-Asia Studies, 49 (1997), 281-302, p. 284.
45. In terms of the same logic the ministers of foreign affairs and defence should perhaps be included in the present context as well, but on balance it seemed more appropriate here to place them in my government category.
46. This coincided with Yeltsin's presidential victory, the lead-up to his heart operation, and his subsequent convalescence. A further major shake-up began in March 1997.
47. For the purposes of this analysis 'the presidency' comprises President Yeltsin, Security Council Secretary I. P. Rybkin, Defence Council Secretary Yu. M. Baturin, Federal Security Service Director N. D. Kovalev, Foreign Intelligence Service Director V. I. Trubnikov, Presidential Administration Leader A. B. Chubais, First Deputy Leader A. I. Kazakov, Deputy Leaders M. V. Boiko, R. G. Orekhov, R. V. Savostyanov, A. L. Kudrin, and Yu. F. Yarov, Deputy Head of the Analytical Directorate E. A. Pain, Office Director P. P. Borodin and Deputy Director V. V. Putin, Press Secretary S. V. Yastrzhembsky, the president's representatives in the State Duma and Federation Council, respectively A. A. Kotenkov and A. Ya. Silva, Assistant on Legal Questions M. A. Krasnov, Advisers V. V. Volkov and S. N. Krasavchenko, and Head of the President's Co-ordinating Committee on Physical Culture and Sport Sh. A. Tarpishchev.
48. The largest source of biographical data in this section and the following section on the parliamentary elite is Vladimir Pribylovsky, Rossiiskie politiki ot A do Ya. 471 biografiya, Parts I and II (Moscow: Panorama, 1996).
49. Thus Vyacheslav Kostikov reports that, although first assistant to the president, Viktor Ilyushin 'did not like it when serious cadre questions were decided over his head'. Kostikov owed his own appointment as Yeltsin's press secretary in 1992 to his friend and one-time colleague Mikhail Poltoranin, at that time a deputy premier and press and information minister, who directly recommended him to the president. See Vyacheslav Kostikov, Roman s Prezidentom (Moscow: Vagrius, 1997) pp. 33-4. He also testifies to the significant role of presidential speech-writer Lyudmila Pikoya in a number of senior 1994 appointments (p. 274), and to the often ill-judged influence of Yeltsin's friend and bodyguard Alexandr Korzhakov in the making of senior political and administrative appointments generally (p. 252). For his part Korzhakov writes that 'there was a time when [Poltoranin] had influence with [President Yeltsin], which expressed itself in protectionist cadre appointments within the presidential team' (see Aleksandr Korzhakov, Boris El'sin: ot rassveta do zakata (Moscow: Interbuk, 1997), p. 251, and defends the superiority of his own 'cadre' advice, notably on the naming of First Vice-Premier Oleg Soskovets to organize the 1996 presidential elections (p. 321), a decision reversed by Yeltsin shortly before Korzhakov's own dismissal.
50. Thus Vyacheslav Kostikov reports that, although first assistant to the president, Viktor Ilyushin 'did not like it when serious cadre questions were decided over his head'. Kostikov owed his own appointment as Yeltsin's press secretary in 1992 to his friend and one-time colleague Mikhail Poltoranin, at that time a deputy premier and press and information minister, who directly recommended him to the president. See Vyacheslav Kostikov, Roman s Prezidentom (Moscow: Vagrius, 1997) pp. 33-4. He also testifies to the significant role of presidential speech-writer Lyudmila Pikoya in a number of senior 1994 appointments (p. 274), and to the often ill-judged influence of Yeltsin's friend and bodyguard Alexandr Korzhakov in the making of senior political and administrative appointments generally (p. 252). For his part Korzhakov writes that 'there was a time when [Poltoranin] had influence with [President Yeltsin], which expressed itself in protectionist cadre appointments within the presidential team' (see Aleksandr Korzhakov, Boris El'sin: ot rassveta do zakata (Moscow: Interbuk, 1997), p. 251, and defends the superiority of his own 'cadre' advice, notably on the naming of First Vice-Premier Oleg Soskovets to organize the 1996 presidential elections (p. 321), a decision reversed by Yeltsin shortly before Korzhakov's own dismissal.
51. They were M. V. Boiko, V. V. Putin, Yu. F. Yarov and A. L. Kudrin. R. G. Orekhov, A. Ya Sliva and A. A. Kotenkov evidently owed their advancement to the support of Sergei Shakhrai, V. V. Volkov to the then Head of Administration Sergei Filatov, while P. P. Borodin owed his to the good offices of Aleksandr Korzhakov and Mikhail Barsukov.
52. Borodin, Kotenkov, Sliva and Volkov.
53. I. P. Rybkin, A. B. Chubais and S. N. Krasavchenko.
54. Factions must consist of at least thirty-five deputies, and crucial here was whether or not the party or other grouping of candidates crossed the 5 per cent threshold in the vote for the 225 seats filled on a list basis. Of the forty-three groupings competing, only four, namely the Communist Party of the Russian Federation (CPRF), Zhirinovsky's Liberal-Democratic Party of Russia (LDPR), Premier Chernomyrdin's Our Home is Russia (NDR) and Yavlinsky's Yabloko Movement managed this, but three other factions were cobbled together from local constituency deputies, namely Russia's Regions, Power to the People, and the Agrarian Party of Russia. Bringing a faction up to the thirty-five minimum could involve 'borrowing' deputies from other parties/factions, for example the Agrarian Faction from the CPRF. Twenty-three parties and other groupings are represented in the present State Duma (though fifteen of them by one to three deputies only), and there are seventy-seven deputies elected as independents.
55. G. N. Seleznev, G. A. Zyuganov, N. I. Ryzhkov, A. I. Lukyanov, Yu. D. Maslyukov, V. I. Varennikov, L. A. Ivanchenko, V. I. Zorkal'tsev, A. S. Skokov, V. K. Gusev and A. A. Chernyshev.
56. Health Minister Tatyana Dmitrieva, Duma Presidium member Svetlana Goryacheva, and the chairmen of two of the twenty-eight Duma Committees: Alevtina Aparina (Women's Affairs) and Tamara Zlotnikova (Ecology). Dmitrieva claims no party affiliation, Zlotnikova is a Yabloko member, and the other two are CPRF members.
57. The sole presidency official aged over 60 is the president himself.
58. For example, Yeltsin's father was a kolkhoznik become construction-worker and Chernomyrdin's a tractor-driver, while those of Chubais and Yavlinsky were both army officers.
59. This applied at Politburo level as well as the Council of Ministers. In 1971 twelve Politburo members had technical qualifications (although two only to secondary level), there was one economics graduate (Suslov), one of the Institute of Red Professors (Pel'she), and one (Shelepin) of the Moscow Institute of History, Philosophy and Literature. See Rigby, Political Elites in the USSR, pp. 172-4. Among regional leaders, a substantial majority had tertiary training in agriculture, while pedagogical qualifications were the third most common.
60. Classification here must contend with the wide variety of fields of specialization and with borderline problems. I have not attempted to separate various branches of industrial engineering from other technical specializations. The 'natural sciences' graduates were in such fields as geomorphology and oceanography. The medical graduate went on to specialize in psychiatric medicine.
61. Szelényi and Szelényi, 'Circulation and Reproduction of Elites'; and Hanley, Yershova and Anderson, 'Russia-Old Wine in a New Bottle?' esp. pp. 665-7.
62. See John Higley and Jan Pakulski, 'Elite Transformation in Central and Eastern Europe', Australian Journal of Political Science, 30 (1995), 415-35, esp. pp. 428-30.