Ski-dogs, pol-cats, and the mechanization of winter: The development of recreational snowmobiling in North America

Technology and Culture

Volumn 40, Issue 3, 1999, Pages 484-516

  Reich, Leonard S ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0033454533     PISSN: 0040165X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
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References (172)

1. Roger Lacasse, Joseph-Armand Bombardier: An Inventor's Dream Come True (Montreal, 1988), 143-58.
2. Edwin Hall, "The 'Iron Dog' of Northern Alaska," Anthropologica 13 (1971): 250-51. H. V. Bloomfield, "Snowmobiles - Boon or Bane?" American Forests 75 (May 1969): 51, italics added.
3. Edwin Hall, "The 'Iron Dog' of Northern Alaska," Anthropologica 13 (1971): 250-51. H. V. Bloomfield, "Snowmobiles - Boon or Bane?" American Forests 75 (May 1969): 51, italics added.
4. The "Ski-Dog" locution was difficult for francophenes. Company lore has it that when an employee mistakenly stenciled a second o on a shipping crate in lieu of the g, Bombardier saw it, liked it, and changed the name on the spot.
5. Robert C. Post, High Performance: The Culture and Technology of Drag Racing, 1950-1990 (Baltimore, 1994), ix. Post was not the first to explore the power of enthusiasm to develop technology well beyond the bounds of economic self-interest. Post himself makes reference (p. x) to the works of Brooke Hindle, Eugene Ferguson, and John B. Rae.
6. Langdon Winner, Autonomous Technology: Technics-out-of Control as a Theme in Political Thought (Cambridge, Mass., 1977), 323.
7. Pertti J. Pelto, The Snowmobile Revolution: Technology and Social Change in the Arctic, rev. ed. (Prospect Heights, Ill., 1987), 177, 179.
8. Gene Schnaser, "Pioneers of Snow Travel," part 1, Sno Goer, January 1971, 36; Rudolf Kubelka, U.S. patent no. 861,037 (1907).
9. Gene Schnaser, "Pioneers of Snow Travel," part 1, Sno Goer, January 1971, 36; Rudolf Kubelka, U.S. patent no. 861,037 (1907).
10. "Types of Motor Sleighs Produced During the Past Winter in the United States and Europe," Popular Mechanics, 4 April 1912, 468-70. One propeller-driven machine pictured "was timed at speeds approximating 140 miles an hour" on a frozen bay. I thank Barney Mergen for bringing this material to my attention.
11. Paul Doherty, "Granite State Snowmobile History," New England's World of Snowmobiling, October 1970, 17-18. This is not to say that the White Snowmobile was never used for fun. The January 1967 issue of Sno Goer (inside front cover) shows two of them lined up to race on a frozen Wisconsin lake bed in 1926. Question: "When was the first snowmobile race?" Answer: "When the second snowmobile was finished."
12. Lacasse (n. 1 above), 32-35, 38. In the "B7," "B" is for Bombardier, "7" for the number of passengers. The Chrysler Corporation supplied Bombardier's engines, transmissions, and differentials.
13. Lacasse, 97-99; Gene Schnaser, "Pioneers of Snow Travel," part 3, Sno Goer, March 1971, 22-23.
14. Lacasse, 97-99; Gene Schnaser, "Pioneers of Snow Travel," part 3, Sno Goer, March 1971, 22-23.
15. Lacasse, 113-40.
16. The use of "cat" was an allusion to the Caterpil ar Company's line of tracked vehicles. Grain elevator chutes have endless tracks, and the Polaris engineers modified one for use in their first snowmobiles. Jerry Bassett, Po'aris Pioneers (St. Paul, 1989), 13-18.
17. Annual Polaris snowmobile production was in the range of two hundred to five hundred machines through the 1950s, as the company continued to depend on its farm machinery sales. Bassett, 25-39, quotation on 28. The sales figure for winter 1957-58 was about three hundred. Paul Doherty, "Some Call it the Devil's Invention," New England's World of Snowmobiling, October 1970, 34; C. J. Ramstad, Legend: Arctic Cat's First Quarter Century (Deephaven, Minn., 1987), 18. An early employee recalled, "If you were chased by dogs while on a test drive, they'd catch you"; Ramstad, 47.
18. Annual Polaris snowmobile production was in the range of two hundred to five hundred machines through the 1950s, as the company continued to depend on its farm machinery sales. Bassett, 25-39, quotation on 28. The sales figure for winter 1957-58 was about three hundred. Paul Doherty, "Some Call it the Devil's Invention," New England's World of Snowmobiling, October 1970, 34; C. J. Ramstad, Legend: Arctic Cat's First Quarter Century (Deephaven, Minn., 1987), 18. An early employee recalled, "If you were chased by dogs while on a test drive, they'd catch you"; Ramstad, 47.
19. Annual Polaris snowmobile production was in the range of two hundred to five hundred machines through the 1950s, as the company continued to depend on its farm machinery sales. Bassett, 25-39, quotation on 28. The sales figure for winter 1957-58 was about three hundred. Paul Doherty, "Some Call it the Devil's Invention," New England's World of Snowmobiling, October 1970, 34; C. J. Ramstad, Legend: Arctic Cat's First Quarter Century (Deephaven, Minn., 1987), 18. An early employee recalled, "If you were chased by dogs while on a test drive, they'd catch you"; Ramstad, 47.
20. Michael Dapper, Illustrated Polaris Snowmobile Buyer's Guide (Osceola, Wisc., 1993), 19-39. The term "business-technology mind-set" comes from Reese Jenkins, Images and Enterprise (Baltimore, 1975) and means the conceptions, assumptions, attitudes, and values that a company (or an entire industry) holds about the appropriate form of commercial technology and effective ways of doing business. Despite entreaties from its dealers and distributors, Polaris refused to change the basic form of its product into the mid-1960s. Robert Morrill, Polaris distributor for Maine and New Hampshire from 1958 to 1964, interview by author, 16 July 1996. In 1964, Morrill dropped Polaris for Moto-Ski, which was similar to Ski-Doo.
21. Ramstad, 21-36. Operating on borrowed money, Arctic remained short of capital for the next two decades - a condition that plagued most of the early snowmobile manufacturers.
22. Peter Hunn, The Old Outboard Book (Camden, Maine, 1994), 9-23. The original advertisement for the Evinrude outboard called it a "Detachable Row Boat Motor." Jeffrey Rodengen, Evinrude, Johnson, and the Legend of OMC (Ft. Lauderdale, Fla., 1992), 16. Introduction of the water ski at the same time created a new market area and significantly boosted the demand for outboard motorboats. I ouis Lanier, "An Exploratory Study of Use Patterns and User Characteristics of Michigan Snowmobile Users" (Ph.D. diss., Michigan State University, 1974), 74.
23. Peter Hunn, The Old Outboard Book (Camden, Maine, 1994), 9-23. The original advertisement for the Evinrude outboard called it a "Detachable Row Boat Motor." Jeffrey Rodengen, Evinrude, Johnson, and the Legend of OMC (Ft. Lauderdale, Fla., 1992), 16. Introduction of the water ski at the same time created a new market area and significantly boosted the demand for outboard motorboats. I ouis Lanier, "An Exploratory Study of Use Patterns and User Characteristics of Michigan Snowmobile Users" (Ph.D. diss., Michigan State University, 1974), 74.
24. The original advertisement for the Evinrude outboard called it a "Detachable Row Boat Motor." Jeffrey Rodengen, Evinrude, Johnson, and the Legend of OMC (Ft. Lauderdale, Fla., 1992), 16. Introduction of the water ski at the same time created a new market area and significantly boosted the demand for outboard motorboats. I ouis Lanier, "An Exploratory Study of Use Patterns and User Characteristics of Michigan Snowmobile Users" (Ph.D. diss., Michigan State University, 1974), 74.
25. In one such encounter, Robert Morrill's explanation of the machine's purpose was met with the retort, "Why would anyone want to do THAT?" Before the mid-1960s such reactions were common (Morrill interview).
26. Ramstad, 41-42; Bill Vint, The Warriors of Winter (Milwaukee, Wise., 1977), 25-27; Seth King, "Snowmobiles Mix Headaches with Thrills," New York Times, 9 February 1970. Early auto races and organized "tours" were avowedly for promotional purposes. Robert Morrill recalled that his business organized races somewhere in Maine almost every weekend, all winter long (Morrill interview). New Hampshire Ski-Doo distributor Robert Bottoms sent a racing team into Maine and as far west as the Adirondack region of New York; Bottoms, interview by author, 24 July 1996. Snowmobile racing grew into big-time sport during the late 1960s and early 1970s, with manufacturers fielding factory teams. Bombardier even had its own DC-3 aircraft to haul the men and equipment from one venue to another. James Tuite, "Racers' 3-Day Grand Prix Carnival of Noise and Color," New York Times, 28 February 1971, sec. 5.
27. Ramstad, 41-42; Bill Vint, The Warriors of Winter (Milwaukee, Wise., 1977), 25-27; Seth King, "Snowmobiles Mix Headaches with Thrills," New York Times, 9 February 1970. Early auto races and organized "tours" were avowedly for promotional purposes. Robert Morrill recalled that his business organized races somewhere in Maine almost every weekend, all winter long (Morrill interview). New Hampshire Ski-Doo distributor Robert Bottoms sent a racing team into Maine and as far west as the Adirondack region of New York; Bottoms, interview by author, 24 July 1996. Snowmobile racing grew into big-time sport during the late 1960s and early 1970s, with manufacturers fielding factory teams. Bombardier even had its own DC-3 aircraft to haul the men and equipment from one venue to another. James Tuite, "Racers' 3-Day Grand Prix Carnival of Noise and Color," New York Times, 28 February 1971, sec. 5.
28. Ramstad, 41-42; Bill Vint, The Warriors of Winter (Milwaukee, Wise., 1977), 25-27; Seth King, "Snowmobiles Mix Headaches with Thrills," New York Times, 9 February 1970. Early auto races and organized "tours" were avowedly for promotional purposes. Robert Morrill recalled that his business organized races somewhere in Maine almost every weekend, all winter long (Morrill interview). New Hampshire Ski-Doo distributor Robert Bottoms sent a racing team into Maine and as far west as the Adirondack region of New York; Bottoms, interview by author, 24 July 1996. Snowmobile racing grew into big-time sport during the late 1960s and early 1970s, with manufacturers fielding factory teams. Bombardier even had its own DC-3 aircraft to haul the men and equipment from one venue to another. James Tuite, "Racers' 3-Day Grand Prix Carnival of Noise and Color," New York Times, 28 February 1971, sec. 5.
29. Ramstad, 41-42; Bill Vint, The Warriors of Winter (Milwaukee, Wise., 1977), 25-27; Seth King, "Snowmobiles Mix Headaches with Thrills," New York Times, 9 February 1970. Early auto races and organized "tours" were avowedly for promotional purposes. Robert Morrill recalled that his business organized races somewhere in Maine almost every weekend, all winter long (Morrill interview). New Hampshire Ski-Doo distributor Robert Bottoms sent a racing team into Maine and as far west as the Adirondack region of New York; Bottoms, interview by author, 24 July 1996. Snowmobile racing grew into big-time sport during the late 1960s and early 1970s, with manufacturers fielding factory teams. Bombardier even had its own DC-3 aircraft to haul the men and equipment from one venue to another. James Tuite, "Racers' 3-Day Grand Prix Carnival of Noise and Color," New York Times, 28 February 1971, sec. 5.
30. Ramstad (n. 14 above), 33-41 (quotation on 34); Paul Doherty, "Back-Tracking: Notes Toward a History of the Snowmachine in New Hampshire," Magnetic North, spring 1986, 10.
31. Ramstad (n. 14 above), 33-41 (quotation on 34); Paul Doherty, "Back-Tracking: Notes Toward a History of the Snowmachine in New Hampshire," Magnetic North, spring 1986, 10.
32. Philip Mickelson, Illustrated Ski-Doo Snowmobile Buyer's Guide (Osceola, Wisc., 1994), 10-11. The Bombardier August 1959 product brochure, shown on the same page, illustrates four vehicles, including "SKIDOG: the motorized dog team."
33. Bombardier, Inc., Bombardier - A Dream with International Reach (Montreal, 1992), 43; J.-A. Bombardier Foundation, Ski-Doo: As Long as there's Winter ( 1991), 4, italics added. The dynamic action of a televised snowmobile commercial engaged the viewer as no print ad could. Bombardier's snowmobile marketing budget rose to $5 million in 1969. By the early 1970s, over 90 percent of snowmobiles sold were primarily for recreational purposes. James Whittaker and Dennis Wentworth, "Maine Snowmoble Owners," Research in the Life Sciences 20 (July 1972), 4.
34. Bombardier, Inc., Bombardier - A Dream with International Reach (Montreal, 1992), 43; J.-A. Bombardier Foundation, Ski-Doo: As Long as there's Winter ( 1991), 4, italics added. The dynamic action of a televised snowmobile commercial engaged the viewer as no print ad could. Bombardier's snowmobile marketing budget rose to $5 million in 1969. By the early 1970s, over 90 percent of snowmobiles sold were primarily for recreational purposes. James Whittaker and Dennis Wentworth, "Maine Snowmoble Owners," Research in the Life Sciences 20 (July 1972), 4.
35. Bombardier, Inc., Bombardier - A Dream with International Reach (Montreal, 1992), 43; J.-A. Bombardier Foundation, Ski-Doo: As Long as there's Winter ( 1991), 4, italics added. The dynamic action of a televised snowmobile commercial engaged the viewer as no print ad could. Bombardier's snowmobile marketing budget rose to $5 million in 1969. By the early 1970s, over 90 percent of snowmobiles sold were primarily for recreational purposes. James Whittaker and Dennis Wentworth, "Maine Snowmoble Owners," Research in the Life Sciences 20 (July 1972), 4.
36. Lacasse (n. 1 above), 148, 160; Mickelson, 12-21, 40. Production figures rounded to nearest hundred. Production for 1966 not available. Bombardier, Inc., Bombardier - A Dream with International Reach, 43.
37. Lacasse (n. 1 above), 148, 160; Mickelson, 12-21, 40. Production figures rounded to nearest hundred. Production for 1966 not available. Bombardier, Inc., Bombardier - A Dream with International Reach, 43.
38. Lacasse (n. 1 above), 148, 160; Mickelson, 12-21, 40. Production figures rounded to nearest hundred. Production for 1966 not available. Bombardier, Inc., Bombardier -A Dream with International Reach, 43.
39. Doherty, "Back-Tracking," 11. The Outboard Marine Corporation, which made Johnson and Evinrude outboard motors at this time, attempted to purchase Bombardier in 1962 but decided to proceed independently. The Evinrude Skeeter was identical to the Skee-Horse. Rodengen (n. 17 above), 76-77. An Outboard Marine spokesman declared that the company "sees snowmobiling as the winter equivalent of boating." Some Evinrude dealers in northern locations sold more snowmobiles than outboard motors in 1964. "Put a Motor on a 'Sled' - and Go," Business Week, 2 January 1965, 42. Leonard Sloane, "What's a Cross Between Bobsled and Half-Track and Sells for $600-$1,700?" New York Times, 3 December 1967, sec. 3.
40. As historian John B. Rae remarked about early automotive entrepreneurs, "|T]hey seem to have preferred to go broke manufacturing automobiles than to get rich doing something else." The same was true of snowmobile makers a half-century later. Between 1895 and 1910, over six hundred manufacturers entered the auto market. Almost all failed. Rae, "Why Michigan?" in The Automobile in American Culture, ed. David Lewis and Laurence Goldstein (Ann Arbor, Mich. 1983), 6; James Flink, America Adopts the Automobile, 1895-1919 (Cambridge, Mass., 1970), 57.
41. As historian John B. Rae remarked about early automotive entrepreneurs, "|T]hey seem to have preferred to go broke manufacturing automobiles than to get rich doing something else." The same was true of snowmobile makers a half-century later. Between 1895 and 1910, over six hundred manufacturers entered the auto market. Almost all failed. Rae, "Why Michigan?" in The Automobile in American Culture, ed. David Lewis and Laurence Goldstein (Ann Arbor, Mich. 1983), 6; James Flink, America Adopts the Automobile, 1895-1919 (Cambridge, Mass., 1970), 57.
42. Total industry production figures from 1963 to 1967 reflect the entry of new producers and growing interest in the sport: 10,000 (1963), 18,000 (1964), 30,000 (1965), 60,000 (1966), and 120,000 (1967). Bombardier's market share slipped from 53 percent in 1963 to 37 percent in 1967, but that was in a rapidly expanding market. Lee Isgur, "The Shape of the Snowmobile Industry," Sno Goer Trade, June 1971, 6.
43. Senate Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Subcommittee or Parks and Recreation, A Study of the Effects of the Rapidly Expanding Use of All Terrain Vehicles on the Public Lands, hearing, 92nd Cong., 1st sess., 21 May 1971, statement of Susie Scholwin, 57. Horseless Age, begun in November 1895, served similar functions of informer, promoter, and builder of community for early auto enthusiasts.
44. "Fun, Safety, & Sportsmanship. . . . And Lots of Activities," Snowsports, January 1974, 26-27; quoted in Andrew Malcolm, "Snowmobile Transforms Once Quiet Rural Winter," New York Times, 11 February 1972; "They Roast Corn and Rescue People," Snowsports, January 1974, 35, 37; Flink, 66, 144.
45. "Fun, Safety, & Sportsmanship. . . . And Lots of Activities," Snowsports, January 1974, 26-27; quoted in Andrew Malcolm, "Snowmobile Transforms Once Quiet Rural Winter," New York Times, 11 February 1972; "They Roast Corn and Rescue People," Snowsports, January 1974, 35, 37; Flink, 66, 144.
46. "Fun, Safety, & Sportsmanship. . . . And Lots of Activities," Snowsports, January 1974, 26-27; quoted in Andrew Malcolm, "Snowmobile Transforms Once Quiet Rural Winter," New York Times, 11 February 1972; "They Roast Corn and Rescue People," Snowsports, January 1974, 35, 37; Flink, 66, 144.
47. "Fun, Safety, & Sportsmanship. . . . And Lots of Activities," Snowsports, January 1974, 26-27; quoted in Andrew Malcolm, "Snowmobile Transforms Once Quiet Rural Winter," New York Times, 11 February 1972; "They Roast Corn and Rescue People," Snowsports, January 1974, 35, 37; Flink, 66, 144.
48. "Fun, Safety, & Sportsmanship," 26; Morrill (n. 15 above); Isgur, 6; Elizabeth Oliver, "Snowmobiling Takes Over Maine," SNOW Sports, September 1969, 13; Senate Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Scholwin testimony, 53. Quoted in Berkeley Rice, "The Snowmobile is an American Dream Machine," New York Times Magazine, 13 February 1972, 27. During the early 1970s, between a quarter and a third of snowmobilers belonged to clubs. The Snowmobile Market, April 1973 (New York, 1973), viii.
49. "Fun, Safety, & Sportsmanship," 26; Morrill (n. 15 above); Isgur, 6; Elizabeth Oliver, "Snowmobiling Takes Over Maine," SNOW Sports, September 1969, 13; Senate Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Scholwin testimony, 53. Quoted in Berkeley Rice, "The Snowmobile is an American Dream Machine," New York Times Magazine, 13 February 1972, 27. During the early 1970s, between a quarter and a third of snowmobilers belonged to clubs. The Snowmobile Market, April 1973 (New York, 1973), viii.
50. "Fun, Safety, & Sportsmanship," 26; Morrill (n. 15 above); Isgur, 6; Elizabeth Oliver, "Snowmobiling Takes Over Maine," SNOW Sports, September 1969, 13; Senate Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Scholwin testimony, 53. Quoted in Berkeley Rice, "The Snowmobile is an American Dream Machine," New York Times Magazine, 13 February 1972, 27. During the early 1970s, between a quarter and a third of snowmobilers belonged to clubs. The Snowmobile Market, April 1973 (New York, 1973), viii.
51. "Fun, Safety, & Sportsmanship," 26; Morrill (n. 15 above); Isgur, 6; Elizabeth Oliver, "Snowmobiling Takes Over Maine," SNOW Sports, September 1969, 13; Senate Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Scholwin testimony, 53. Quoted in Berkeley Rice, "The Snowmobile is an American Dream Machine," New York Times Magazine, 13 February 1972, 27. During the early 1970s, between a quarter and a third of snowmobilers belonged to clubs. The Snowmobile Market, April 1973 (New York, 1973), viii.
52. "Fun, Safety, & Sportsmanship," 26; Morrill (n. 15 above); Isgur, 6; Elizabeth Oliver, "Snowmobiling Takes Over Maine," SNOW Sports, September 1969, 13; Senate Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Scholwin testimony, 53. Quoted in Berkeley Rice, "The Snowmobile is an American Dream Machine," New York Times Magazine, 13 February 1972, 27. During the early 1970s, between a quarter and a third of snowmobilers belonged to clubs. The Snowmobile Market, April 1973 (New York, 1973), viii.
53. "Fun, Safety, & Sportsmanship," 26; Morrill (n. 15 above); Isgur, 6; Elizabeth Oliver, "Snowmobiling Takes Over Maine," SNOW Sports, September 1969, 13; Senate Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Scholwin testimony, 53. Quoted in Berkeley Rice, "The Snowmobile is an American Dream Machine," New York Times Magazine, 13 February 1972, 27. During the early 1970s, between a quarter and a third of snowmobilers belonged to clubs. The Snowmobile Market, April 1973 (New York, 1973), viii.
54. Quoted in Rice, 28, italics added. A University of Maine study found that among people who took up snowmobiling, wintertime television viewing decreased by 64 percent. Whittaker and Wentworth (n. 22 above), 5.
55. Twila Hoover, "I Am a Snowmobile Fan!" Snow-Mobile Times, January 1971, 32-33. One commentator noted that snowmobiling "seem[s] to satisfy that great American urge to be sitting on power." Seth King, "What Has Two Skis, Tank Treads, and Goes Put-Put-Put-Put?" New York Times, 10 January 1971, sec. 10.
56. Twila Hoover, "I Am a Snowmobile Fan!" Snow-Mobile Times, January 1971, 32-33. One commentator noted that snowmobiling "seem[s] to satisfy that great American urge to be sitting on power." Seth King, "What Has Two Skis, Tank Treads, and Goes Put-Put-Put-Put?" New York Times, 10 January 1971, sec. 10.
57. Sally Wimer, The Snowmobiler's Companion (New York, 1973), x; Alexander Ross, The Risk Takers (Toronto, 1978), 159. Note the generic use of "Ski-Doo," like "Kleenex" for tissue.
58. Sally Wimer, The Snowmobiler's Companion (New York, 1973), x; Alexander Ross, The Risk Takers (Toronto, 1978), 159. Note the generic use of "Ski-Doo," like "Kleenex" for tissue.
59. "Publisher's Note," Invitation to Snowmobiling, winter 1974/75, 4; Bassett (n. 13 above), 93-95; Ramstad, 58. The automobile underwent a similar process with the introduction of vanadium steels between 1907 and 1912; Flink (n. 25 above), 288.
60. "Publisher's Note," Invitation to Snowmobiling, winter 1974/75, 4; Bassett (n. 13 above), 93-95; Ramstad, 58. The automobile underwent a similar process with the introduction of vanadium steels between 1907 and 1912; Flink (n. 25 above), 288.
61. "Publisher's Note," Invitation to Snowmobiling, winter 1974/75, 4; Bassett (n. 13 above), 93-95; Ramstad, 58. The automobile underwent a similar process with the introduction of vanadium steels between 1907 and 1912; Flink (n. 25 above), 288.
62. "Publisher's Note," Invitation to Snowmobiling, winter 1974/75, 4; Bassett (n. 13 above), 93-95; Ramstad, 58. The automobile underwent a similar process with the introduction of vanadium steels between 1907 and 1912; Flink (n. 25 above), 288.
63. Walter Griskot, "'Skiing' in a Cart New Snow Thrill," New York Times, 13 March 1967, italics added. Not all business people welcomed the additional trade. One shopkeeper "used to enjoy the long quiet winters with time to visit with her friends," but snowmobiles changed that, making winter social in a very different way. Paul Friedlander, "Snowmobiles in the Adirondacks," New York Times, 5 March 1972, sec. 10.
64. Walter Griskot, "'Skiing' in a Cart New Snow Thrill," New York Times, 13 March 1967, italics added. Not all business people welcomed the additional trade. One shopkeeper "used to enjoy the long quiet winters with time to visit with her friends," but snowmobiles changed that, making winter social in a very different way. Paul Friedlander, "Snowmobiles in the Adirondacks," New York Times, 5 March 1972, sec. 10.
65. Paul Friedlander, "Snowmobiling in the Adirondacks"; "Snowmobiling Up in Maine," New York Times, 18 January 1970, sec. 10.
66. Paul Friedlander, "Snowmobiling in the Adirondacks"; "Snowmobiling Up in Maine," New York Times, 18 January 1970, sec. 10.
67. The dollar figure for snowmobile sales is based on an average price of $1,000. The 1998 inflation-adjusted value of $960 million is approximately $3.9 billion. "Publisher's Note," Invitation to Snowmobiling, January-February 1971, 7. The inflationadjusted value of the $212 million is approximately $830 million. Italics in original.
68. William Glitz, Decade of Progress: Highlights of the Years 1972-1981 in the Snowmobile Industry and Sport (Annandak, Va., 1981 ), 2-5.
69. Malcolm F. Baldwin, The Off-Road Vehicle and Environmental Quality (Washington, D.C., 1970), 14; Rice (n. 29 above), 28-29. See, for example, "Snowmobile Bounces into Acclaim and Protest," New York Times, 3 March 1968, sec. 5; "Snowmobile Menace," New York Times, 4 February 1971, editorial.
70. Malcolm F. Baldwin, The Off-Road Vehicle and Environmental Quality (Washington, D.C., 1970), 14; Rice (n. 29 above), 28-29. See, for example, "Snowmobile Bounces into Acclaim and Protest," New York Times, 3 March 1968, sec. 5; "Snowmobile Menace," New York Times, 4 February 1971, editorial.
71. Malcolm F. Baldwin, The Off-Road Vehicle and Environmental Quality (Washington, D.C., 1970), 14; Rice (n. 29 above), 28-29. See, for example, "Snowmobile Bounces into Acclaim and Protest," New York Times, 3 March 1968, sec. 5; "Snowmobile Menace," New York Times, 4 February 1971, editorial.
72. Malcolm F. Baldwin, The Off-Road Vehicle and Environmental Quality (Washington, D.C., 1970), 14; Rice (n. 29 above), 28-29. See, for example, "Snowmobile Bounces into Acclaim and Protest," New York Times, 3 March 1968, sec. 5; "Snowmobile Menace," New York Times, 4 February 1971, editorial.
73. Douglas Rowley, "Exhaust Silencing: An Industry Challenge," Sno Goer Trade, September 1969, 18-22; "Snowmobiles in the Environment," Snowmobile Country, August 1972, 7, 14.
74. Douglas Rowley, "Exhaust Silencing: An Industry Challenge," Sno Goer Trade, September 1969, 18-22; "Snowmobiles in the Environment," Snowmobile Country, August 1972, 7, 14.
75. On adverse impact on hearing, see Arthur Delibert, Snowmobiles and Snowmobs: A Critical Look at a New Industry (Washington, D.C., 1972): 24-26. Anne Tanner, "Nix On Noise . . . For Everybody's Sake, Including Yours," Sno-Mobile Times, January 1971, 10, 12 (first quotation); Allan Pospisil, "The Greatest Enemy of Cross-Country Skiers: Snowmobiles," New York Times, 5 February 1978, sec. 5 (second quotation).
76. On adverse impact on hearing, see Arthur Delibert, Snowmobiles and Snowmobs: A Critical Look at a New Industry (Washington, D.C., 1972): 24-26. Anne Tanner, "Nix On Noise . . . For Everybody's Sake, Including Yours," Sno-Mobile Times, January 1971, 10, 12 (first quotation); Allan Pospisil, "The Greatest Enemy of Cross-Country Skiers: Snowmobiles," New York Times, 5 February 1978, sec. 5 (second quotation).
77. On adverse impact on hearing, see Arthur Delibert, Snowmobiles and Snowmobs: A Critical Look at a New Industry (Washington, D.C., 1972): 24-26. Anne Tanner, "Nix On Noise . . . For Everybody's Sake, Including Yours," Sno-Mobile Times, January 1971, 10, 12 (first quotation); Allan Pospisil, "The Greatest Enemy of Cross-Country Skiers: Snowmobiles," New York Times, 5 February 1978, sec. 5 (second quotation).
78. Glitz, 14-15 (quotation on 15).
79. Glitz, 18. Decibels are a logarithmic measure, and increasing noise by three decibels (as from 75 to 78) approximately doubles the noise intensity. Perhaps more relevant for snowmobiles, increasing the noise by six decibels doubles the sound pressure, which applies to a single source of noise. See Rowley, 20.
80. Glitz, 18. Decibels are a logarithmic measure, and increasing noise by three decibels (as from 75 to 78) approximately doubles the noise intensity. Perhaps more relevant for snowmobiles, increasing the noise by six decibels doubles the sound pressure, which applies to a single source of noise. See Rowley, 20.
81. Glitz (n. 37 above), 18-20, 45;
82. Rice, 29. The International Snowmobile Council (ISC), made up of the statewide and provincewide snowmobile club organizations, formed a group of fifteen hundred dedicated and influential snowmobilers called CASE (Concerned About Snowmobiling Everywhere). CASE members acted on instructions from ISC and from ISIA, writing, calling, and visiting legislators and other government officials on behalf of snowmobile causes.
83. Glitz, 20-21.
84. The EPA's deputy administrator stated publicly in 1979: "The snowmobile industry is an example of what happens when there is good communication between an industry and an agency that is working to solve a problem. In this case, the snowmobile association has been working with our Office of Noise Abatement and Control. As a result of the effective communication between the two offices, EPA has no ir tention of regulating the snowmobile industry." Quoted in Glitz, 26.
85. Jonathan Rogers, interview by author, 6 July 1996. Mr. Rogers grew up in a small Maine town and believes that his family was harassed by snowmobilers because they had complained about noise and intrusion. Quoted in Delibert (n. 40 above), 36.
86. Myron Angstman, "Inconsistent Ordinances Plague Suburbia," Sno-Mobile Times, March-April 1971, 7. Hours-of-operation restrictions were in part intended to cut down on drunk riding, which occurred with greater frequency after dark. The clubs' mantra was "education, not legislation." Yvonne Knight, former president of the Maine Snowmobile Association, interview by author, 29 July 1996; "Club News: Working with Authorities," Sno Goer, October 1969, 16. Early automobile clubs had done much the same kind of work and for the same reasons, but as auto ownership grew dramatically after the early years the clubs lost their focus and effectiveness. See Flink (n. 25 above), 171.
87. Myron Angstman, "Inconsistent Ordinances Plague Suburbia," Sno-Mobile Times, March-April 1971, 7. Hours-of-operation restrictions were in part intended to cut down on drunk riding, which occurred with greater frequency after dark. The clubs' mantra was "education, not legislation." Yvonne Knight, former president of the Maine Snowmobile Association, interview by author, 29 July 1996; "Club News: Working with Authorities," Sno Goer, October 1969, 16. Early automobile clubs had done much the same kind of work and for the same reasons, but as auto ownership grew dramatically after the early years the clubs lost their focus and effectiveness. See Flink (n. 25 above), 171.
88. Myron Angstman, "Inconsistent Ordinances Plague Suburbia," Sno-Mobile Times, March-April 1971, 7. Hours-of-operation restrictions were in part intended to cut down on drunk riding, which occurred with greater frequency after dark. The clubs' mantra was "education, not legislation." Yvonne Knight, former president of the Maine Snowmobile Association, interview by author, 29 July 1996; "Club News: Working with Authorities," Sno Goer, October 1969, 16. Early automobile clubs had done much the same kind of work and for the same reasons, but as auto ownership grew dramatically after the early years the clubs lost their focus and effectiveness. See Flink (n. 25 above), 171.
89. Myron Angstman, "Inconsistent Ordinances Plague Suburbia," Sno-Mobile Times, March-April 1971, 7. Hours-of-operation restrictions were in part intended to cut down on drunk riding, which occurred with greater frequency after dark. The clubs' mantra was "education, not legislation." Yvonne Knight, former president of the Maine Snowmobile Association, interview by author, 29 July 1996; "Club News: Working with Authorities," Sno Goer, October 1969, 16. Early automobile clubs had done much the same kind of work and for the same reasons, but as auto ownership grew dramatically after the early years the clubs lost their focus and effectiveness. See Flink (n. 25 above), 171.
90. Some state agencies built and maintained trails themselves. The ISIA, supporting both approaches, energetically promoted use of registration fees for trails. Under the coordination of their state organizations, snowmobile clubs laid out interconnected trail systems, which usually involved getting permission from private landowners to cross their property. State legislation passed at the snowmobilers' behest to absolve participating landowners from liability exposure made this possible. In addition, the clubs routinely held appreciation parties or gave gifts to cooperative landowners. "They Roast Corn and Rescue People," Snowsports, January 1974, 35; Knight interview; Mortimer Doyle, "A Report from ISIA," in Proceedings of the 1973 Snowmobile and Off the Road Vehicle Research Symposium (Recreation Research and Planning Unit, College of Agricultural and Natural Sciences, Michigan State University), ed. Donald Holecek, 14; Glitz, 37-38, 58-59. By 1970, the New York State Conservation Department had established over 2,800 miles of snowmobile trails, about half through the Adirondack and Catskill Preserves. Baldwin, 29.
91. Some state agencies built and maintained trails themselves. The ISIA, supporting both approaches, energetically promoted use of registration fees for trails. Under the coordination of their state organizations, snowmobile clubs laid out interconnected trail systems, which usually involved getting permission from private landowners to cross their property. State legislation passed at the snowmobilers' behest to absolve participating landowners from liability exposure made this possible. In addition, the clubs routinely held appreciation parties or gave gifts to cooperative landowners. "They Roast Corn and Rescue People," Snowsports, January 1974, 35; Knight interview; Mortimer Doyle, "A Report from ISIA," in Proceedings of the 1973 Snowmobile and Off the Road Vehicle Research Symposium (Recreation Research and Planning Unit, College of Agricultural and Natural Sciences, Michigan State University), ed. Donald Holecek, 14; Glitz, 37-38, 58-59. By 1970, the New York State Conservation Department had established over 2,800 miles of snowmobile trails, about half through the Adirondack and Catskill Preserves. Baldwin, 29.
92. Some state agencies built and maintained trails themselves. The ISIA, supporting both approaches, energetically promoted use of registration fees for trails. Under the coordination of their state organizations, snowmobile clubs laid out interconnected trail systems, which usually involved getting permission from private landowners to cross their property. State legislation passed at the snowmobilers' behest to absolve participating landowners from liability exposure made this possible. In addition, the clubs routinely held appreciation parties or gave gifts to cooperative landowners. "They Roast Corn and Rescue People," Snowsports, January 1974, 35; Knight interview; Mortimer Doyle, "A Report from ISIA," in Proceedings of the 1973 Snowmobile and Off the Road Vehicle Research Symposium (Recreation Research and Planning Unit, College of Agricultural and Natural Sciences, Michigan State University), ed. Donald Holecek, 14; Glitz, 37-38, 58-59. By 1970, the New York State Conservation Department had established over 2,800 miles of snowmobile trails, about half through the Adirondack and Catskill Preserves. Baldwin, 29.
93. Some state agencies built and maintained trails themselves. The ISIA, supporting both approaches, energetically promoted use of registration fees for trails. Under the coordination of their state organizations, snowmobile clubs laid out interconnected trail systems, which usually involved getting permission from private landowners to cross their property. State legislation passed at the snowmobilers' behest to absolve participating landowners from liability exposure made this possible. In addition, the clubs routinely held appreciation parties or gave gifts to cooperative landowners. "They Roast Corn and Rescue People," Snowsports, January 1974, 35; Knight interview; Mortimer Doyle, "A Report from ISIA," in Proceedings of the 1973 Snowmobile and Off the Road Vehicle Research Symposium (Recreation Research and Planning Unit, College of Agricultural and Natural Sciences, Michigan State University), ed. Donald Holecek, 14; Glitz, 37-38, 58-59. By 1970, the New York State Conservation Department had established over 2,800 miles of snowmobile trails, about half through the Adirondack and Catskill Preserves. Baldwin, 29.
94. "A Special Report on 25 Good Places to Go Snowmobiling," SNOWsports, September 1971, 46; quoted in "These Clubs Think It's No Good Without Good Trails . . . And They're Doing Something About It," SNOWsports, December 1972, 36. John Hethrington, "A Survey of Snowmobile Trail Facilities," in Proceedings of the 1971 Snowmobile and Off the Road Vehicle Research Symposium (Recreation Research and Planning Unit, College of Agricultural and Natural Sciences, Michigan State University), ed. Michael Chubb, 75-78; Thomas Lera, "Trails, Signs, and the Environment," Snowmobile International, fall 1973, 56-58. Bombardier took an important further step and offered a package plan to snowmobile clubs that included a free Ski-Doo and accessory items to use in raising funds for the purchase of a Skidozer trail maintenance vehicle, provided by the company with low-interest financing.
95. "A Special Report on 25 Good Places to Go Snowmobiling," SNOWsports, September 1971, 46; quoted in "These Clubs Think It's No Good Without Good Trails . . . And They're Doing Something About It," SNOWsports, December 1972, 36. John Hethrington, "A Survey of Snowmobile Trail Facilities," in Proceedings of the 1971 Snowmobile and Off the Road Vehicle Research Symposium (Recreation Research and Planning Unit, College of Agricultural and Natural Sciences, Michigan State University), ed. Michael Chubb, 75-78; Thomas Lera, "Trails, Signs, and the Environment," Snowmobile International, fall 1973, 56-58. Bombardier took an important further step and offered a package plan to snowmobile clubs that included a free Ski-Doo and accessory items to use in raising funds for the purchase of a Skidozer trail maintenance vehicle, provided by the company with low-interest financing.
96. "A Special Report on 25 Good Places to Go Snowmobiling," SNOWsports, September 1971, 46; quoted in "These Clubs Think It's No Good Without Good Trails . . . And They're Doing Something About It," SNOWsports, December 1972, 36. John Hethrington, "A Survey of Snowmobile Trail Facilities," in Proceedings of the 1971 Snowmobile and Off the Road Vehicle Research Symposium (Recreation Research and Planning Unit, College of Agricultural and Natural Sciences, Michigan State University), ed. Michael Chubb, 75-78; Thomas Lera, "Trails, Signs, and the Environment," Snowmobile International, fall 1973, 56-58. Bombardier took an important further step and offered a package plan to snowmobile clubs that included a free Ski-Doo and accessory items to use in raising funds for the purchase of a Skidozer trail maintenance vehicle, provided by the company with low-interest financing.
97. "A Special Report on 25 Good Places to Go Snowmobiling," SNOWsports, September 1971, 46; quoted in "These Clubs Think It's No Good Without Good Trails . . . And They're Doing Something About It," SNOWsports, December 1972, 36. John Hethrington, "A Survey of Snowmobile Trail Facilities," in Proceedings of the 1971 Snowmobile and Off the Road Vehicle Research Symposium (Recreation Research and Planning Unit, College of Agricultural and Natural Sciences, Michigan State University), ed. Michael Chubb, 75-78; Thomas Lera, "Trails, Signs, and the Environment," Snowmobile International, fall 1973, 56-58. Bombardier took an important further step and offered a package plan to snowmobile clubs that included a free Ski-Doo and accessory items to use in raising funds for the purchase of a Skidozer trail maintenance vehicle, provided by the company with low-interest financing.
98. Patrick Doyle, "Advancements by the Industry in the Environmental Area Since 1971," in Holecek, 84; "Snoplan Encourages Club Trail Building," Snowmobile Country, January 1973, 9; Glitz (n. 37 above), 52-54, 59.
99. Patrick Doyle, "Advancements by the Industry in the Environmental Area Since 1971," in Holecek, 84; "Snoplan Encourages Club Trail Building," Snowmobile Country, January 1973, 9; Glitz (n. 37 above), 52-54, 59.
100. Patrick Doyle, "Advancements by the Industry in the Environmental Area Since 1971," in Holecek, 84; "Snoplan Encourages Club Trail Building," Snowmobile Country, January 1973, 9; Glitz (n. 37 above), 52-54, 59.
101. For the winter of 1969-70, the U.S. National Safety Council had reports of 338 serious injuries, including 74 fatalities. In 1970-71, the fatality count rose to 102, and in 1971-72, to 280. Approximately 30 percent of these fatalities involved collisions with motor vehicles, 28 percent collisions with fixed objects, and 22 percent drownings, generally from breaking through thin ice. Other deaths resulted from encounters with unseen chains and wire fencing, from exposure to the elements after getting; stuck or breaking down, or from being crushed under the machine. Mike Michaelson, "Time to Tame the Abominable Snowmobile," Today's Health, December 1970, 47; Jerry Vila, "Ontario's 1970 Snowmobile Study," in Chubb, 38; Delibert, 5; Nelson Bryant, "Wood, Field, and Stream: High Number of Snowmobile Accidents in Maine is Cause for Concern," New York Times, 29 April 1971; Glitz, 30. In its restrained way, the Times headlined snowmobile safety concerns: "Dashing Through the Snow Can Be Perilous Sport," 29 November 1970, 67.
102. For the winter of 1969-70, the U.S. National Safety Council had reports of 338 serious injuries, including 74 fatalities. In 1970-71, the fatality count rose to 102, and in 1971-72, to 280. Approximately 30 percent of these fatalities involved collisions with motor vehicles, 28 percent collisions with fixed objects, and 22 percent drownings, generally from breaking through thin ice. Other deaths resulted from encounters with unseen chains and wire fencing, from exposure to the elements after getting; stuck or breaking down, or from being crushed under the machine. Mike Michaelson, "Time to Tame the Abominable Snowmobile," Today's Health, December 1970, 47; Jerry Vila, "Ontario's 1970 Snowmobile Study," in Chubb, 38; Delibert, 5; Nelson Bryant, "Wood, Field, and Stream: High Number of Snowmobile Accidents in Maine is Cause for Concern," New York Times, 29 April 1971; Glitz, 30. In its restrained way, the Times headlined snowmobile safety concerns: "Dashing Through the Snow Can Be Perilous Sport," 29 November 1970, 67.
103. For the winter of 1969-70, the U.S. National Safety Council had reports of 338 serious injuries, including 74 fatalities. In 1970-71, the fatality count rose to 102, and in 1971-72, to 280. Approximately 30 percent of these fatalities involved collisions with motor vehicles, 28 percent collisions with fixed objects, and 22 percent drownings, generally from breaking through thin ice. Other deaths resulted from encounters with unseen chains and wire fencing, from exposure to the elements after getting; stuck or breaking down, or from being crushed under the machine. Mike Michaelson, "Time to Tame the Abominable Snowmobile," Today's Health, December 1970, 47; Jerry Vila, "Ontario's 1970 Snowmobile Study," in Chubb, 38; Delibert, 5; Nelson Bryant, "Wood, Field, and Stream: High Number of Snowmobile Accidents in Maine is Cause for Concern," New York Times, 29 April 1971; Glitz, 30. In its restrained way, the Times headlined snowmobile safety concerns: "Dashing Through the Snow Can Be Perilous Sport," 29 November 1970, 67.
104. For the winter of 1969-70, the U.S. National Safety Council had reports of 338 serious injuries, including 74 fatalities. In 1970-71, the fatality count rose to 102, and in 1971-72, to 280. Approximately 30 percent of these fatalities involved collisions with motor vehicles, 28 percent collisions with fixed objects, and 22 percent drownings, generally from breaking through thin ice. Other deaths resulted from encounters with unseen chains and wire fencing, from exposure to the elements after getting; stuck or breaking down, or from being crushed under the machine. Mike Michaelson, "Time to Tame the Abominable Snowmobile," Today's Health, December 1970, 47; Jerry Vila, "Ontario's 1970 Snowmobile Study," in Chubb, 38; Delibert, 5; Nelson Bryant, "Wood, Field, and Stream: High Number of Snowmobile Accidents in Maine is Cause for Concern," New York Times, 29 April 1971; Glitz, 30. In its restrained way, the Times headlined snowmobile safety concerns: "Dashing Through the Snow Can Be Perilous Sport," 29 November 1970, 67.
105. For the winter of 1969-70, the U.S. National Safety Council had reports of 338 serious injuries, including 74 fatalities. In 1970-71, the fatality count rose to 102, and in 1971-72, to 280. Approximately 30 percent of these fatalities involved collisions with motor vehicles, 28 percent collisions with fixed objects, and 22 percent drownings, generally from breaking through thin ice. Other deaths resulted from encounters with unseen chains and wire fencing, from exposure to the elements after getting; stuck or breaking down, or from being crushed under the machine. Mike Michaelson, "Time to Tame the Abominable Snowmobile," Today's Health, December 1970, 47; Jerry Vila, "Ontario's 1970 Snowmobile Study," in Chubb, 38; Delibert, 5; Nelson Bryant, "Wood, Field, and Stream: High Number of Snowmobile Accidents in Maine is Cause for Concern," New York Times, 29 April 1971; Glitz, 30. In its restrained way, the Times headlined snowmobile safety concerns: "Dashing Through the Snow Can Be Perilous Sport," 29 November 1970, 67.
106. For the winter of 1969-70, the U.S. National Safety Council had reports of 338 serious injuries, including 74 fatalities. In 1970-71, the fatality count rose to 102, and in 1971-72, to 280. Approximately 30 percent of these fatalities involved collisions with motor vehicles, 28 percent collisions with fixed objects, and 22 percent drownings, generally from breaking through thin ice. Other deaths resulted from encounters with unseen chains and wire fencing, from exposure to the elements after getting; stuck or breaking down, or from being crushed under the machine. Mike Michaelson, "Time to Tame the Abominable Snowmobile," Today's Health, December 1970, 47; Jerry Vila, "Ontario's 1970 Snowmobile Study," in Chubb, 38; Delibert, 5; Nelson Bryant, "Wood, Field, and Stream: High Number of Snowmobile Accidents in Maine is Cause for Concern," New York Times, 29 April 1971; Glitz, 30. In its restrained way, the Times headlined snowmobile safety concerns: "Dashing Through the Snow Can Be Perilous Sport," 29 November 1970, 67.
107. Delibert (n. 40 above), 10; Michaelson, 47-48; Glitz, 30-32; Bassett (n. 13 above), 90; "Government Inspection and Approval of Vehicles," Horseless Age, 5 November 1902, 492.
108. Delibert (n. 40 above), 10; Michaelson, 47-48; Glitz, 30-32; Bassett (n. 13 above), 90; "Government Inspection and Approval of Vehicles," Horseless Age, 5 November 1902, 492.
109. Delibert (n. 40 above), 10; Michaelson, 47-48; Glitz, 30-32; Bassett (n. 13 above), 90; "Government Inspection and Approval of Vehicles," Horseless Age, 5 November 1902, 492.
110. Delibert (n. 40 above), 10; Michaelson, 47-48; Glitz, 30-32; Bassett (n. 13 above), 90; "Government Inspection and Approval of Vehicles," Horseless Age, 5 November 1902, 492.
111. Delibert (n. 40 above), 10; Michaelson, 47-48; Glitz, 30-32; Bassett (n. 13 above), 90; "Government Inspection and Approval of Vehicles," Horseless Age, 5 November 1902, 492.
112. Glitz, 31-35. Delibert, Snowmobiles and Snowmobs, was the Nader report.
113. Glitz, 31-35. Delibert, Snowmobiles and Snowmobs, was the Nader report.
114. James Tuite, Snowmobiles and Snowmobiling (New York, 1969), 38-39; Seale Harris, "Telling It Like It Is," Snowmobile International, winter 1972/73, 6, 8; John Fleming, "ORV Safety - How Can the Record Be Improved?" in Holecek, 132; Glitz, 36. Some state agencies also offered snowmobile safety training.
115. James Tuite, Snowmobiles and Snowmobiling (New York, 1969), 38-39; Seale Harris, "Telling It Like It Is," Snowmobile International, winter 1972/73, 6, 8; John Fleming, "ORV Safety - How Can the Record Be Improved?" in Holecek, 132; Glitz, 36. Some state agencies also offered snowmobile safety training.
116. James Tuite, Snowmobiles and Snowmobiling (New York, 1969), 38-39; Seale Harris, "Telling It Like It Is," Snowmobile International, winter 1972/73, 6, 8; John Fleming, "ORV Safety - How Can the Record Be Improved?" in Holecek, 132; Glitz, 36. Some state agencies also offered snowmobile safety training.
117. James Tuite, Snowmobiles and Snowmobiling (New York, 1969), 38-39; Seale Harris, "Telling It Like It Is," Snowmobile International, winter 1972/73, 6, 8; John Fleming, "ORV Safety - How Can the Record Be Improved?" in Holecek, 132; Glitz, 36. Some state agencies also offered snowmobile safety training.
118. Douglas Hofe, "Keynote Address," in Chubb (n. 49 above), 6 (quotation). One survey of snowmobile injuries noted the prevalence of back problems as a result of the jumping and jolting encouraged by advertising. Michaelson, 49. Robert Morrill, interview by author, 17 July 1996. Early motorists also suffered an alarmingly high accident rate, generally caused by inexperience and high speeds.
119. Douglas Hofe, "Keynote Address," in Chubb (n. 49 above), 6 (quotation). One survey of snowmobile injuries noted the prevalence of back problems as a result of the jumping and jolting encouraged by advertising. Michaelson, 49. Robert Morrill, interview by author, 17 July 1996. Early motorists also suffered an alarmingly high accident rate, generally caused by inexperience and high speeds.
120. Douglas Hofe, "Keynote Address," in Chubb (n. 49 above), 6 (quotation). One survey of snowmobile injuries noted the prevalence of back problems as a result of the jumping and jolting encouraged by advertising. Michaelson, 49. Robert Morrill, interview by author, 17 July 1996. Early motorists also suffered an alarmingly high accident rate, generally caused by inexperience and high speeds.
121. Some clubs actually mounted trail patrols staffed by volunteers with capabilities in first-aid techniques and snowmobile mechanics. "These Clubs Think It's No Good Without Good Trails," 36-38. A U.S. study of seven hundred accidents during the 1971-72 season found that only three took place on marked and maintained trails. George Jamieson, "The Snowmobile Manufacturing Industry: An Evaluation of its Present Status, Growth and Future Potential," Snowmobile Track & Trail Trade Annual, 1973, 18.
122. Glitz (n. 37 above), 39.
123. Philip Shabecoff, A Fierce Green Fire: The American Environmental Movement (New York, 1993), 77-185.
124. Eberhard Thiele, "Ecological Impact of Snowmobiles," Research Paper for Forestry and Conservation 175, University of Maine at Fort Kent, February 1973, 2-7; Gale Gleason, "Environment," Invitation to Snowmobiling, November 1973.
125. Eberhard Thiele, "Ecological Impact of Snowmobiles," Research Paper for Forestry and Conservation 175, University of Maine at Fort Kent, February 1973, 2-7; Gale Gleason, "Environment," Invitation to Snowmobiling, November 1973.
126. Norman Strung, "The Careful Coexistence," USSA Snotrack, February 1972, 14; Thiele, 8-9 (quotation 9).
127. Norman Strung, "The Careful Coexistence," USSA Snotrack, February 1972, 14; Thiele, 8-9 (quotation 9).
128. Chuck Wechsler, "The Wildlife Thing," Sno-Mobile Time's (October 1972): 59-60. Thiele, 12; Delibert (n. 40 above), 32. Bloomfield (n. 2 above), 51. Following on the heels of snowmobiles to carry ice fishermen to distant ponds came the power auger, a large drill using a small two-stroke engine to cut through the ice. Where ice fishing had previously involved strenuous physical activity to get to the site and cut fishing holes, the snowmobile and power auger made the sport almost sedentary.
129. Chuck Wechsler, "The Wildlife Thing," Sno-Mobile Time's (October 1972): 59-60. Thiele, 12; Delibert (n. 40 above), 32. Bloomfield (n. 2 above), 51. Following on the heels of snowmobiles to carry ice fishermen to distant ponds came the power auger, a large drill using a small two-stroke engine to cut through the ice. Where ice fishing had previously involved strenuous physical activity to get to the site and cut fishing holes, the snowmobile and power auger made the sport almost sedentary.
130. Chuck Wechsler, "The Wildlife Thing," Sno-Mobile Time's (October 1972): 59-60. Thiele, 12; Delibert (n. 40 above), 32. Bloomfield (n. 2 above), 51. Following on the heels of snowmobiles to carry ice fishermen to distant ponds came the power auger, a large drill using a small two-stroke engine to cut through the ice. Where ice fishing had previously involved strenuous physical activity to get to the site and cut fishing holes, the snowmobile and power auger made the sport almost sedentary.
131. Chuck Wechsler, "The Wildlife Thing," Sno-Mobile Time's (October 1972): 59-60. Thiele, 12; Delibert (n. 40 above), 32. Bloomfield (n. 2 above), 51. Following on the heels of snowmobiles to carry ice fishermen to distant ponds came the power auger, a large drill using a small two-stroke engine to cut through the ice. Where ice fishing had previously involved strenuous physical activity to get to the site and cut fishing holes, the snowmobile and power auger made the sport almost sedentary.
132. Glitz, 40-41; Baldwin (n. 39 above). A second, updated edition of Baldwin's report was published in 1973.
133. Glitz, 40-41; Baldwin (n. 39 above). A second, updated edition of Baldwin's report was published in 1973.
134. "Snowmobile Regulation on U.S. Land Ordered," New York Times, 13 February 1972.
135. For example, Arctic awarded a grant to the University of Minnesota zoology department to study the effects of snowmobiling on winter ecology, particularly how changes in snow cover affected soil condition, insects, and small mammals. The ISIA signed contracts with the University of Wisconsin's College of Mechanical Engineering and School of Agronomy to study snowmobile noise and its effect on wildlife, and the impact of snowmobiling on vegetation, grasses, and ground cover. Outboard Marine enlisted the cooperation of several thousand snowmobilers near its headquarters to ride over one area so it could study ground erosion that resulted from snowmobile use. John Malo, Snowmobiling: The Guide (New York, 1971 ), 125; Patrick Doyle (n. 50 ebove), 79; Senate Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs (n. 27 above), testimony of Howard Larson, 61.
136. For example, Arctic awarded a grant to the University of Minnesota zoology department to study the effects of snowmobiling on winter ecology, particularly how changes in snow cover affected soil condition, insects, and small mammals. The ISIA signed contracts with the University of Wisconsin's College of Mechanical Engineering and School of Agronomy to study snowmobile noise and its effect on wildlife, and the impact of snowmobiling on vegetation, grasses, and ground cover. Outboard Marine enlisted the cooperation of several thousand snowmobilers near its headquarters to ride over one area so it could study ground erosion that resulted from snowmobile use. John Malo, Snowmobiling: The Guide (New York, 1971 ), 125; Patrick Doyle (n. 50 ebove), 79; Senate Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs (n. 27 above), testimony of Howard Larson, 61.
137. Glitz (n. 37 above), 43-44; ISIA,"Snowmobiling and Our Environment: Facts and Fantasies" (1976), 25.
138. Glitz (n. 37 above), 43-44; ISIA,"Snowmobiling and Our Environment: Facts and Fantasies" (1976), 25.
139. Glitz, 44-45, 50 (quotations). Enhanced winter fishing pressure from snowmobiles significantly depleted the stock of sport fish on many northern lakes. The author's home region of Belgrade Lakes, Maine, is an example.
140. Isgur (n. 26 above), 6. A good part of the larger market was expected to come from sales to urban and suburban residents. Snowmobiling had taken off in rural areas and in the smaller towns and cities. Some of the allure of the sport came from being able to walk out one's door, hop on the sled, and go. And of course, small-town and rural residents more strongly felt the impact of winter on the tempo of their lives. Many of these people took to snowmobiles like their grandparents had to automobiles. Developing the urban/suburban market required more time and, in addition, the establishment of nearby snowmobiling areas and trail systems to make the effort and expense worthwhile. This development had begun by the late 1960s, and as a result manufacturers' print and television advertising targeted northern big-city markets, where millions of potential customers resided. Bassett (n. 13 above), 73.
141. Bassett, 79; Ramstad (n. 14 above), 61; "Snowmobile Bounces Into Acclaim and Protest," New York Times, 3 March 1968, sec. 5.
142. Bassett, 79; Ramstad (n. 14 above), 61; "Snowmobile Bounces Into Acclaim and Protest," New York Times, 3 March 1968, sec. 5.
143. Bassett, 79; Ramstad (n. 14 above), 61; "Snowmobile Bounces Into Acclaim and Protest," New York Times, 3 March 1968, sec. 5.
144. George Jamieson, "The Winter that Wasn't," Snowmobile Track and Trail Trade Annual, 1973, 37. The 109 figure is from an ISIA study. Snow Goer Susie, "What the Future Holds," Sno Goer, September 1969, 48. Isgur, 7, 16; "Snow Job?" Forbes, 1 February 1970, 35; "Snowmobile is Gaining Traction," New York Times, 19 January 1969, sec. 3.
145. George Jamieson, "The Winter that Wasn't," Snowmobile Track and Trail Trade Annual, 1973, 37. The 109 figure is from an ISIA study. Snow Goer Susie, "What the Future Holds," Sno Goer, September 1969, 48. Isgur, 7, 16; "Snow Job?" Forbes, 1 February 1970, 35; "Snowmobile is Gaining Traction," New York Times, 19 January 1969, sec. 3.
146. George Jamieson, "The Winter that Wasn't," Snowmobile Track and Trail Trade Annual, 1973, 37. The 109 figure is from an ISIA study. Snow Goer Susie, "What the Future Holds," Sno Goer, September 1969, 48. Isgur, 7, 16; "Snow Job?" Forbes, 1 February 1970, 35; "Snowmobile is Gaining Traction," New York Times, 19 January 1969, sec. 3.
147. George Jamieson, "The Winter that Wasn't," Snowmobile Track and Trail Trade Annual, 1973, 37. The 109 figure is from an ISIA study. Snow Goer Susie, "What the Future Holds," Sno Goer, September 1969, 48. Isgur, 7, 16; "Snow Job?" Forbes, 1 February 1970, 35; "Snowmobile is Gaining Traction," New York Times, 19 January 1969, sec. 3.
148. George Jamieson, "The Winter that Wasn't," Snowmobile Track and Trail Trade Annual, 1973, 37. The 109 figure is from an ISIA study. Snow Goer Susie, "What the Future Holds," Sno Goer, September 1969, 48. Isgur, 7, 16; "Snow Job?" Forbes, 1 February 1970, 35; "Snowmobile is Gaining Traction," New York Times, 19 January 1969, sec. 3.
149. Some of the carryover machines were unloaded at fire-sale prices durir g the off-season or sold to discount distributors for shipment abroad. Isgur, 6; Henry Fiola, "From the Publisher," Snowsports, October 1974, 7; Ramstad, 102, 104.
150. Some of the carryover machines were unloaded at fire-sale prices durir g the off-season or sold to discount distributors for shipment abroad. Isgur, 6; Henry Fiola, "From the Publisher," Snowsports, October 1974, 7; Ramstad, 102, 104.
151. Some of the carryover machines were unloaded at fire-sale prices durir g the off-season or sold to discount distributors for shipment abroad. Isgur, 6; Henry Fiola, "From the Publisher," Snowsports, October 1974, 7; Ramstad, 102, 104.
152. Fiola, 7.
153. The governor of Maine asked state snowmobilers to reduce the hourly use of their machines by half to preserve fuel supplies for more important purposes, which sent a discouraging message in a state deeply committed to snowmobiling. "Governor of Maine Calls for Reduction In Snowmobile Use," New York Times, 9 December 1973. Ramstad, 104; O. B. Cupier, "Publisher's Note," Invitation to Snowmobiling, January 1974, 3. Jerry Huffman, "Misc.," Sno-Mobile Times, December 1973, 4; Glitz (n. 37 above), 63-65; Tom Anderson, "From Adolescence of the '70s . . . To Maturity of the '8Os," The Hummer (Wisconsin Snowmobile News), December 1979, 6. In December 1973, Bombardier withdrew its Ski-Doo factory team from racing and declared that it would implement an energy conservation program to increase the efficiency of all its snowmobiles then in use. Duhamel Trapp, "Ski-Doo Scuttles Factory Racing" Sno-Mobile Times, January 1974, 26. The United States Snowmobile Association, the major sanctioning organization for racing, voted to eliminate Sunday racing (which canceled about 250 races in 1973-74) and to reduce three-day events to two and two-day events to one, saving the gas used by both racers and spectators. "Snowmobilers Act," New York Times, 2 December 1973, sec. 5.
154. The governor of Maine asked state snowmobilers to reduce the hourly use of their machines by half to preserve fuel supplies for more important purposes, which sent a discouraging message in a state deeply committed to snowmobiling. "Governor of Maine Calls for Reduction In Snowmobile Use," New York Times, 9 December 1973. Ramstad, 104; O. B. Cupier, "Publisher's Note," Invitation to Snowmobiling, January 1974, 3. Jerry Huffman, "Misc.," Sno-Mobile Times, December 1973, 4; Glitz (n. 37 above), 63-65; Tom Anderson, "From Adolescence of the '70s . . . To Maturity of the '8Os," The Hummer (Wisconsin Snowmobile News), December 1979, 6. In December 1973, Bombardier withdrew its Ski-Doo factory team from racing and declared that it would implement an energy conservation program to increase the efficiency of all its snowmobiles then in use. Duhamel Trapp, "Ski-Doo Scuttles Factory Racing" Sno-Mobile Times, January 1974, 26. The United States Snowmobile Association, the major sanctioning organization for racing, voted to eliminate Sunday racing (which canceled about 250 races in 1973-74) and to reduce three-day events to two and two-day events to one, saving the gas used by both racers and spectators. "Snowmobilers Act," New York Times, 2 December 1973, sec. 5.
155. The governor of Maine asked state snowmobilers to reduce the hourly use of their machines by half to preserve fuel supplies for more important purposes, which sent a discouraging message in a state deeply committed to snowmobiling. "Governor of Maine Calls for Reduction In Snowmobile Use," New York Times, 9 December 1973. Ramstad, 104; O. B. Cupier, "Publisher's Note," Invitation to Snowmobiling, January 1974, 3. Jerry Huffman, "Misc.," Sno-Mobile Times, December 1973, 4; Glitz (n. 37 above), 63-65; Tom Anderson, "From Adolescence of the '70s . . . To Maturity of the '8Os," The Hummer (Wisconsin Snowmobile News), December 1979, 6. In December 1973, Bombardier withdrew its Ski-Doo factory team from racing and declared that it would implement an energy conservation program to increase the efficiency of all its snowmobiles then in use. Duhamel Trapp, "Ski-Doo Scuttles Factory Racing" Sno-Mobile Times, January 1974, 26. The United States Snowmobile Association, the major sanctioning organization for racing, voted to eliminate Sunday racing (which canceled about 250 races in 1973-74) and to reduce three-day events to two and two-day events to one, saving the gas used by both racers and spectators. "Snowmobilers Act," New York Times, 2 December 1973, sec. 5.
156. The governor of Maine asked state snowmobilers to reduce the hourly use of their machines by half to preserve fuel supplies for more important purposes, which sent a discouraging message in a state deeply committed to snowmobiling. "Governor of Maine Calls for Reduction In Snowmobile Use," New York Times, 9 December 1973. Ramstad, 104; O. B. Cupier, "Publisher's Note," Invitation to Snowmobiling, January 1974, 3. Jerry Huffman, "Misc.," Sno-Mobile Times, December 1973, 4; Glitz (n. 37 above), 63-65; Tom Anderson, "From Adolescence of the '70s . . . To Maturity of the '8Os," The Hummer (Wisconsin Snowmobile News), December 1979, 6. In December 1973, Bombardier withdrew its Ski-Doo factory team from racing and declared that it would implement an energy conservation program to increase the efficiency of all its snowmobiles then in use. Duhamel Trapp, "Ski-Doo Scuttles Factory Racing" Sno-Mobile Times, January 1974, 26. The United States Snowmobile Association, the major sanctioning organization for racing, voted to eliminate Sunday racing (which canceled about 250 races in 1973-74) and to reduce three-day events to two and two-day events to one, saving the gas used by both racers and spectators. "Snowmobilers Act," New York Times, 2 December 1973, sec. 5.
157. The governor of Maine asked state snowmobilers to reduce the hourly use of their machines by half to preserve fuel supplies for more important purposes, which sent a discouraging message in a state deeply committed to snowmobiling. "Governor of Maine Calls for Reduction In Snowmobile Use," New York Times, 9 December 1973. Ramstad, 104; O. B. Cupier, "Publisher's Note," Invitation to Snowmobiling, January 1974, 3. Jerry Huffman, "Misc.," Sno-Mobile Times, December 1973, 4; Glitz (n. 37 above), 63-65; Tom Anderson, "From Adolescence of the '70s . . . To Maturity of the '8Os," The Hummer (Wisconsin Snowmobile News), December 1979, 6. In December 1973, Bombardier withdrew its Ski-Doo factory team from racing and declared that it would implement an energy conservation program to increase the efficiency of all its snowmobiles then in use. Duhamel Trapp, "Ski-Doo Scuttles Factory Racing" Sno-Mobile Times, January 1974, 26. The United States Snowmobile Association, the major sanctioning organization for racing, voted to eliminate Sunday racing (which canceled about 250 races in 1973-74) and to reduce three-day events to two and two-day events to one, saving the gas used by both racers and spectators. "Snowmobilers Act," New York Times, 2 December 1973, sec. 5.
158. The governor of Maine asked state snowmobilers to reduce the hourly use of their machines by half to preserve fuel supplies for more important purposes, which sent a discouraging message in a state deeply committed to snowmobiling. "Governor of Maine Calls for Reduction In Snowmobile Use," New York Times, 9 December 1973. Ramstad, 104; O. B. Cupier, "Publisher's Note," Invitation to Snowmobiling, January 1974, 3. Jerry Huffman, "Misc.," Sno-Mobile Times, December 1973, 4; Glitz (n. 37 above), 63-65; Tom Anderson, "From Adolescence of the '70s . . . To Maturity of the '8Os," The Hummer (Wisconsin Snowmobile News), December 1979, 6. In December 1973, Bombardier withdrew its Ski-Doo factory team from racing and declared that it would implement an energy conservation program to increase the efficiency of all its snowmobiles then in use. Duhamel Trapp, "Ski-Doo Scuttles Factory Racing" Sno-Mobile Times, January 1974, 26. The United States Snowmobile Association, the major sanctioning organization for racing, voted to eliminate Sunday racing (which canceled about 250 races in 1973-74) and to reduce three-day events to two and two-day events to one, saving the gas used by both racers and spectators. "Snowmobilers Act," New York Times, 2 December 1973, sec. 5.
159. The governor of Maine asked state snowmobilers to reduce the hourly use of their machines by half to preserve fuel supplies for more important purposes, which sent a discouraging message in a state deeply committed to snowmobiling. "Governor of Maine Calls for Reduction In Snowmobile Use," New York Times, 9 December 1973. Ramstad, 104; O. B. Cupier, "Publisher's Note," Invitation to Snowmobiling, January 1974, 3. Jerry Huffman, "Misc.," Sno-Mobile Times, December 1973, 4; Glitz (n. 37 above), 63-65; Tom Anderson, "From Adolescence of the '70s . . . To Maturity of the '8Os," The Hummer (Wisconsin Snowmobile News), December 1979, 6. In December 1973, Bombardier withdrew its Ski-Doo factory team from racing and declared that it would implement an energy conservation program to increase the efficiency of all its snowmobiles then in use. Duhamel Trapp, "Ski-Doo Scuttles Factory Racing" Sno-Mobile Times, January 1974, 26. The United States Snowmobile Association, the major sanctioning organization for racing, voted to eliminate Sunday racing (which canceled about 250 races in 1973-74) and to reduce three-day events to two and two-day events to one, saving the gas used by both racers and spectators. "Snowmobilers Act," New York Times, 2 December 1973, sec. 5.
160. The governor of Maine asked state snowmobilers to reduce the hourly use of their machines by half to preserve fuel supplies for more important purposes, which sent a discouraging message in a state deeply committed to snowmobiling. "Governor of Maine Calls for Reduction In Snowmobile Use," New York Times, 9 December 1973. Ramstad, 104; O. B. Cupier, "Publisher's Note," Invitation to Snowmobiling, January 1974, 3. Jerry Huffman, "Misc.," Sno-Mobile Times, December 1973, 4; Glitz (n. 37 above), 63-65; Tom Anderson, "From Adolescence of the '70s . . . To Maturity of the '8Os," The Hummer (Wisconsin Snowmobile News), December 1979, 6. In December 1973, Bombardier withdrew its Ski-Doo factory team from racing and declared that it would implement an energy conservation program to increase the efficiency of all its snowmobiles then in use. Duhamel Trapp, "Ski-Doo Scuttles Factory Racing" Sno-Mobile Times, January 1974, 26. The United States Snowmobile Association, the major sanctioning organization for racing, voted to eliminate Sunday racing (which canceled about 250 races in 1973-74) and to reduce three-day events to two and two-day events to one, saving the gas used by both racers and spectators. "Snowmobilers Act," New York Times, 2 December 1973, sec. 5.
161. In its October 1975 issue, USSA SnoTrack (p. 10) counted eleven remaining manufacturers: Bombardier, Rupp, Artic, Deere, Mercury Marine, Polaris, Scorpion, Skiroule, Yamaha, Sno*Jet, and OMC, although OMC had announced that 1976 would be its last model year.
162. Ramstad (n. 14 above), 107, 114, 120; Anderson, 6; Jamieson, "The Winter That Wasn't," 36. Carryover had been reduced to 82,000 at the end of the 1976 model year, but the competitive situation remained critical into the late 1970s. Artic president Lowell Swenson commented, "We felt we could be hurt as badly by underproducing as overproducing because if we sold out early in the season, this simply opened the door to competitors" (Ramstad, 122). This approach prevented the carryover problem from disappearing, although it remained within manageable proportions.
163. Ramstad (n. 14 above), 107, 114, 120; Anderson, 6; Jamieson, "The Winter That Wasn't," 36. Carryover had been reduced to 82,000 at the end of the 1976 model year, but the competitive situation remained critical into the late 1970s. Artic president Lowell Swenson commented, "We felt we could be hurt as badly by underproducing as overproducing because if we sold out early in the season, this simply opened the door to competitors" (Ramstad, 122). This approach prevented the carryover problem from disappearing, although it remained within manageable proportions.
164. Ramstad (n. 14 above), 107, 114, 120; Anderson, 6; Jamieson, "The Winter That Wasn't," 36. Carryover had been reduced to 82,000 at the end of the 1976 model year, but the competitive situation remained critical into the late 1970s. Artic president Lowell Swenson commented, "We felt we could be hurt as badly by underproducing as overproducing because if we sold out early in the season, this simply opened the door to competitors" (Ramstad, 122). This approach prevented the carryover problem from disappearing, although it remained within manageable proportions.
165. Bassett (n. 13 above), 133-35; Ramstad, 139-62. The four manufacturers remaining in 1983 were Bombardier, Polaris, Arctic Cat, and Yamaha. The Japanese motorcycle maker Kawasaki entered the market in 1979 and dropped out after 1982. John Deere, a manufacturer since 1971, stopped producing snowmobiles in 1982 and officially left the market in 1984. The industry's annual production was down to 141,000 in 1982 (from 435,000 in 1974), with Yamaha the sales leader. Ralph Hughes, "Nothing Runs Like a Deere' Slogan Started With Snowmobiles," Green Magazine, April 1996, 9, 13; Jerry Bassett, Polaris Partners (St. Paul, 1994), 42.
166. Bassett (n. 13 above), 133-35; Ramstad, 139-62. The four manufacturers remaining in 1983 were Bombardier, Polaris, Arctic Cat, and Yamaha. The Japanese motorcycle maker Kawasaki entered the market in 1979 and dropped out after 1982. John Deere, a manufacturer since 1971, stopped producing snowmobiles in 1982 and officially left the market in 1984. The industry's annual production was down to 141,000 in 1982 (from 435,000 in 1974), with Yamaha the sales leader. Ralph Hughes, "Nothing Runs Like a Deere' Slogan Started With Snowmobiles," Green Magazine, April 1996, 9, 13; Jerry Bassett, Polaris Partners (St. Paul, 1994), 42.
167. Bassett (n. 13 above), 133-35; Ramstad, 139-62. The four manufacturers remaining in 1983 were Bombardier, Polaris, Arctic Cat, and Yamaha. The Japanese motorcycle maker Kawasaki entered the market in 1979 and dropped out after 1982. John Deere, a manufacturer since 1971, stopped producing snowmobiles in 1982 and officially left the market in 1984. The industry's annual production was down to 141,000 in 1982 (from 435,000 in 1974), with Yamaha the sales leader. Ralph Hughes, "Nothing Runs Like a Deere' Slogan Started With Snowmobiles," Green Magazine, April 1996, 9, 13; Jerry Bassett, Polaris Partners (St. Paul, 1994), 42.
168. Bassett (n. 13 above), 133-35; Ramstad, 139-62. The four manufacturers remaining in 1983 were Bombardier, Polaris, Arctic Cat, and Yamaha. The Japanese motorcycle maker Kawasaki entered the market in 1979 and dropped out after 1982. John Deere, a manufacturer since 1971, stopped producing snowmobiles in 1982 and officially left the market in 1984. The industry's annual production was down to 141,000 in 1982 (from 435,000 in 1974), with Yamaha the sales leader. Ralph Hughes, "Nothing Runs Like a Deere' Slogan Started With Snowmobiles," Green Magazine, April 1996, 9, 13; Jerry Bassett, Polaris Partners (St. Paul, 1994), 42.
169. Flink (n. 25 above), 31-36.
170. Quoted in Rice (n. 29 above), 30.
171. Quoted in Ralph Thornton, "Room to Roam," Sno-Mobile Times, October 1971, 28.
172. By the end of the 1990s some of the same conflicts discussed in this article had resurfaced, in part because continued American prosperity and mechanization of recreation combined with extremely low fuel prices to boost snowmobile sales and use. Even as automobile emissions decreased dramatically beginning in the 1970s, under increasingly stringent regulation, the snowmobile's remained the same. By the 1999 model year, one snowmobile emitted roughly one thousand times as many hydrocarbons per hour of use as an automobile. Pollution and snowmobile noise, which had never been reduced to very low levels, once again became contentious issues as thousands of machines converged on popular parks and recreation areas. See James Brooke, "A Move to Rid Parks of Snowmobiles," New York Times, 7 February 1999.