Selling racism: History, heritage, gender and the (re)production of prejudice

Patterns of Prejudice

Volumn 33, Issue 4, 1999, Pages 67-86

  Kushner, Tony ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

Brighton; Cultural studies; Gender; Gollywog; Heritage; History; Hottentot Venus; Museum; Postmodernism; Racism

Indexed keywords

EID: 0033449087     PISSN: 0031322X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/003132299128810704     Document Type: Article

References (112)

1. Thanks are due to Nadia Valman for her valuable comments on the last sections of this article. Richard Herrnstein and Charles Murray, The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life (New York: Free Press 1994) and, for the debate, Russell Jacoby and Naomi Glauberman (eds), The Bell Curve Debate: History, Documents, Opinion (New York: Times Books 1995). For a critique of this debate, see Steven Fraser (ed.), The Bell Curve Wars: Race, Intelligence, and the Future of America (New York: Basic Books 1995) and Jack Montgomery, '"Smart racism": The Bell Curve and public deliberation', Patterns of Prejudice, vol. 30, no. 1, 1996, 43-60. Amongst the scientific debunking of this work, see Joe Kincheloe et al., Measured Lies: The Bell Curve Examined (New York: St Martin's Press 1997).
2. Thanks are due to Nadia Valman for her valuable comments on the last sections of this article. Richard Herrnstein and Charles Murray, The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life (New York: Free Press 1994) and, for the debate, Russell Jacoby and Naomi Glauberman (eds), The Bell Curve Debate: History, Documents, Opinion (New York: Times Books 1995). For a critique of this debate, see Steven Fraser (ed.), The Bell Curve Wars: Race, Intelligence, and the Future of America (New York: Basic Books 1995) and Jack Montgomery, '"Smart racism": The Bell Curve and public deliberation', Patterns of Prejudice, vol. 30, no. 1, 1996, 43-60. Amongst the scientific debunking of this work, see Joe Kincheloe et al., Measured Lies: The Bell Curve Examined (New York: St Martin's Press 1997).
3. Thanks are due to Nadia Valman for her valuable comments on the last sections of this article. Richard Herrnstein and Charles Murray, The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life (New York: Free Press 1994) and, for the debate, Russell Jacoby and Naomi Glauberman (eds), The Bell Curve Debate: History, Documents, Opinion (New York: Times Books 1995). For a critique of this debate, see Steven Fraser (ed.), The Bell Curve Wars: Race, Intelligence, and the Future of America (New York: Basic Books 1995) and Jack Montgomery, '"Smart racism": The Bell Curve and public deliberation', Patterns of Prejudice, vol. 30, no. 1, 1996, 43-60. Amongst the scientific debunking of this work, see Joe Kincheloe et al., Measured Lies: The Bell Curve Examined (New York: St Martin's Press 1997).
4. Thanks are due to Nadia Valman for her valuable comments on the last sections of this article. Richard Herrnstein and Charles Murray, The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life (New York: Free Press 1994) and, for the debate, Russell Jacoby and Naomi Glauberman (eds), The Bell Curve Debate: History, Documents, Opinion (New York: Times Books 1995). For a critique of this debate, see Steven Fraser (ed.), The Bell Curve Wars: Race, Intelligence, and the Future of America (New York: Basic Books 1995) and Jack Montgomery, '"Smart racism": The Bell Curve and public deliberation', Patterns of Prejudice, vol. 30, no. 1, 1996, 43-60. Amongst the scientific debunking of this work, see Joe Kincheloe et al., Measured Lies: The Bell Curve Examined (New York: St Martin's Press 1997).
5. Thanks are due to Nadia Valman for her valuable comments on the last sections of this article. Richard Herrnstein and Charles Murray, The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life (New York: Free Press 1994) and, for the debate, Russell Jacoby and Naomi Glauberman (eds), The Bell Curve Debate: History, Documents, Opinion (New York: Times Books 1995). For a critique of this debate, see Steven Fraser (ed.), The Bell Curve Wars: Race, Intelligence, and the Future of America (New York: Basic Books 1995) and Jack Montgomery, '"Smart racism": The Bell Curve and public deliberation', Patterns of Prejudice, vol. 30, no. 1, 1996, 43-60. Amongst the scientific debunking of this work, see Joe Kincheloe et al., Measured Lies: The Bell Curve Examined (New York: St Martin's Press 1997).
6. Marek Kohn, The Race Gallery: The Return of Racial Science (London: Vintage 1996) and quoted in Gary Younge, 'The gene genies', Guardian, 1 May 1999.
7. Marek Kohn, The Race Gallery: The Return of Racial Science (London: Vintage 1996) and quoted in Gary Younge, 'The gene genies', Guardian, 1 May 1999.
8. Younge.
9. For a positive assessment of British 'race relations', see Trevor Phillips, 'Racists know the game is up', Observer, 25 April 1999: 'The racists know that history, rather than supporting them, is about to defeat them. There is a growing acceptance that England is, uniquely, a country created by waves of immigrants . . . We have been able to achieve this over a thousand years by developing a very simple set of values which we now take for granted as the secret of Englishness - decency, tolerance, respect for privacy and individualism which the rest of the world sees in us.' Contrast Phillips's optimism with the Commission for Racial Equality, Annual Report (London: Commission for Racial Equality 1999) which highlights how racial violence continues to escalate in contemporary Britain.
10. For a positive assessment of British 'race relations', see Trevor Phillips, 'Racists know the game is up', Observer, 25 April 1999: 'The racists know that history, rather than supporting them, is about to defeat them. There is a growing acceptance that England is, uniquely, a country created by waves of immigrants . . . We have been able to achieve this over a thousand years by developing a very simple set of values which we now take for granted as the secret of Englishness - decency, tolerance, respect for privacy and individualism which the rest of the world sees in us.' Contrast Phillips's optimism with the Commission for Racial Equality, Annual Report (London: Commission for Racial Equality 1999) which highlights how racial violence continues to escalate in contemporary Britain.
11. Raphael Samuel, Theatres of Memory, Vol. 1: Past and Present in Contemporary Culture (London: Verso 1994), 308.
12. Elizabeth Hallam, 'Introduction', in Hallam and Nicky Levell (eds), Communicating Otherness: Cultural Encounters (Brighton: Graduate Research Centre in Culture and Communication at the University of Sussex 1996), 3.
13. Nicky Levell, 'On keepers', in Hallam and Levell (eds), 16-17; Pierre Bourdieu and Jean-Claude Passeron, Reproduction in Education, Society and Culture, 2nd edn (London: Sage 1990).
14. Nicky Levell, 'On keepers', in Hallam and Levell (eds), 16-17; Pierre Bourdieu and Jean-Claude Passeron, Reproduction in Education, Society and Culture, 2nd edn (London: Sage 1990).
15. Levell, 'On keepers', 16.
16. The cartoon is reproduced and contextualized in Andrew Barlow, The Prince and His Pleasures: Satirical Images of George IV and His Circle (Brighton: Brighton Museum and Art Gallery 1997), 17-18. The sexism of the image is also worthy of comment. The enormous exaggeration of the buttocks appears to owe a great deal to earlier cartoons of white women satirizing contemporary fashion. In particular, Miss Hoare of Bath's drawing 'A modern Venus' from the 1770s is highly reminiscent of the representations of the Hottentot Venus; see Diana Donald, The Age of Caricature: Satirical Prints in the Reign of George III (New Haven: Yale University Press 1996), 91 (thanks to John Oldfield for drawing my attention to this connection). The relationship between sexism and racism here suggests more complexity and perhaps a different chronology than offered in Sander Gilman, 'Black bodies, white bodies: toward an iconography of female sexuality in late nineteenth-century art, medicine, and literature', in Henry Louis Gates, Jr. (ed.), 'Race', Writing, and Difference (Chicago: University of Chicago Press 1986), 223-61.
17. The cartoon is reproduced and contextualized in Andrew Barlow, The Prince and His Pleasures: Satirical Images of George IV and His Circle (Brighton: Brighton Museum and Art Gallery 1997), 17-18. The sexism of the image is also worthy of comment. The enormous exaggeration of the buttocks appears to owe a great deal to earlier cartoons of white women satirizing contemporary fashion. In particular, Miss Hoare of Bath's drawing 'A modern Venus' from the 1770s is highly reminiscent of the representations of the Hottentot Venus; see Diana Donald, The Age of Caricature: Satirical Prints in the Reign of George III (New Haven: Yale University Press 1996), 91 (thanks to John Oldfield for drawing my attention to this connection). The relationship between sexism and racism here suggests more complexity and perhaps a different chronology than offered in Sander Gilman, 'Black bodies, white bodies: toward an iconography of female sexuality in late nineteenth-century art, medicine, and literature', in Henry Louis Gates, Jr. (ed.), 'Race', Writing, and Difference (Chicago: University of Chicago Press 1986), 223-61.
18. The cartoon is reproduced and contextualized in Andrew Barlow, The Prince and His Pleasures: Satirical Images of George IV and His Circle (Brighton: Brighton Museum and Art Gallery 1997), 17-18. The sexism of the image is also worthy of comment. The enormous exaggeration of the buttocks appears to owe a great deal to earlier cartoons of white women satirizing contemporary fashion. In particular, Miss Hoare of Bath's drawing 'A modern Venus' from the 1770s is highly reminiscent of the representations of the Hottentot Venus; see Diana Donald, The Age of Caricature: Satirical Prints in the Reign of George III (New Haven: Yale University Press 1996), 91 (thanks to John Oldfield for drawing my attention to this connection). The relationship between sexism and racism here suggests more complexity and perhaps a different chronology than offered in Sander Gilman, 'Black bodies, white bodies: toward an iconography of female sexuality in late nineteenth-century art, medicine, and literature', in Henry Louis Gates, Jr. (ed.), 'Race', Writing, and Difference (Chicago: University of Chicago Press 1986), 223-61.
19. On the life of Saartjie Baartman, see The Times, 26 and 29 November 1810, Richard Altick, The Shows of London (Cambridge, MA: Belknapp Press 1978), 268-73, Peter Fryer, Staying Power: The History of Black People in Britain (London: Pluto Press 1984), 229-30, and Percival Kirby, 'The Hottentot Venus', Africana Notes & News, vol. 6, 1948-9, 55-62. On her representation in contemporary British and French political satire, see Percival Kirby, 'More about the Hottentot Venus', Africana Notes & News, vol. 8, 1952-3, 126-34, Dabydeen in 'I want your sex' (broadcast as a Without Walls documentary, Channel 4, 1990), Bernth Lindfors, 'The afterlife of the Hottentot Venus', Neohelicon, vol. 16, no. 2, 1989, 293-301, and Lindfors, 'Courting the Hottentot Venus', Africa, no. 40, 1985, 133-48.
20. On the life of Saartjie Baartman, see The Times, 26 and 29 November 1810, Richard Altick, The Shows of London (Cambridge, MA: Belknapp Press 1978), 268-73, Peter Fryer, Staying Power: The History of Black People in Britain (London: Pluto Press 1984), 229-30, and Percival Kirby, 'The Hottentot Venus', Africana Notes & News, vol. 6, 1948-9, 55-62. On her representation in contemporary British and French political satire, see Percival Kirby, 'More about the Hottentot Venus', Africana Notes & News, vol. 8, 1952-3, 126-34, Dabydeen in 'I want your sex' (broadcast as a Without Walls documentary, Channel 4, 1990), Bernth Lindfors, 'The afterlife of the Hottentot Venus', Neohelicon, vol. 16, no. 2, 1989, 293-301, and Lindfors, 'Courting the Hottentot Venus', Africa, no. 40, 1985, 133-48.
21. On the life of Saartjie Baartman, see The Times, 26 and 29 November 1810, Richard Altick, The Shows of London (Cambridge, MA: Belknapp Press 1978), 268-73, Peter Fryer, Staying Power: The History of Black People in Britain (London: Pluto Press 1984), 229-30, and Percival Kirby, 'The Hottentot Venus', Africana Notes & News, vol. 6, 1948-9, 55-62. On her representation in contemporary British and French political satire, see Percival Kirby, 'More about the Hottentot Venus', Africana Notes & News, vol. 8, 1952-3, 126-34, Dabydeen in 'I want your sex' (broadcast as a Without Walls documentary, Channel 4, 1990), Bernth Lindfors, 'The afterlife of the Hottentot Venus', Neohelicon, vol. 16, no. 2, 1989, 293-301, and Lindfors, 'Courting the Hottentot Venus', Africa, no. 40, 1985, 133-48.
22. On the life of Saartjie Baartman, see The Times, 26 and 29 November 1810, Richard Altick, The Shows of London (Cambridge, MA: Belknapp Press 1978), 268-73, Peter Fryer, Staying Power: The History of Black People in Britain (London: Pluto Press 1984), 229-30, and Percival Kirby, 'The Hottentot Venus', Africana Notes & News, vol. 6, 1948-9, 55-62. On her representation in contemporary British and French political satire, see Percival Kirby, 'More about the Hottentot Venus', Africana Notes & News, vol. 8, 1952-3, 126-34, Dabydeen in 'I want your sex' (broadcast as a Without Walls documentary, Channel 4, 1990), Bernth Lindfors, 'The afterlife of the Hottentot Venus', Neohelicon, vol. 16, no. 2, 1989, 293-301, and Lindfors, 'Courting the Hottentot Venus', Africa, no. 40, 1985, 133-48.
23. On the life of Saartjie Baartman, see The Times, 26 and 29 November 1810, Richard Altick, The Shows of London (Cambridge, MA: Belknapp Press 1978), 268-73, Peter Fryer, Staying Power: The History of Black People in Britain (London: Pluto Press 1984), 229-30, and Percival Kirby, 'The Hottentot Venus', Africana Notes & News, vol. 6, 1948-9, 55-62. On her representation in contemporary British and French political satire, see Percival Kirby, 'More about the Hottentot Venus', Africana Notes & News, vol. 8, 1952-3, 126-34, Dabydeen in 'I want your sex' (broadcast as a Without Walls documentary, Channel 4, 1990), Bernth Lindfors, 'The afterlife of the Hottentot Venus', Neohelicon, vol. 16, no. 2, 1989, 293-301, and Lindfors, 'Courting the Hottentot Venus', Africa, no. 40, 1985, 133-48.
24. On the life of Saartjie Baartman, see The Times, 26 and 29 November 1810, Richard Altick, The Shows of London (Cambridge, MA: Belknapp Press 1978), 268-73, Peter Fryer, Staying Power: The History of Black People in Britain (London: Pluto Press 1984), 229-30, and Percival Kirby, 'The Hottentot Venus', Africana Notes & News, vol. 6, 1948-9, 55-62. On her representation in contemporary British and French political satire, see Percival Kirby, 'More about the Hottentot Venus', Africana Notes & News, vol. 8, 1952-3, 126-34, Dabydeen in 'I want your sex' (broadcast as a Without Walls documentary, Channel 4, 1990), Bernth Lindfors, 'The afterlife of the Hottentot Venus', Neohelicon, vol. 16, no. 2, 1989, 293-301, and Lindfors, 'Courting the Hottentot Venus', Africa, no. 40, 1985, 133-48.
25. On the life of Saartjie Baartman, see The Times, 26 and 29 November 1810, Richard Altick, The Shows of London (Cambridge, MA: Belknapp Press 1978), 268-73, Peter Fryer, Staying Power: The History of Black People in Britain (London: Pluto Press 1984), 229-30, and Percival Kirby, 'The Hottentot Venus', Africana Notes & News, vol. 6, 1948-9, 55-62. On her representation in contemporary British and French political satire, see Percival Kirby, 'More about the Hottentot Venus', Africana Notes & News, vol. 8, 1952-3, 126-34, Dabydeen in 'I want your sex' (broadcast as a Without Walls documentary, Channel 4, 1990), Bernth Lindfors, 'The afterlife of the Hottentot Venus', Neohelicon, vol. 16, no. 2, 1989, 293-301, and Lindfors, 'Courting the Hottentot Venus', Africa, no. 40, 1985, 133-48.
26. On the life of Saartjie Baartman, see The Times, 26 and 29 November 1810, Richard Altick, The Shows of London (Cambridge, MA: Belknapp Press 1978), 268-73, Peter Fryer, Staying Power: The History of Black People in Britain (London: Pluto Press 1984), 229-30, and Percival Kirby, 'The Hottentot Venus', Africana Notes & News, vol. 6, 1948-9, 55-62. On her representation in contemporary British and French political satire, see Percival Kirby, 'More about the Hottentot Venus', Africana Notes & News, vol. 8, 1952-3, 126-34, Dabydeen in 'I want your sex' (broadcast as a Without Walls documentary, Channel 4, 1990), Bernth Lindfors, 'The afterlife of the Hottentot Venus', Neohelicon, vol. 16, no. 2, 1989, 293-301, and Lindfors, 'Courting the Hottentot Venus', Africa, no. 40, 1985, 133-48.
27. Tony Kushner and Sian Jones, discussion with manager of Pavilion shop, September 1996, and information received in the summer of 1997.
28. 'The Brighton Pavilion', Heritage Videos, 1996.
29. Ibid.
30. For racism and homophobia in Brighton, see the Sussex respondents in the Mass-Observation survey on 'Social divisions', Mass-Observation Archive, University of Sussex: DR Spring 1990. See also New Society, 16 January 1987, Evening Argus, 22 January, 25 March 1991, 13 July, 17 November 1993, 19 August 1994, 19 August 1994, 14 March, 5 May 1995.
31. For racism and homophobia in Brighton, see the Sussex respondents in the Mass-Observation survey on 'Social divisions', Mass-Observation Archive, University of Sussex: DR Spring 1990. See also New Society, 16 January 1987, Evening Argus, 22 January, 25 March 1991, 13 July, 17 November 1993, 19 August 1994, 19 August 1994, 14 March, 5 May 1995.
32. The fullest account is Joyce Collins, Dr Brighton's Indian Patients December 1914-January 1916 (Brighton: Brighton Books 1997). For the wider context, see Rozina Visram, The Story of Indians in Britain 1700-1947 (London: Pluto Press 1986), ch. 6, and Kusoom Vadgama, India in Britain: The Indian Contribution to the British Way of Life (London: Robert Royce 1984), ch. 5.
33. The fullest account is Joyce Collins, Dr Brighton's Indian Patients December 1914-January 1916 (Brighton: Brighton Books 1997). For the wider context, see Rozina Visram, The Story of Indians in Britain 1700-1947 (London: Pluto Press 1986), ch. 6, and Kusoom Vadgama, India in Britain: The Indian Contribution to the British Way of Life (London: Robert Royce 1984), ch. 5.
34. The fullest account is Joyce Collins, Dr Brighton's Indian Patients December 1914-January 1916 (Brighton: Brighton Books 1997). For the wider context, see Rozina Visram, The Story of Indians in Britain 1700-1947 (London: Pluto Press 1986), ch. 6, and Kusoom Vadgama, India in Britain: The Indian Contribution to the British Way of Life (London: Robert Royce 1984), ch. 5.
35. The Royal Pavilion Brighton (Brighton: Royal Pavilion, Art Gallery and Museum 1994), 43; the 1979 edition of this brochure (46) is even more suspect, referring to the '1914-18 war, a hiatus in which the Pavilion played a role more bizarre than any of its ornaments'.
36. For the play, see Collins, 22. The play was originally produced at the Theatre Royal, Stratford, and at the end of its run had 'one poignant performance . . . in the [Pavilion] Music Room'.
37. On the Chattri, see Vadgama, 103-4, and Lou Singh, 'The Indian war memorial at Patcham: revisited and reconsidered in the light of changing world values', 1991 manuscript, Brighton Reference Library.
38. 'India in Brighton' ran from 27 September 1997-25 January 1998. Little or nothing was added to our knowledge of the history and identity of Indians in Brighton or the town's identity in relation to its Indian connections. For Kipling, see Zohreh Sullivan, Narratives of Empire: The Fictions of Rudyard Kipling (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1993).
39. Barlow, 17-18. It is all the more remarkable that there was no reference to the racism of the cartoon in the exhibition itself as the accompanying catalogue comments explicitly on Baartman being 'publicly displayed and humiliated as a grotesque curiosity'. Outlining the new Cultures Gallery in 1993, Anthony Shelton, keeper of ethnography and musical instuments and research fellow in museum ethnography at Sussex University, stressed the radical objectives of the new galleries which 'will contribute to cultural literacy and the promotion of ethnic tolerance in an increasingly global integrated world'; Anthony Shelton, 'Re-presenting non-western art and ethnography at Brighton', The Royal Pavilion & Museums Review, vol. 1, 1993, 4.
40. The historical journal Immigrants & Minorities, with a strong interest in the British experience, was first published in 1982; see also the Black and Asian Studies Newsletter.
41. The historical journal Immigrants & Minorities, with a strong interest in the British experience, was first published in 1982; see also the Black and Asian Studies Newsletter.
42. The only permanent museum displays on immigrant and minority groups in Britain as of 1999 relate to the Jewish experience; see Tony Kushner, 'Looking back with nostalgia? The Jewish museums of England', Immigrants & Minorities, vol. 6, July 1997, 200-11. The exhibition 'A history of the black presence in London' was organized in 1984 by the Ethnic Minorities Unit of the soon-to-be-abolished Greater London Council and was shown first at the Royal Festival Hall and then at libraries and record offices; a brochure of the same title was published in 1986. Tony Kushner, 'Heritage and history: an introduction', in Kushner (ed.), The Jewish Heritage in British History: Englishness and Jewishness (London: Frank Cass 1992), 1-28, and National Curriculum History Working Group: Final Report (London: Department of Education and Science and the Welsh Office 1990).
43. The only permanent museum displays on immigrant and minority groups in Britain as of 1999 relate to the Jewish experience; see Tony Kushner, 'Looking back with nostalgia? The Jewish museums of England', Immigrants & Minorities, vol. 6, July 1997, 200-11. The exhibition 'A history of the black presence in London' was organized in 1984 by the Ethnic Minorities Unit of the soon-to-be-abolished Greater London Council and was shown first at the Royal Festival Hall and then at libraries and record offices; a brochure of the same title was published in 1986. Tony Kushner, 'Heritage and history: an introduction', in Kushner (ed.), The Jewish Heritage in British History: Englishness and Jewishness (London: Frank Cass 1992), 1-28, and National Curriculum History Working Group: Final Report (London: Department of Education and Science and the Welsh Office 1990).
44. The only permanent museum displays on immigrant and minority groups in Britain as of 1999 relate to the Jewish experience; see Tony Kushner, 'Looking back with nostalgia? The Jewish museums of England', Immigrants & Minorities, vol. 6, July 1997, 200-11. The exhibition 'A history of the black presence in London' was organized in 1984 by the Ethnic Minorities Unit of the soon-to-be-abolished Greater London Council and was shown first at the Royal Festival Hall and then at libraries and record offices; a brochure of the same title was published in 1986. Tony Kushner, 'Heritage and history: an introduction', in Kushner (ed.), The Jewish Heritage in British History: Englishness and Jewishness (London: Frank Cass 1992), 1-28, and National Curriculum History Working Group: Final Report (London: Department of Education and Science and the Welsh Office 1990).
45. Nick Merriman, The Peopling of London: Fifteen Thousand Years of Settlement from Overseas (London: Museum of London 1993); for a critique, see David Kohn, 'Diversity and the Museum of London', Curator: The Museum Journal, vol. 37, December 1994, 240-50,
46. Nick Merriman, The Peopling of London: Fifteen Thousand Years of Settlement from Overseas (London: Museum of London 1993); for a critique, see David Kohn, 'Diversity and the Museum of London', Curator: The Museum Journal, vol. 37, December 1994, 240-50,
47. See Tony Kushner, 'Remembering to forget: racism and anti-racism in post-war Britain', in Bryan Cheyette and Laura Marcus (eds), Modernity, Culture and 'The Jew' (Oxford: Polity Press 1998), 226-41
48. Mike and Trevor Phillips, Windrush: The Irresistible Rise of Multi-Racial Britain (London: HarperCollins 1999), 159-60, referring to Roy Porter, London: A Social History (Harmondsworth: Penguin 1996), 354. See also Porter's comments in his introduction (2).
49. Mike and Trevor Phillips, Windrush: The Irresistible Rise of Multi-Racial Britain (London: HarperCollins 1999), 159-60, referring to Roy Porter, London: A Social History (Harmondsworth: Penguin 1996), 354. See also Porter's comments in his introduction (2).
50. Mike and Trevor Phillips, 160.
51. See the Past Times catalogues for its stated aims and objectives. On the history of the firm, see Samuel, 86-7, 98-9.
52. I have been told by local managers of Past Times that the items would not have been removed for ideological reasons.
53. Jan Nederveen Pieterse, White on Black: Images of Africa and Blacks in Western Popular Culture (New Haven: Yale University Press 1992), ch. 10 'Popular types'.
54. For the antisemitic Gollywog, see 'The press, the jam jar, and the Gollywog', Searchlight, no. 111, September 1984, 16. For the Aliens Question, see Bernard Gainer, The Alien Invasion (London: Heinemann 1972).
55. For the antisemitic Gollywog, see 'The press, the jam jar, and the Gollywog', Searchlight, no. 111, September 1984, 16. For the Aliens Question, see Bernard Gainer, The Alien Invasion (London: Heinemann 1972).
56. 'The press, the jam jar and the Gollywog', 16-17. See also Paul Gordon and David Rosenberg, Daily Racism: The Press and Black People in Britain (London: Runnymede Trust 1989). On the attack on and the subsequent revival of Enid Blyton's reputation in relation to what has been dubbed the issue of 'political correctness', see Stephen Moss, 'The eternal child', Guardian, 11 April 1997, and Celia Brayfield, 'Golly! Noddy and chums go global', Daily Telegraph, 7 January 1997, who suggests that in 'the Seventies . . . Noddy was censured for racism and the entire oeuvre branded sexist. In the Eighties, The Comic Strip satirised [her work] but now in the Nineties there are signs that the pendulum of public opinion is swinging back.'
57. 'The press, the jam jar and the Gollywog', 16-17. See also Paul Gordon and David Rosenberg, Daily Racism: The Press and Black People in Britain (London: Runnymede Trust 1989). On the attack on and the subsequent revival of Enid Blyton's reputation in relation to what has been dubbed the issue of 'political correctness', see Stephen Moss, 'The eternal child', Guardian, 11 April 1997, and Celia Brayfield, 'Golly! Noddy and chums go global', Daily Telegraph, 7 January 1997, who suggests that in 'the Seventies . . . Noddy was censured for racism and the entire oeuvre branded sexist. In the Eighties, The Comic Strip satirised [her work] but now in the Nineties there are signs that the pendulum of public opinion is swinging back.'
58. 'The press, the jam jar and the Gollywog', 16-17. See also Paul Gordon and David Rosenberg, Daily Racism: The Press and Black People in Britain (London: Runnymede Trust 1989). On the attack on and the subsequent revival of Enid Blyton's reputation in relation to what has been dubbed the issue of 'political correctness', see Stephen Moss, 'The eternal child', Guardian, 11 April 1997, and Celia Brayfield, 'Golly! Noddy and chums go global', Daily Telegraph, 7 January 1997, who suggests that in 'the Seventies . . . Noddy was censured for racism and the entire oeuvre branded sexist. In the Eighties, The Comic Strip satirised [her work] but now in the Nineties there are signs that the pendulum of public opinion is swinging back.'
59. 'The press, the jam jar and the Gollywog', 16-17. See also Paul Gordon and David Rosenberg, Daily Racism: The Press and Black People in Britain (London: Runnymede Trust 1989). On the attack on and the subsequent revival of Enid Blyton's reputation in relation to what has been dubbed the issue of 'political correctness', see Stephen Moss, 'The eternal child', Guardian, 11 April 1997, and Celia Brayfield, 'Golly! Noddy and chums go global', Daily Telegraph, 7 January 1997, who suggests that in 'the Seventies . . . Noddy was censured for racism and the entire oeuvre branded sexist. In the Eighties, The Comic Strip satirised [her work] but now in the Nineties there are signs that the pendulum of public opinion is swinging back.'
60. 'The press, the jam jar and the Gollywog'.
61. See recent Robertson's products for the new Golly imagery.
62. Large department stores in Britain do not appear to be stocking Gollies, but independent toy and craft shops are increasingly doing so: for example, that made by DSN Quality Products, a grotesque stereotype labelled 'suitable for children of all ages'. The presence and price of second-hand Gollies in 'antique' shops suggest their current collectibility. See also the post-card series of Gollywogs from the Robert Opie Collection, Museum of Advertising and Packaging, Gloucester, who also market a fridge magnet of a Gollywog advertising Robertson's Golden Shred marmalade with the tag 'Great and Nostalgic Images'. Kenneth Goings, Mammy and Uncle Mose: Black Collectibles and American Stereotyping (Bloomington: Indiana University Press 1994).
63. Carson and Kruize quoted in Miami Herald, 30 July 1991 (thanks to Anne Rimbey for locating this source); Kohn.
64. On Brand, see Times Higher Education Supplement, 15 August 1997, Guardian, 9 August 1997 and Kohn, 96, 135. So far in the 1990s there has been no British equivalent, Brand excepted, of the American Bell Curve debate.
65. On Brand, see Times Higher Education Supplement, 15 August 1997, Guardian, 9 August 1997 and Kohn, 96, 135. So far in the 1990s there has been no British equivalent, Brand excepted, of the American Bell Curve debate.
66. See Samuel, 20, 44.
67. The Cultures Gallery, Brighton. On the importance of constructing a 'Jewish voice' as 'other', as in the pedlar's 'B[u]y a Vach', see Sander Gilman, The Jew's Body (London: Routledge 1991), ch. 1. On the Cultures Gallery's objectives, see Shelton, 1-4.
68. Betty Naggar, Jewish Pedlars and Hawkers 1740-1940 (Camberley: Porphyrogenitus 1992), 18.
69. Ibid., 29-30.
70. Ibid., ch. 7.
71. Ibid., 31.
72. See Bill Williams, The Making of Manchester Jewry (Manchester: Manchester University Press 1976), and Zoe Josephs et al., Birmingham Jewry 1749-1914 (Birmingham: Birmingham Jewish History Research Group 1980).
73. See Bill Williams, The Making of Manchester Jewry (Manchester: Manchester University Press 1976), and Zoe Josephs et al., Birmingham Jewry 1749-1914 (Birmingham: Birmingham Jewish History Research Group 1980).
74. On black musicians and boxers, see Fryer, 79-88, 445-54.
75. Past Times was developed by John Beale who previously had created the Early Learning Centre which has a progressive, inclusive approach to children's toys and educational resources. Raphael Samuel argued that both chains have an 'improving' ambition but he did not acknowledge the conservative (as against liberal) ethos of the heritage stores and the ability of the former to help subsidize the latter (Samuel, 86).
76. See Bill Williams, 'The anti-Semitism of tolerance', in A. J. Kidd and K. W. Roberts (eds), City, Class and Culture: Studies of Social Policy and Cultural Production in Victorian Manchester (Manchester: Manchester University Press 1985), 74-102, and Steve Cohen, It's the Same Old Story: Immigration Controls against Jewish, Black and Asian People, with Special Reference to Manchester (Manchester: Manchester City Council 1987), 28-9 on the anti-New Commonwealth immigrant stance of the Manchester Evening News which later subsidized the Manchester Guardian.
77. See Bill Williams, 'The anti-Semitism of tolerance', in A. J. Kidd and K. W. Roberts (eds), City, Class and Culture: Studies of Social Policy and Cultural Production in Victorian Manchester (Manchester: Manchester University Press 1985), 74-102, and Steve Cohen, It's the Same Old Story: Immigration Controls against Jewish, Black and Asian People, with Special Reference to Manchester (Manchester: Manchester City Council 1987), 28-9 on the anti-New Commonwealth immigrant stance of the Manchester Evening News which later subsidized the Manchester Guardian.
78. It should be added that the Commission for Racial Equality has been marketing posters representing minority groups in British history, including those of Afro-Caribbean and Asian origin, linked to its book Roots of the Future: Ethnic Diversity in the Making of Britain (London: Commission for Racial Equality 1996) written by Mayerlene Frow.
79. See Donald Bloxham and Tony Kushner, 'Exhibiting racism: cultural imperialism, genocide and representation', Rethinking History, vol. 2, no. 3, 1998, 349-58.
80. Ibid.
81. For critical perspectives on postmodern approaches to history, see Richard Evans, In Defence of History (London: Granta Books 1997); Tony Kushner, 'The fascist as "other"? Racism and neo-Nazism in contemporary Britain', Patterns of Prejudice, vol. 28, no. 1, 1994, 27-45.
82. For critical perspectives on postmodern approaches to history, see Richard Evans, In Defence of History (London: Granta Books 1997); Tony Kushner, 'The fascist as "other"? Racism and neo-Nazism in contemporary Britain', Patterns of Prejudice, vol. 28, no. 1, 1994, 27-45.
83. Christopher Mullard, 'An experience of race discrimination', The Times, 17 May 1967. In contrast, see the Police Federation cartoon 'Golly', reproduced in 'The press, the jam jar and the Gollywog', 17.
84. Christopher Mullard, 'An experience of race discrimination', The Times, 17 May 1967. In contrast, see the Police Federation cartoon 'Golly', reproduced in 'The press, the jam jar and the Gollywog', 17.
85. Quoted in Beverley Bryan, Stella Dadzie and Suzanne Scafe, The Heart of the Matter: Black Women's Lives in Britain (London: Virago 1986), 62. The issue of the Gollywog at schools continues to cause controversy and distress; see the front page of the Manchester Evening News, 1 August 1998, 'School mums in "Golly" row'.
86. Quoted in Beverley Bryan, Stella Dadzie and Suzanne Scafe, The Heart of the Matter: Black Women's Lives in Britain (London: Virago 1986), 62. The issue of the Gollywog at schools continues to cause controversy and distress; see the front page of the Manchester Evening News, 1 August 1998, 'School mums in "Golly" row'.
87. Lindfors, 'The afterlife of the Hottentot Venus', 296; Kirby, 'More about the Hottentot Venus', 126-7.
88. Lindfors, 'The afterlife of the Hottentot Venus', 296; Kirby, 'More about the Hottentot Venus', 126-7.
89. Lindfors, 'The afterlife of the Hottentot Venus', 297.
90. Ibid., 299-301.
91. Ibid., 301.
92. Kirby, 'The Hottentot Venus', 55.
93. Nigel Worden, The Making of Modern South Africa: Conquest, Segregation and Apartheid (Oxford: Blackwell 1993).
94. Lindfors 'The afterlife of the Hottentot Venus', 301.
95. Ibid., 299, 301.
96. Fryer, xi.
97. Ibid., 228-30.
98. Henry Louis Gates, Jr., 'Editor's introduction: writing "race" and the difference it makes', in Gates (ed.), 6.
99. Gilman, 232-7.
100. On cultural studies approaches to the Hottentot Venus, see: Gilman; 'I want your sex'; Pieterse, 94, 181; Lindfors, 'The afterlife of the Hottentot Venus', 293-301; and Altick, ch. 20. The limitations of Fryer's historical coverage have been noted and, although Norma Myers, Reconstructing the Black Past: Blacks in Britain 1780-1830 (London: Frank Cass 1996), makes a valient attempt to cover the experiences of ordinary black people in Britain, her coverage of Saartjie Baartman is limited to the latter's image as the Hottentot Venus (see 48, 78). She is also not covered in such major studies of early black history in Britain as James Walvin, Black and White: The Negro and English Society 1555-1945 (London: Allen Lane 1973), Folarin Shyllon, Black People in Britain 1555-1833 (London: Oxford University Press 1977) and Gretchen Gerzina, Black England: Life before Emancipation (London: John Murray 1995).
101. On cultural studies approaches to the Hottentot Venus, see: Gilman; 'I want your sex'; Pieterse, 94, 181; Lindfors, 'The afterlife of the Hottentot Venus', 293-301; and Altick, ch. 20. The limitations of Fryer's historical coverage have been noted and, although Norma Myers, Reconstructing the Black Past: Blacks in Britain 1780-1830 (London: Frank Cass 1996), makes a valient attempt to cover the experiences of ordinary black people in Britain, her coverage of Saartjie Baartman is limited to the latter's image as the Hottentot Venus (see 48, 78). She is also not covered in such major studies of early black history in Britain as James Walvin, Black and White: The Negro and English Society 1555-1945 (London: Allen Lane 1973), Folarin Shyllon, Black People in Britain 1555-1833 (London: Oxford University Press 1977) and Gretchen Gerzina, Black England: Life before Emancipation (London: John Murray 1995).
102. On cultural studies approaches to the Hottentot Venus, see: Gilman; 'I want your sex'; Pieterse, 94, 181; Lindfors, 'The afterlife of the Hottentot Venus', 293-301; and Altick, ch. 20. The limitations of Fryer's historical coverage have been noted and, although Norma Myers, Reconstructing the Black Past: Blacks in Britain 1780-1830 (London: Frank Cass 1996), makes a valient attempt to cover the experiences of ordinary black people in Britain, her coverage of Saartjie Baartman is limited to the latter's image as the Hottentot Venus (see 48, 78). She is also not covered in such major studies of early black history in Britain as James Walvin, Black and White: The Negro and English Society 1555-1945 (London: Allen Lane 1973), Folarin Shyllon, Black People in Britain 1555-1833 (London: Oxford University Press 1977) and Gretchen Gerzina, Black England: Life before Emancipation (London: John Murray 1995).
103. On cultural studies approaches to the Hottentot Venus, see: Gilman; 'I want your sex'; Pieterse, 94, 181; Lindfors, 'The afterlife of the Hottentot Venus', 293-301; and Altick, ch. 20. The limitations of Fryer's historical coverage have been noted and, although Norma Myers, Reconstructing the Black Past: Blacks in Britain 1780-1830 (London: Frank Cass 1996), makes a valient attempt to cover the experiences of ordinary black people in Britain, her coverage of Saartjie Baartman is limited to the latter's image as the Hottentot Venus (see 48, 78). She is also not covered in such major studies of early black history in Britain as James Walvin, Black and White: The Negro and English Society 1555-1945 (London: Allen Lane 1973), Folarin Shyllon, Black People in Britain 1555-1833 (London: Oxford University Press 1977) and Gretchen Gerzina, Black England: Life before Emancipation (London: John Murray 1995).
104. On cultural studies approaches to the Hottentot Venus, see: Gilman; 'I want your sex'; Pieterse, 94, 181; Lindfors, 'The afterlife of the Hottentot Venus', 293-301; and Altick, ch. 20. The limitations of Fryer's historical coverage have been noted and, although Norma Myers, Reconstructing the Black Past: Blacks in Britain 1780-1830 (London: Frank Cass 1996), makes a valient attempt to cover the experiences of ordinary black people in Britain, her coverage of Saartjie Baartman is limited to the latter's image as the Hottentot Venus (see 48, 78). She is also not covered in such major studies of early black history in Britain as James Walvin, Black and White: The Negro and English Society 1555-1945 (London: Allen Lane 1973), Folarin Shyllon, Black People in Britain 1555-1833 (London: Oxford University Press 1977) and Gretchen Gerzina, Black England: Life before Emancipation (London: John Murray 1995).
105. On cultural studies approaches to the Hottentot Venus, see: Gilman; 'I want your sex'; Pieterse, 94, 181; Lindfors, 'The afterlife of the Hottentot Venus', 293-301; and Altick, ch. 20. The limitations of Fryer's historical coverage have been noted and, although Norma Myers, Reconstructing the Black Past: Blacks in Britain 1780-1830 (London: Frank Cass 1996), makes a valient attempt to cover the experiences of ordinary black people in Britain, her coverage of Saartjie Baartman is limited to the latter's image as the Hottentot Venus (see 48, 78). She is also not covered in such major studies of early black history in Britain as James Walvin, Black and White: The Negro and English Society 1555-1945 (London: Allen Lane 1973), Folarin Shyllon, Black People in Britain 1555-1833 (London: Oxford University Press 1977) and Gretchen Gerzina, Black England: Life before Emancipation (London: John Murray 1995).
106. Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, 'The Rani of Sirmur: an essay in reading the archives', in Francis Barker et al. (eds), Europe and Its Others (Colchester: University of Essex Press 1985), 146-7, reprinted in History and Theory, vol. 24, no. 3, 1985, 270-1.
107. Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, 'The Rani of Sirmur: an essay in reading the archives', in Francis Barker et al. (eds), Europe and Its Others (Colchester: University of Essex Press 1985), 146-7, reprinted in History and Theory, vol. 24, no. 3, 1985, 270-1.
108. Ziggi Alexander, 'Let it lie upon the table: the status of black women's biography in the UK', Gender and History, vol. 2, no. 1, spring 1990, 22. If Spivak can be regarded as too pessimistic then the reverse is true of Alexander who overstates the availability of material and understates its problematic nature (25, 29).
109. On the idea of global citizenship, see Stuart Hall, 'Old and new identities, old and new ethnicities', in A. King (ed.), Culture, Globalization and the World System: Contemporary Conditions for the Representation of Identity (Basingstoke: Macmillan 1991), 41-68. On the danger of romanticizing the plight of those forced to flee across the world because of oppression, see Phil Cohen, 'Rethinking the diasporama', Patterns of Prejudice, vol. 33, no. 1, 1999, 17-18. In particular, a new form of philosemitism has developed in which the Jews and Jewish history are constructed as representing the ideal of global citizenship. See Bryan Cheyette, '"Ineffable and usable": towards a diasporic British-Jewish writing', Textual Practice, vol. 18, no. 2, 1996, 295-313, and Gillian Rose, Judaism and Modernity: Philosophical Essays (Oxford: Blackwell 1993), 19-20.
110. On the idea of global citizenship, see Stuart Hall, 'Old and new identities, old and new ethnicities', in A. King (ed.), Culture, Globalization and the World System: Contemporary Conditions for the Representation of Identity (Basingstoke: Macmillan 1991), 41-68. On the danger of romanticizing the plight of those forced to flee across the world because of oppression, see Phil Cohen, 'Rethinking the diasporama', Patterns of Prejudice, vol. 33, no. 1, 1999, 17-18. In particular, a new form of philosemitism has developed in which the Jews and Jewish history are constructed as representing the ideal of global citizenship. See Bryan Cheyette, '"Ineffable and usable": towards a diasporic British-Jewish writing', Textual Practice, vol. 18, no. 2, 1996, 295-313, and Gillian Rose, Judaism and Modernity: Philosophical Essays (Oxford: Blackwell 1993), 19-20.
111. On the idea of global citizenship, see Stuart Hall, 'Old and new identities, old and new ethnicities', in A. King (ed.), Culture, Globalization and the World System: Contemporary Conditions for the Representation of Identity (Basingstoke: Macmillan 1991), 41-68. On the danger of romanticizing the plight of those forced to flee across the world because of oppression, see Phil Cohen, 'Rethinking the diasporama', Patterns of Prejudice, vol. 33, no. 1, 1999, 17-18. In particular, a new form of philosemitism has developed in which the Jews and Jewish history are constructed as representing the ideal of global citizenship. See Bryan Cheyette, '"Ineffable and usable": towards a diasporic British-Jewish writing', Textual Practice, vol. 18, no. 2, 1996, 295-313, and Gillian Rose, Judaism and Modernity: Philosophical Essays (Oxford: Blackwell 1993), 19-20.
112. On the idea of global citizenship, see Stuart Hall, 'Old and new identities, old and new ethnicities', in A. King (ed.), Culture, Globalization and the World System: Contemporary Conditions for the Representation of Identity (Basingstoke: Macmillan 1991), 41-68. On the danger of romanticizing the plight of those forced to flee across the world because of oppression, see Phil Cohen, 'Rethinking the diasporama', Patterns of Prejudice, vol. 33, no. 1, 1999, 17-18. In particular, a new form of philosemitism has developed in which the Jews and Jewish history are constructed as representing the ideal of global citizenship. See Bryan Cheyette, '"Ineffable and usable": towards a diasporic British-Jewish writing', Textual Practice, vol. 18, no. 2, 1996, 295-313, and Gillian Rose, Judaism and Modernity: Philosophical Essays (Oxford: Blackwell 1993), 19-20.