War, memory, and education in a fragmented society: The case of Yugoslavia

East European Politics and Societies

Volumn 13, Issue 1, 1999, Pages 190-227

  Hoepken, Wolfgang ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0033449037     PISSN: 08883254     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0888325499013001006     Document Type: Article

References (125)

1. Hans-Magnus Enzenberger, Aussichten auf den Bürgerkrieg (Frankfurt: Suhrkamp Edition, 1996), 9.
2. Jay Winter, Sites of Memory, Sites of Mourning: The Great War in European Cultural History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 9.
3. Joel M. Halpern, "Interpreting the Past - Time Perspective and Social History," Studia ethnologica 3 (1991): 85-99; Ivan Colovic, "Die Erneuerung des Vergangenen. Zeit und Raum in der zeitgenössischen politischen Mythologie," in Nenad Stefanov and Michael Werz, eds., Bosnien und Europa. Die Ethnisierung der Gesellschaft (Frankfurt: Fischer, 1994), 90-103; and Klaus Roth, "Zeit, Geschichtlichkeit und Volkskultur im post-sozialistischen Südosteuropa," Zeitschrift für Balkanologie 31:1 (1995): 31-45.
4. Joel M. Halpern, "Interpreting the Past - Time Perspective and Social History," Studia ethnologica 3 (1991): 85-99; Ivan Colovic, "Die Erneuerung des Vergangenen. Zeit und Raum in der zeitgenössischen politischen Mythologie," in Nenad Stefanov and Michael Werz, eds., Bosnien und Europa. Die Ethnisierung der Gesellschaft (Frankfurt: Fischer, 1994), 90-103; and Klaus Roth, "Zeit, Geschichtlichkeit und Volkskultur im post-sozialistischen Südosteuropa," Zeitschrift für Balkanologie 31:1 (1995): 31-45.
5. Joel M. Halpern, "Interpreting the Past - Time Perspective and Social History," Studia ethnologica 3 (1991): 85-99; Ivan Colovic, "Die Erneuerung des Vergangenen. Zeit und Raum in der zeitgenössischen politischen Mythologie," in Nenad Stefanov and Michael Werz, eds., Bosnien und Europa. Die Ethnisierung der Gesellschaft (Frankfurt: Fischer, 1994), 90-103; and Klaus Roth, "Zeit, Geschichtlichkeit und Volkskultur im post-sozialistischen Südosteuropa," Zeitschrift für Balkanologie 31:1 (1995): 31-45.
6. While these anthropological approaches offer inspiring insights into the cultural dimensions of historical memory and may help to explain, for example, the prominent place of such historical events as the Battle of Kosovo in 1389 in today's historical culture and political conflicts in Serbia, in my view they still need more empirical evidence. If I am interpreting the literature correctly, we still have little knowledge of the impact of social change on the understanding of time in the Balkans. Remembering old wars within the framework of present political and social contexts and conflicts does not in itself seem to be specifically Balkan. As Peter Burke put it, there are societies with a long and a short social memory. Using Poland and Ireland as examples of societies that have a long memory, the borderline between those two types of societies obviously does not separate Central Europe from the traditional patriarchal Balkan. See Peter Burke, "History as Social Memory," in Thomas Butler, ed., Memory, History, Culture, and the Mind (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1989), 97-113.
7. Charles Tilly, Coercion, Capital and European States (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1992), 76.
8. Norbert Elias, Die Gesellschaft der Individuen (Frankfurt: Suhrkamp Edition, 1987), 276.
9. On the nineteenth-and early-twentieth-century textbooks and education in Bulgaria see Marija Radeva, "Učebnicite po bulgarska istorija (1879-1900) i vuzpitavaneto na nacionalni čuvstva i nacionalno suznanie," Godišnik na Sofijskija univerzitet 'Kliment Ochridskij'. Istoričeski fakultet 75 (1982): 88-123; for Greek textbooks, esp. Christina Koulouri, Dimensions idéologiques de l'historicité en Grece 1834-1914. Les manuels scolaires d'histoire et de géographie (Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1991 ); Christina Koulouri, "Ethnika stereotipa ke Elliniki ethniki tantotita sto scholeio ton 19on eond, Afieroma ston panepistimiako dhasskalo "Vass. Vl. Efnroera" (Athens, 1992), 323-341; Constantin Angélopoulos and Christina Koulouri, "L'identité nationale grecque: Métamorphoses 1830-1995. Étude des manuels scolaires grecs d'histoire, de géographie et de lecture," Internationale Schulbuchforschung-International Textbook Research 18 (1996): 323-350. For Serbian textbooks, see Charles Jelavich, South Slav Nationalism: Textbooks and the Yugoslav Union Before 1914 (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1990).
10. On the nineteenth-and early-twentieth-century textbooks and education in Bulgaria see Marija Radeva, "Učebnicite po bulgarska istorija (1879-1900) i vuzpitavaneto na nacionalni čuvstva i nacionalno suznanie," Godišnik na Sofijskija univerzitet 'Kliment Ochridskij'. Istoričeski fakultet 75 (1982): 88-123; for Greek textbooks, esp. Christina Koulouri, Dimensions idéologiques de l'historicité en Grece 1834-1914. Les manuels scolaires d'histoire et de géographie (Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1991 ); Christina Koulouri, "Ethnika stereotipa ke Elliniki ethniki tantotita sto scholeio ton 19on eond, Afieroma ston panepistimiako dhasskalo "Vass. Vl. Efnroera" (Athens, 1992), 323-341; Constantin Angélopoulos and Christina Koulouri, "L'identité nationale grecque: Métamorphoses 1830-1995. Étude des manuels scolaires grecs d'histoire, de géographie et de lecture," Internationale Schulbuchforschung-International Textbook Research 18 (1996): 323-350. For Serbian textbooks, see Charles Jelavich, South Slav Nationalism: Textbooks and the Yugoslav Union Before 1914 (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1990).
11. On the nineteenth-and early-twentieth-century textbooks and education in Bulgaria see Marija Radeva, "Učebnicite po bulgarska istorija (1879-1900) i vuzpitavaneto na nacionalni čuvstva i nacionalno suznanie," Godišnik na Sofijskija univerzitet 'Kliment Ochridskij'. Istoričeski fakultet 75 (1982): 88-123; for Greek textbooks, esp. Christina Koulouri, Dimensions idéologiques de l'historicité en Grece 1834-1914. Les manuels scolaires d'histoire et de géographie (Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1991 ); Christina Koulouri, "Ethnika stereotipa ke Elliniki ethniki tantotita sto scholeio ton 19on eond, Afieroma ston panepistimiako dhasskalo "Vass. Vl. Efnroera" (Athens, 1992), 323-341; Constantin Angélopoulos and Christina Koulouri, "L'identité nationale grecque: Métamorphoses 1830-1995. Étude des manuels scolaires grecs d'histoire, de géographie et de lecture," Internationale Schulbuchforschung-International Textbook Research 18 (1996): 323-350. For Serbian textbooks, see Charles Jelavich, South Slav Nationalism: Textbooks and the Yugoslav Union Before 1914 (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1990).
12. On the nineteenth-and early-twentieth-century textbooks and education in Bulgaria see Marija Radeva, "Učebnicite po bulgarska istorija (1879-1900) i vuzpitavaneto na nacionalni čuvstva i nacionalno suznanie," Godišnik na Sofijskija univerzitet 'Kliment Ochridskij'. Istoričeski fakultet 75 (1982): 88-123; for Greek textbooks, esp. Christina Koulouri, Dimensions idéologiques de l'historicité en Grece 1834-1914. Les manuels scolaires d'histoire et de géographie (Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1991 ); Christina Koulouri, "Ethnika stereotipa ke Elliniki ethniki tantotita sto scholeio ton 19on eond, Afieroma ston panepistimiako dhasskalo "Vass. Vl. Efnroera" (Athens, 1992), 323-341; Constantin Angélopoulos and Christina Koulouri, "L'identité nationale grecque: Métamorphoses 1830-1995. Étude des manuels scolaires grecs d'histoire, de géographie et de lecture," Internationale Schulbuchforschung-International Textbook Research 18 (1996): 323-350. For Serbian textbooks, see Charles Jelavich, South Slav Nationalism: Textbooks and the Yugoslav Union Before 1914 (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1990).
13. On the nineteenth-and early-twentieth-century textbooks and education in Bulgaria see Marija Radeva, "Učebnicite po bulgarska istorija (1879-1900) i vuzpitavaneto na nacionalni čuvstva i nacionalno suznanie," Godišnik na Sofijskija univerzitet 'Kliment Ochridskij'. Istoričeski fakultet 75 (1982): 88-123; for Greek textbooks, esp. Christina Koulouri, Dimensions idéologiques de l'historicité en Grece 1834-1914. Les manuels scolaires d'histoire et de géographie (Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 1991 ); Christina Koulouri, "Ethnika stereotipa ke Elliniki ethniki tantotita sto scholeio ton 19on eond, Afieroma ston panepistimiako dhasskalo "Vass. Vl. Efnroera" (Athens, 1992), 323-341; Constantin Angélopoulos and Christina Koulouri, "L'identité nationale grecque: Métamorphoses 1830-1995. Étude des manuels scolaires grecs d'histoire, de géographie et de lecture," Internationale Schulbuchforschung-International Textbook Research 18 (1996): 323-350. For Serbian textbooks, see Charles Jelavich, South Slav Nationalism: Textbooks and the Yugoslav Union Before 1914 (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1990).
14. As an example of the promotion of patriotism in popular literature in early-twentieth-century Serbia, see Biljana Trebješanin, Psihološki sadržaj i činioci patriotizma u savremenim uslovima (Belgrade: Ph.D. Filozofski fakultet-Institut za pshiologiju, 1995), manuscript, 82-86; and Olga Manojlović, "Koncentricni krugove pamćenja, sećnia tradicija i istorija," Tokovi istorije 1-2 (1996): 91-103.
15. For a case study of how the First World War was perceived by the public, see Olga Manojlović, Tradicije Prvog svetskog rata u Beogradskoj javnosti 1918-1941 (Belgrade University: M.A. thesis, 1996). Manuscript.
16. Dotation Carnegie pour la Paix Internationales, Direction des relations at l'éducation, Enquete sur les livres scolaires d'apres guerre, vol. 1 (Paris, 1923); for other Balkan countries; ibid., vol. 2 (Paris, 1925).
17. Dotation Carnegie pour la Paix Internationales, Direction des relations at l'éducation, Enquete sur les livres scolaires d'apres guerre, vol. 1 (Paris, 1923); for other Balkan countries; ibid., vol. 2 (Paris, 1925).
18. Winter, Sites of Memory, Sites of Mourning, 9.
19. For Bulgaria, see Milčo Lalkov, "Vuprosite na balkanskata istorija v kursa po obšta i bulgarska istorija na srednite učilišta," Vekove 4 (1973): 68-71. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, John Georgeoff recognized a much more Soviet-centered than nation-centered quality in the Bulgarian textbooks. John Georgeoff, "Nationalism in the History Textbooks of Yugoslavia and Bulgaria," Comparative Education Review (October 1966): 442-50. For other Balkan countries, Wolfgang Höpken, ed., Oil on Fire - Öl ins Feuer? Textbooks, Ethnic Stereotypes and Violence in South-Eastern Europe - Schulbücher, ethnische Stereotypen und Gewalt in Südosteuropa (Hannover: Hahn, 1996).
20. For Bulgaria, see Milčo Lalkov, "Vuprosite na balkanskata istorija v kursa po obšta i bulgarska istorija na srednite učilišta," Vekove 4 (1973): 68-71. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, John Georgeoff recognized a much more Soviet-centered than nation-centered quality in the Bulgarian textbooks. John Georgeoff, "Nationalism in the History Textbooks of Yugoslavia and Bulgaria," Comparative Education Review (October 1966): 442-50. For other Balkan countries, Wolfgang Höpken, ed., Oil on Fire - Öl ins Feuer? Textbooks, Ethnic Stereotypes and Violence in South-Eastern Europe - Schulbücher, ethnische Stereotypen und Gewalt in Südosteuropa (Hannover: Hahn, 1996).
21. For Bulgaria, see Milčo Lalkov, "Vuprosite na balkanskata istorija v kursa po obšta i bulgarska istorija na srednite učilišta," Vekove 4 (1973): 68-71. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, John Georgeoff recognized a much more Soviet-centered than nation-centered quality in the Bulgarian textbooks. John Georgeoff, "Nationalism in the History Textbooks of Yugoslavia and Bulgaria," Comparative Education Review (October 1966): 442-50. For other Balkan countries, Wolfgang Höpken, ed., Oil on Fire - Öl ins Feuer? Textbooks, Ethnic Stereotypes and Violence in South-Eastern Europe -Schulbücher, ethnische Stereotypen und Gewalt in Südosteuropa (Hannover: Hahn, 1996).
22. Herkules Millas, "History Textbooks in Greece and Turkey," History Workshop 31 (Autumn 1991), 21-33; Nikos Achlis, I ghitoniki mas wulghari ke turki sta scholika wiwlia istorias ghmnasiou ke likeiou (Thessaloniki, 1983); Ana Frangoudaki, I ta anaghnostika wiwlia tou dhimotikou scholeiou (Athens, 1979); Ana Frangoudaki and Thalia Dragonas, Greece, in Magne Angvik and Bodo von Boerries, eds., Youth and History:
23. Herkules Millas, "History Textbooks in Greece and Turkey," History Workshop 31 (Autumn 1991), 21-33; Nikos Achlis, I ghitoniki mas wulghari ke turki sta scholika wiwlia istorias ghmnasiou ke likeiou (Thessaloniki, 1983); Ana Frangoudaki, I ta anaghnostika wiwlia tou dhimotikou scholeiou (Athens, 1979); Ana Frangoudaki and Thalia Dragonas, Greece, in Magne Angvik and Bodo von Boerries, eds., Youth and History:
24. Herkules Millas, "History Textbooks in Greece and Turkey," History Workshop 31 (Autumn 1991), 21-33; Nikos Achlis, I ghitoniki mas wulghari ke turki sta scholika wiwlia istorias ghmnasiou ke likeiou (Thessaloniki, 1983); Ana Frangoudaki, I ta anaghnostika wiwlia tou dhimotikou scholeiou (Athens, 1979); Ana Frangoudaki and Thalia Dragonas, Greece, in Magne Angvik and Bodo von Boerries, eds., Youth and History:
25. Herkules Millas, "History Textbooks in Greece and Turkey," History Workshop 31 (Autumn 1991), 21-33; Nikos Achlis, I ghitoniki mas wulghari ke turki sta scholika wiwlia istorias ghmnasiou ke likeiou (Thessaloniki, 1983); Ana Frangoudaki, I ta anaghnostika wiwlia tou dhimotikou scholeiou (Athens, 1979); Ana Frangoudaki and Thalia Dragonas, Greece, in Magne Angvik and Bodo von Boerries, eds., Youth and History:
26. Irene Lagani, "The Presentation of Wars in History Textbooks in Greece" in Wolfgang Höpken, ed., Oil on Fire - Öl ins Feuer? 231; Mark Mazower, "The Cold War and the Appropriation of Memory: Greece After Liberation," East European Politics and Societies 9:2 (1992): 272-94. For a study of how the memory of the civil war and also one of the anti-Ottoman wars still influences the social community, see Anna Collard, "Investigating 'Social Memory' in a Greek Context," in Elizabeth Tonkin, Maryon McDonald, and Malcolm Chapman, eds., History and Ethnicity (New York: 1989), 89-103.
27. Irene Lagani, "The Presentation of Wars in History Textbooks in Greece" in Wolfgang Höpken, ed., Oil on Fire - Öl ins Feuer? 231; Mark Mazower, "The Cold War and the Appropriation of Memory: Greece After Liberation," East European Politics and Societies 9:2 (1992): 272-94. For a study of how the memory of the civil war and also one of the anti-Ottoman wars still influences the social community, see Anna Collard, "Investigating 'Social Memory' in a Greek Context," in Elizabeth Tonkin, Maryon McDonald, and Malcolm Chapman, eds., History and Ethnicity (New York: 1989), 89-103.
28. Irene Lagani, "The Presentation of Wars in History Textbooks in Greece" in Wolfgang Höpken, ed., Oil on Fire - Öl ins Feuer? 231; Mark Mazower, "The Cold War and the Appropriation of Memory: Greece After Liberation," East European Politics and Societies 9:2 (1992): 272-94. For a study of how the memory of the civil war and also one of the anti-Ottoman wars still influences the social community, see Anna Collard, "Investigating 'Social Memory' in a Greek Context," in Elizabeth Tonkin, Maryon McDonald, and Malcolm Chapman, eds., History and Ethnicity (New York: 1989), 89-103.
29. Charles S. Maier, "A Surfeit of Memory," History and Memory 5 (1993): 50.
30. Theodor W. Adorno, "Was bedeuted Aufarbeitung der Vergangenheit?," Kulturkritik und Gesellschaft, vol. 2 (Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp Edition, 1977): 555.
31. Ivo Banac, "Historiography of the Countries of Eastern Europe: Yugoslavia," American Historical Review 97:4 (1992): 1083-1104; Wolfgang Höpken, "Von der Mythologisierung zur Stigmatisierung Krieg und Revolution," in Eva Schmidt-Hartmann, ed., Jugoslawien 1941-1948 im Spiegel von Geschichtswisenschaft und historischer Publizistik, in Kommunismus und Osteuropa. Konzepte, Perspektiven und Interpretationen im Wan del (Munich: Oldenbourg, 1994), 165-201. Critical on the development of Yugoslav war historiography, but in my view still overestimating its progress over time is Ljubodrad Dimić, "Od tvrdnje do znanja. Prilog istoriji istoriografije o Jugoslaviji u ratu 1941-1945," Vojnoistorijski Glasnik 1-2 (1996): 199-214; and Mile Bjelajac, "Pregled novije jugoslovenske istoriografije o pokretu Dragoljuba Mihajlovića i gradjanskom ratu," in Peter Radan, ed., Draza Mihajlovic (1893-1946): Fifty Years After His Death (Sydney: Serbian Studies Foundation, 1996), 79-94.
32. Ivo Banac, "Historiography of the Countries of Eastern Europe: Yugoslavia," American Historical Review 97:4 (1992): 1083-1104; Wolfgang Höpken, "Von der Mythologisierung zur Stigmatisierung Krieg und Revolution," in Eva Schmidt-Hartmann, ed., Jugoslawien 1941-1948 im Spiegel von Geschichtswisenschaft und historischer Publizistik, in Kommunismus und Osteuropa. Konzepte, Perspektiven und Interpretationen im Wan del (Munich: Oldenbourg, 1994), 165-201. Critical on the development of Yugoslav war historiography, but in my view still overestimating its progress over time is Ljubodrad Dimić, "Od tvrdnje do znanja. Prilog istoriji istoriografije o Jugoslaviji u ratu 1941-1945," Vojnoistorijski Glasnik 1-2 (1996): 199-214; and Mile Bjelajac, "Pregled novije jugoslovenske istoriografije o pokretu Dragoljuba Mihajlovića i gradjanskom ratu," in Peter Radan, ed., Draza Mihajlovic (1893-1946): Fifty Years After His Death (Sydney: Serbian Studies Foundation, 1996), 79-94.
33. Ivo Banac, "Historiography of the Countries of Eastern Europe: Yugoslavia," American Historical Review 97:4 (1992): 1083-1104; Wolfgang Höpken, "Von der Mythologisierung zur Stigmatisierung Krieg und Revolution," in Eva Schmidt-Hartmann, ed., Jugoslawien 1941-1948 im Spiegel von Geschichtswisenschaft und historischer Publizistik, in Kommunismus und Osteuropa. Konzepte, Perspektiven und Interpretationen im Wan del (Munich: Oldenbourg, 1994), 165-201. Critical on the development of Yugoslav war historiography, but in my view still overestimating its progress over time is Ljubodrad Dimić, "Od tvrdnje do znanja. Prilog istoriji istoriografije o Jugoslaviji u ratu 1941-1945," Vojnoistorijski Glasnik 1-2 (1996): 199-214; and Mile Bjelajac, "Pregled novije jugoslovenske istoriografije o pokretu Dragoljuba Mihajlovića i gradjanskom ratu," in Peter Radan, ed., Draza Mihajlovic (1893-1946): Fifty Years After His Death (Sydney: Serbian Studies Foundation, 1996), 79-94.
34. Ivo Banac, "Historiography of the Countries of Eastern Europe: Yugoslavia," American Historical Review 97:4 (1992): 1083-1104; Wolfgang Höpken, "Von der Mythologisierung zur Stigmatisierung Krieg und Revolution," in Eva Schmidt-Hartmann, ed., Jugoslawien 1941-1948 im Spiegel von Geschichtswisenschaft und historischer Publizistik, in Kommunismus und Osteuropa. Konzepte, Perspektiven und Interpretationen im Wan del (Munich: Oldenbourg, 1994), 165-201. Critical on the development of Yugoslav war historiography, but in my view still overestimating its progress over time is Ljubodrad Dimić, "Od tvrdnje do znanja. Prilog istoriji istoriografije o Jugoslaviji u ratu 1941-1945," Vojnoistorijski Glasnik 1-2 (1996): 199-214; and Mile Bjelajac, "Pregled novije jugoslovenske istoriografije o pokretu Dragoljuba Mihajlovića i gradjanskom ratu," in Peter Radan, ed., Draza Mihajlovic (1893-1946): Fifty Years After His Death (Sydney: Serbian Studies Foundation, 1996), 79-94.
35. Branko Petranović, Istoričar i savremena epocha (Beograd: Novinsko-izdavačka ustanova "Vojska," 1994), 142.
36. Diana Plut et al., "Vrednosni sistem osnovnoškolskih dužbeniko," Psiholoska istrazivanja 4 (1990): 141-204; and Ružica Rosandić and Vesna Pešić, eds., Ratništvo, patriotizam, patrijarhalnost (Beograd: Centar za antiratnu akciju, 1994) 39-54.
37. Diana Plut et al., "Vrednosni sistem osnovnoškolskih dužbeniko," Psiholoska istrazivanja 4 (1990): 141-204; and Ružica Rosandić and Vesna Pešić, eds., Ratništvo, patriotizam, patrijarhalnost (Beograd: Centar za antiratnu akciju, 1994) 39-54.
38. As Carol Lilly has shown, quarrels about textbooks appeared rather early between the republics and central state institutions, even during the period of strong centralism in the late 1940s. Carol Lilly, "Problems of Persuasion: Communist Agitation and Propaganda in Post-War Yugoslavia, 1944-1948," Slavic Review 53:2 (1994): 395-413. These debates were obviously conflicts over decision-making resources but had little impact on the patterns of description and interpretation which in most part remained uniform in their basic assumptions.
39. Miroljub Vašić, "Oslobodilački ili gradjanski rat," Tokovi istorije 1-2 (1993): 173.
40. The following textbooks were used during the late '70s in Serbia, Croatia, and Slovenia: Istorija najnovijeg doba za IV.razred gimnazije (Beograd, 1973); Istorija najnovijeg doba za IV.razred gimnazije (Beograd, 1976); Istorija za VIII. razred osnovne škole (Beograd, 1976); Istorija za. VIII. razred osnovne škole (Beograd, 1973); Povijest 2. Udžbenik za usmjereno obrazovanje, 3rd ed. (Zagreb, 1988); Zgodovina za osmi razred osnovnih šol (Ljubljana, 1969); and Zgodovina za osmi razred razred (Ljubljana, 1976). It is interesting, but no less significant, that it was the Slovenian textbooks that offered the most information on, for example, the Jasenovac concentration camp. The Croatian and the Serbian texts obviously wanted to avoid making this topic a matter for discussion in the two republics that were the most activity involved.
41. Bette Denich, "Dismembering Yugoslavia: Nationalist Ideologies and the Symbolic Revival of Genocide," American Ethnologist 21:2 (1994): 367-90.
42. Peter Steinbach, "Die Vergegenwärtigung von Vergangenem. Zum Spannungsverhältinis von individueller Erinnerung und öffentlichem Gedenken," Aus Politik und Zeitgeschichte 3-4 (1997): 3-13.
43. Slobodan Inić, "Jedan ili više ratoya," Tokovi istorije 1-2 (1993): 137f.
44. D. Plut et al., "Vrednosni sistem," 198; R. Rosandić and V. Pešić, Ratnistvo, 55.
45. D. Plut et al., "Vrednosni sistem," 198; R. Rosandić and V. Pešić, Ratnistvo, 55.
46. As an example of a mid-1970s history textbook that explicitly makes the "partisan morality the basis of our socialist morality," see Istorija najnovijeg doba za IV.razred gimnazije (Beograd, 1976), 117.
47. B. Trebjesanin, Patriotzam, 86f; Zagorka Golubović, "Nekoliko teza o teorijskim pretpostavkama za slom Jugoslavije," Raspad Jugoslavije (Belgrade: Institut za filozofiju i društvenu teoriju, 1994), 36-38.
48. B. Trebjesanin, Patriotzam, 86f; Zagorka Golubović, "Nekoliko teza o teorijskim pretpostavkama za slom Jugoslavije," Raspad Jugoslavije (Belgrade: Institut za filozofiju i društvenu teoriju, 1994), 36-38.
49. George L. Mosse, "Kriegserinnerung und Kriegbegeisterung," in M. van der Linden, and G. Mergner, eds., Kriegführung und mentale Kriegsvorbereitung (Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, 1991), 28.
50. Charles Jelavich, "Nationalism as Reflected in the Textbooks of South Slavs in the 19th Century," Canadian Review of Nationalism 16:1-2 (1989): 28.
51. Robert Hayden, "Recounting the Dead: The Rediscovery of Wartime Massacres in Late-and Post-Communist Yugoslavia," in Rubie Watson, ed., Memory, History and Opposition Under State Socialism, (Santa Fe: School of American Research, 1993), 168-70.
52. the resolution by the intellectuals associated with the Serbian Academy of Science to "reexamine critically the historical role of Josip Broz Tito," Danas 16.8 (August 1988): 24.
53. Warren Zimmerman, "The Last Ambassador," Foreign Affairs 74:2 (1995): 3.
54. Vasilije Krestić, ed., Memorandum SANU (Belgrade, 1996).
55. On historical self-image, see Ivelin Sardamov, "Mandate of History: Serbian National Identity and Ethnic Conflict in the Former Yugoslavia," in John S. Micgiel, ed., State and Nation Building in East Central Europe: Contemporary Perspectives (New York: Columbia University, 1996), 17-37; Wolfgang Höpken, "Geschichte und Gewalt. Geschichtsbewußtsein im jugoslawischen Konflikt," Internationale Schulbuchforschung-International Textbook Research 15:1 (1993): 55-73; Nebojša Popov, Srpski populisam. Od marginalne do dominantne pojave (Beograd, 1993), A typical example of historical self-image is Veselin Djuretić, Razaranje Srpstva u XX.veku (Beograd, SANU, 1992).
56. On historical self-image, see Ivelin Sardamov, "Mandate of History: Serbian National Identity and Ethnic Conflict in the Former Yugoslavia," in John S. Micgiel, ed., State and Nation Building in East Central Europe: Contemporary Perspectives (New York: Columbia University, 1996), 17-37; Wolfgang Höpken, "Geschichte und Gewalt. Geschichtsbewußtsein im jugoslawischen Konflikt," Internationale Schulbuchforschung-International Textbook Research 15:1 (1993): 55-73; Nebojša Popov, Srpski populisam. Od marginalne do dominantne pojave (Beograd, 1993), A typical example of historical self-image is Veselin Djuretić, Razaranje Srpstva u XX.veku (Beograd, SANU, 1992).
57. On historical self-image, see Ivelin Sardamov, "Mandate of History: Serbian National Identity and Ethnic Conflict in the Former Yugoslavia," in John S. Micgiel, ed., State and Nation Building in East Central Europe: Contemporary Perspectives (New York: Columbia University, 1996), 17-37; Wolfgang Höpken, "Geschichte und Gewalt. Geschichtsbewußtsein im jugoslawischen Konflikt," Internationale Schulbuchforschung-International Textbook Research 15:1 (1993): 55-73; Nebojša Popov, Srpski populisam. Od marginalne do dominantne pojave (Beograd, 1993), A typical example of historical self-image is Veselin Djuretić, Razaranje Srpstva u XX.veku (Beograd, SANU, 1992).
58. On historical self-image, see Ivelin Sardamov, "Mandate of History: Serbian National Identity and Ethnic Conflict in the Former Yugoslavia," in John S. Micgiel, ed., State and Nation Building in East Central Europe: Contemporary Perspectives (New York: Columbia University, 1996), 17-37; Wolfgang Höpken, "Geschichte und Gewalt. Geschichtsbewußtsein im jugoslawischen Konflikt," Internationale Schulbuchforschung-International Textbook Research 15:1 (1993): 55-73; Nebojša Popov, Srpski populisam. Od marginalne do dominantne pojave (Beograd, 1993), A typical example of historical self-image is Veselin Djuretić, Razaranje Srpstva u XX.veku (Beograd, SANU, 1992).
59. Zimmerman, "The Last Ambassador," 3.
60. Numerous examples of this can be found in Dobrica Ćosić, Srpsko pitanje-demokratsko pitanje (Belgrade: Politika, 1992), 26, 32, 36, 39, 43, 148; Dobrica Ćosić, Promene (Novi Sad: Dnevnik, 1991), 221, 241
61. Numerous examples of this can be found in Dobrica Ćosić, Srpsko pitanje-demokratsko pitanje (Belgrade: Politika, 1992), 26, 32, 36, 39, 43, 148; Dobrica Ćosić, Promene (Novi Sad: Dnevnik, 1991), 221, 241
62. Radovan Samardžić, "O istorijskoj sudbini Srbo," Zadužbina Miloša Crnjanskog: Serbia i komentari za 1990/91 (Belgrade, 1991), 165-84. For similar quotations from Samardžić's numerous interviews and statements during the late '80s and early '90s, see ibid., "Na rubu istorije" (Belgrade: Srpska Književna Zadruga, 1994), 191.
63. Radovan Samardžić, "O istorijskoj sudbini Srbo," Zadužbina Miloša Crnjanskog: Serbia i komentari za 1990/91 (Belgrade, 1991), 165-84. For similar quotations from Samardžić's numerous interviews and statements during the late '80s and early '90s, see ibid., "Na rubu istorije" (Belgrade: Srpska Književna Zadruga, 1994), 191.
64. Nebojša Popov, "Traumatologija partijske države," in N. Popov, ed., Srpska strana rata. Trauma i katarza u istorijskom pamćenju (Belgrade: Republika, 1992), 89-93.
65. Radovan Samardžić, "Aristokratska vertikala u srpskoj istoriji," Srbi u evropskoj civilizaciji (Beograd: SANU, 1993), 9-20; Aleksa Djilas, ed., "O istorijskoj karakter Srba," in Srpsko pitanje (Belgarde: Politika, 1991), 9-20; and Samardžić, Na rubu istorije, 147, 173, 212, 285.
66. Radovan Samardžić, "Aristokratska vertikala u srpskoj istoriji," Srbi u evropskoj civilizaciji (Beograd: SANU, 1993), 9-20; Aleksa Djilas, ed., "O istorijskoj karakter Srba," in Srpsko pitanje (Belgarde: Politika, 1991), 9-20; and Samardžić, Na rubu istorije, 147, 173, 212, 285.
67. Radovan Samardžić, "Aristokratska vertikala u srpskoj istoriji," Srbi u evropskoj civilizaciji (Beograd: SANU, 1993), 9-20; Aleksa Djilas, ed., "O istorijskoj karakter Srba," in Srpsko pitanje (Belgarde: Politika, 1991), 9-20; and Samardžić, Na rubu istorije, 147, 173, 212, 285.
68. SANU, ed., Sistem neistma o zločinama genocida 1991-1993 godine (Belgrade: SANU, 1994), 127.
69. Hayden, Recounting the Dead, 178-81.
70. Samardžić, Na rubu istorije, 258; the accusation that this topic had been taboo comes from the Croatian side, but from the perspective that it had always been used as a weapon to discredit Croats. See also Franjo Tudjman, Bespuća historjske zbilnosti, 2nd ed. (Zagreb: Matica Hrvatska, 1989), 114.
71. Samardžić, Na rubu istorije, 258; the accusation that this topic had been taboo comes from the Croatian side, but from the perspective that it had always been used as a weapon to discredit Croats. See also Franjo Tudjman, Bespuća historjske zbilnosti, 2nd ed. (Zagreb: Matica Hrvatska, 1989), 114.
72. Given the absolute number of victims by ethnic groups, there is some support for the Serbian position. In absolute terms, Serbs suffered most among the Yugoslav peoples, while in relative terms Muslims had an equal share of victims. The figures in Vladimir Žerjavić, Gubici stanovništva Jugoslavije u drugom svjetskom ratu (Zagreb, 1989).
73. Ćosić, Promeme, 299.
74. Vasilije Krestić, "O genezi genocida nad Srbima u NDH," Književne novine, 716 (September 1986), dating back to the Croatian attempts at genocide in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries; Nikola Samardžić, "Genocid nad Srbima 1941-1945," Zadužbina Miloša Crnjanskog, 231-49; and Peter Opačić, ed., Genocid nad Srbima u XX.veku (Belgarde: Grafopublik, 1992).
75. Vasilije Krestić, "O genezi genocida nad Srbima u NDH," Književne novine, 716 (September 1986), dating back to the Croatian attempts at genocide in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries; Nikola Samardžić, "Genocid nad Srbima 1941-1945," Zadužbina Miloša Crnjanskog, 231-49; and Peter Opačić, ed., Genocid nad Srbima u XX.veku (Belgarde: Grafopublik, 1992).
76. Vasilije Krestić, "O genezi genocida nad Srbima u NDH," Književne novine, 716 (September 1986), dating back to the Croatian attempts at genocide in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries; Nikola Samardžić, "Genocid nad Srbima 1941-1945," Zadužbina Miloša Crnjanskog, 231-49; and Peter Opačić, ed., Genocid nad Srbima u XX.veku (Belgarde: Grafopublik, 1992).
77. Hayden, Recounting the Death, 172-79; Denitch, Dismembering Yugoslavia, 378.
78. Hayden, Recounting the Death, 172-79; Denitch, Dismembering Yugoslavia, 378.
79. Ivan Čolović, Bordel ratnika (Belgrade: Slovograf, 1993). For other examples, see also Milena Dragičević-Šesić, Neofolk kultura (Novi Sad: Izd.knjižarnica Zorana Stojanovića, 1994), 183-91; Milica Bakić Hayden, "Nesting Orientalism: The Case of the Former Yugoslavia," Slavic Review 54:4 (1995): 925.
80. Ivan Čolović, Bordel ratnika (Belgrade: Slovograf, 1993). For other examples, see also Milena Dragičević-Šesić, Neofolk kultura (Novi Sad: Izd.knjižarnica Zorana Stojanovića, 1994), 183-91; Milica Bakić Hayden, "Nesting Orientalism: The Case of the Former Yugoslavia," Slavic Review 54:4 (1995): 925.
81. Ivan Čolović, Bordel ratnika (Belgrade: Slovograf, 1993). For other examples, see also Milena Dragičević-Šesić, Neofolk kultura (Novi Sad: Izd.knjižarnica Zorana Stojanovića, 1994), 183-91; Milica Bakić Hayden, "Nesting Orientalism: The Case of the Former Yugoslavia," Slavic Review 54:4 (1995): 925.
82. On the question of language during the nationalist confrontation and the war in Yugoslavia, see Ranko Bugarski, Jezik ot rata do mira (Belgrade: Beogradski krug, 1994), esp. 79.
83. Ćosić, Promene, 232.
84. Bruno Bušić "Ukupni demografski i neposredni ratni gubici u stanovništvu SFRJ na dan 15.III. godine zbog Drugog Svetskog rata," Hrvatski Književni list 2:10 (1969). The question of the victims of Ustaša politics also became a matter for discussion during the so-called Croatian Spring in 1971 and was behind the conflicts Croatian president Tudjman encountered with the party as a historian from the late 1960s onward. See F. Tudjman, Bespuća, 10-76.
85. Bruno Bušić "Ukupni demografski i neposredni ratni gubici u stanovništvu SFRJ na dan 15.III. godine zbog Drugog Svetskog rata," Hrvatski Književni list 2:10 (1969). The question of the victims of Ustaša politics also became a matter for discussion during the so-called Croatian Spring in 1971 and was behind the conflicts Croatian president Tudjman encountered with the party as a historian from the late 1960s onward. See F. Tudjman, Bespuća, 10-76.
86. For example, the way the question is treated by Fikreta Jelić-Butić who mentions the official figures but clearly wants to avoid confirming them. Ustaše i NDH, 2nd ed. (Zagreb: Liber 1978), 185-87.
87. Ljubo Boban, "Zašto je potrebno znati istinu o Jasenovcu." Ljubo Boban, ed. Kontroverze iz povijesti Jugoslavije 3 (Zagreb: Školska knjiga, 1990), 329; see also his debate with Robert Hayden in East European Politics and Societies 4:3 (1990): 580-92; ibid. 6:2 (1992): 207-17, and ibid. 7:3 (1993): 185-90.
88. Ljubo Boban, "Zašto je potrebno znati istinu o Jasenovcu." Ljubo Boban, ed. Kontroverze iz povijesti Jugoslavije 3 (Zagreb: Školska knjiga, 1990), 329; see also his debate with Robert Hayden in East European Politics and Societies 4:3 (1990): 580-92; ibid. 6:2 (1992): 207-17, and ibid. 7:3 (1993): 185-90.
89. Ljubo Boban, "Zašto je potrebno znati istinu o Jasenovcu." Ljubo Boban, ed. Kontroverze iz povijesti Jugoslavije 3 (Zagreb: Školska knjiga, 1990), 329; see also his debate with Robert Hayden in East European Politics and Societies 4:3 (1990): 580-92; ibid. 6:2 (1992): 207-17, and ibid. 7:3 (1993): 185-90.
90. Ljubo Boban, "Zašto je potrebno znati istinu o Jasenovcu." Ljubo Boban, ed. Kontroverze iz povijesti Jugoslavije 3 (Zagreb: Školska knjiga, 1990), 329; see also his debate with Robert Hayden in East European Politics and Societies 4:3 (1990): 580-92; ibid. 6:2 (1992): 207-17, and ibid. 7:3 (1993): 185-90.
91. Božo Kočović, Žrtve Drugog Svetskog Rata u Jugoslaviji (London, 1985); Vladimir Žerjavić, Gubici stanovništva Jugoslavije u drugom svjetskom ratu (Zagreb, 1989)
92. Božo Kočović, Žrtve Drugog Svetskog Rata u Jugoslaviji (London, 1985); Vladimir Žerjavić, Gubici stanovništva Jugoslavije u drugom svjetskom ratu (Zagreb, 1989)
93. Aleksa Djilas, Osporavana zemlja (Beograd: Književne novine, 1990), 175; Srdjan Bogoslavljević, "Nerasvetljeni genocia," Srpska strana rata, 159.
94. Aleksa Djilas, Osporavana zemlja (Beograd: Književne novine, 1990), 175; Srdjan Bogoslavljević, "Nerasvetljeni genocia," Srpska strana rata, 159.
95. F. Tudjman, Bespuća, 187-299.
96. Regarding balancing those figures, see Valdimir Žerjavić, Opsesije i megalomanije oko Jasenovca i Bleiburga, (Zagreb: Globus, 1992), 75.
97. Mirjana Gross, "Wie denkt man kroatische Geschichte? Geschichtsschreibung als Identitätsstiftung," Österreichische Osthefte 35:1 (1993): 94.
98. Zlatko Šešelj, "Skola i vlast," Erasmus. Casopis za kulturu democracije 15 (1996): 49-52; and Dubravka Ugrešić, Die Kultur der Lüge (Frankfurt: Suhrkamp Edition 1995).
99. Zlatko Šešelj, "Skola i vlast," Erasmus. Casopis za kulturu democracije 15 (1996): 49-52; and Dubravka Ugrešić, Die Kultur der Lüge (Frankfurt: Suhrkamp Edition 1995).
100. Višnja Pavelić, ed., Ante Pavelić. 100 godina (Zagreb: Naklada Starčević, 1995); P. Požar, ed., Ustaša: dokumenti o ustaskom pokretu (Zagreb, 1995).
101. Višnja Pavelić, ed., Ante Pavelić. 100 godina (Zagreb: Naklada Starčević, 1995); P. Požar, ed., Ustaša: dokumenti o ustaskom pokretu (Zagreb, 1995).
102. "Open letter," by Slavko Goldstein, the former chairman of the Jewish Community in Croatia, in Feral tribune (February 1996).
103. Adorno, "Was bedeutet Aufarbeitung," 555.
104. The Second World War played only a minor role in the Serbo-Slovenian confrontation. It did, however, have a certain impact on politics in so far as addressing the question of partisan terror in public during the early 1980s was part of the demand for political change that led to the end of communist rule.
105. Denich "Dismembering Yugoslavia," 367-90.
106. Lucian Hölscher, "Geschichte und Vergessen," Historische Zeitschrift 249 (1989): 1-17.
107. See one of the most recent textbooks, Istorija za VIII.oddelenie (Skopje: 1996), 58-94. There are no substantial differences compared with earlier, post-1991 textbooks or with textbooks for other grades and types of schools. Even Greek critics, who have been furious about the post-1991 Macedonian textbooks, have made relatively few remarks on the description of the Second World War apart from the subject of dealing with Greek territories. They have made more complaints about the geography of Macedonian education and such topics as ancient history or the Balkan wars. See the highly polemic criticism by Evangelos Kofos, The Vision of Greater Macedonia: Remarks from FYROM's New School Textbooks (Thessaloniki, 1994); more restricted in tone but no less critical is Sofia Vouri, "I Balkaniki polemi sti Elawiki scholiki istoriografia," 299-326; and Vouri, "Wars in the Textbook of the Former Republic of Macedonia (FYROM)," 97-102.
108. Vasilije Krestić, "O integracije i dezintegracije srpskognaroda," Krestić, ed., Iz istorije Srba i srpsko-hrvatskich odnosa. (Belgrade: BIGZ, 1994), 313.
109. Dubravka Stojanović, "Serbian Textbooks as a Mirror of the Time," in Höpken, ed., Oil on fire?, 115-38; Rosandić Pešić, Ratnistvo, 39-53.
110. Dubravka Stojanović, "Serbian Textbooks as a Mirror of the Time," in Höpken, ed., Oil on fire?, 115-38; Rosandić Pešić, Ratnistvo, 39-53.
111. For an example of a textbook, see Istorija za VIII razred osnovne škole (Belgrade, 1993).
112. Even when they are dealing with the partisan war outside Serbia, as, for example, in Croatia, students hear only about Serbian partisans. As far as the reduction of the Yugoslav aspect of the war is concerned, already a superficial look at the people mentioned in the textbooks supports this view: While Tito, who was mentioned dozens of time in former textbooks, is mentioned in the chapter on the Second World War only 10 times (and is almost always referred to by his original name, Josip Broz, instead of by his well-known pseudonym), the name of the Serbian Chetnik leader, Draža Mihajlović, is mentioned 22 times.
113. While the textbooks have not gone so far as to rehabilitate the Chetnik movement, as has been the case in parts of the academic historiography and the public media, the picture they now portray is clearly much more favorable than in the past. Textbooks are thus largely following the modest revision of the portrait of the Chetniks that, for example, was drawn by the late Serbian historian Branko Petranović in Revolucija i kontrarevolucija u Jugoslaviji (1941-1945) (Belgrade: Rad, 1983). For a much more radical rehabilitation of the Chetniks, one that frees them, more or less, from the accusation of collaboration and shows them as representatives of the Serbian national resistance as opposed to the Yugoslav and socio-revolutionary resistance of the Tito partisans, see Veselin Djuretić, Razaranje Srpstva, 17-260. As a criticism of the Croatian perspective, see Ljubo Roban, "Srpska ratna drama Veselina Djuretić," Kontroverze iz povijesti Jugoslavije 1 (Zagreb: Školska knjiga, 1989), 399-442.
114. For example, Zlatko Šešelj, Škala i vlast, 49-52, criticizes the Tudjman government for creating a second totalitarianism in educational policy.
115. This criticism was largely aimed at the textbook written by the widely respected historian Ivan Jelić, Povijesna čitanka 4 (Zagreb, 1992) and the textbook Moja domovina (Zagreb, 1991). See Večernji List (April 1992), Večernji List (June 1992), Vjesnik (March 1992), Danas (June 1992), and Glasnik (April 1991) for a description of the conflict about these books that ended with their withdrawal.
116. Povijest. Za osmi razred osnovne škole (Zagreb, 1992), 89, 112-13.
117. "Besides many full-time and part-time jails, concentration camps were also established, and, by reputation, the most well-known of these was the one in Jasenovac. The Ustase (sic) committed terrible atrocities against Jews, Gypsies, and Serbs. The Ustase also committed atrocities against Croats who did not agree with the politics of terror, and against communists and antifascists as well." See Ivo Perić, Hrvatska i svijet u XX. stoljeću, 3rd. ed. (Zagreb, 1995), 136; see also Pregled povijesti hrvatskog naroda (od VI stoljeća do naših dana (Zagreb, 1994), 287. Both books are supplementary teaching materials; they were not designed for specific classes or types of schools.
118. Ivo Banac, With Stalin Against Tito: Cominform Splits in Yugoslav Communism (Ithaca, Cornell University Press, 1988), 45-116; Jill Irvine, The Croat Question: Partisan Politics in the Formation of the Yugoslav Socialist State (Boulder: Westview, 1993).
119. Ivo Banac, With Stalin Against Tito: Cominform Splits in Yugoslav Communism (Ithaca, Cornell University Press, 1988), 45-116; Jill Irvine, The Croat Question: Partisan Politics in the Formation of the Yugoslav Socialist State (Boulder: Westview, 1993).
120. Božo Repe, Naša doba. Oris zgodovine 20.stoletja. Učbenik za 4.razred gimnazije (Ljubljana, 1996), 123-239; J. Prunk and S. Nesovič, 20.stoletje. Zgodovina za osmi razred osnovne šole (Ljubljana, 1993).
121. Božo Repe, Naša doba. Oris zgodovine 20.stoletja. Učbenik za 4.razred gimnazije (Ljubljana, 1996), 123-239; J. Prunk and S. Nesovič, 20.stoletje. Zgodovina za osmi razred osnovne šole (Ljubljana, 1993).
122. "Predlog razgrajenega učnega nacrta zgodovine za gimnazije," Zgodovinski časopis 48:2 (1992), S. 258-69.
123. Gross, "Wie denkt man kroatische Geschichte," 95.
124. Steinbach "Die Vergegenwärtigung des Vergangenen," 8.
125. Jürgen Habermas, "Was bedeutet Aufarbeitung der Vergangenheit heute? Die Moderne-ein unvollendetes Projekt, 3rd ed. (Leipzig: Reclam, 1994), 243.