Treaties and intergovernmental relations in Australia: Political implications of the Toonen case

Australian Journal of Politics and History

Volumn 45, Issue 3, 1999, Pages 330-345

  Gelber, Katharine ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF SYDNEY   (Australia)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0033447132     PISSN: 00049522     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/1467-8497.00068     Document Type: Review

References (81)

1. Rod Kemp, "International Tribunals and the Attack on Australian Democracy", Proceedings of the Fourth Conference of The Samuel Griffith Society (Melbourne: The Samuel Griffith Society, 1994).
2. The term Privacy Act will be used interchangeably throughout this article with Human Rights (Sexual Conduct) Act 1994 (Cth) and is intended to mean the same legislation.
3. Section 109 provides that, in the case of inconsistency between state and federal law, the Commonwealth law shall prevail and the state law shall, to the extent of the inconsistency, be invalid.
4. Colin Howard, "The High Court", Proceedings of the Fourth Conference of the Samuel Griffith Society (Melbourne: The Samuel Griffith Society, 1994).
5. Colin Howard, "Amending the External Affairs Powers", Proceedings of the Fifth Conference of the Samuel Griffith Society (Melbourne: The Samuel Griffith Society, 1995).
6. Rod Kemp, "International Tribunals and the Attack on Australian Democracy", Proceedings of the Fourth Conference of The Samuel Griffith Society (Melbourne: The Samuel Griffith Society, 1994).
7. See for example James Gillespie, "New Federalisms", in Brett et. al., eds, Developments in Australian Politics (Melbourne: MacMillan, 1994); Campbell Sharman, "Federal Institutions and Processes: A Political Science Perspective", in Galligan ed., Australian Federalism (Melbourne: Longman Cheshire, 1989).
8. See for example James Gillespie, "New Federalisms", in Brett et. al., eds, Developments in Australian Politics (Melbourne: MacMillan, 1994); Campbell Sharman, "Federal Institutions and Processes: A Political Science Perspective", in Galligan ed., Australian Federalism (Melbourne: Longman Cheshire, 1989).
9. rd edn (Melbourne: Longman Australia Pty Ltd, 1996); B. Brugger & D. Jaensch, Australian Politics: Theory and Practice (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1985); Karen Wilcox, "Australian Federalism" in Smith & Watson eds., Politics in Australia (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1989); D. Aitkin & B. Jinks, Australian Political Institutions (Carlton, Vic: Pitman Australia, 1980).
10. rd edn (Melbourne: Longman Australia Pty Ltd, 1996); B. Brugger & D. Jaensch, Australian Politics: Theory and Practice (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1985); Karen Wilcox, "Australian Federalism" in Smith & Watson eds., Politics in Australia (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1989); D. Aitkin & B. Jinks, Australian Political Institutions (Carlton, Vic: Pitman Australia, 1980).
11. rd edn (Melbourne: Longman Australia Pty Ltd, 1996); B. Brugger & D. Jaensch, Australian Politics: Theory and Practice (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1985); Karen Wilcox, "Australian Federalism" in Smith & Watson eds., Politics in Australia (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1989); D. Aitkin & B. Jinks, Australian Political Institutions (Carlton, Vic: Pitman Australia, 1980).
12. rd edn (Melbourne: Longman Australia Pty Ltd, 1996); B. Brugger & D. Jaensch, Australian Politics: Theory and Practice (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1985); Karen Wilcox, "Australian Federalism" in Smith & Watson eds., Politics in Australia (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1989); D. Aitkin & B. Jinks, Australian Political Institutions (Carlton, Vic: Pitman Australia, 1980).
13. Brian Galligan ed, Australian Federalism (Melbourne: Longman Cheshire, 1989).
14. James Gillespie, "New Federalisms", in Brett et. al., eds, Developments in Australian Politics (Melbourne: MacMillan, 1994).
15. Campbell Sharman, "Federal Institutions and Processes: A Political Science Perspective", in Galligan ed, Australian Federalism (Melbourne: Longman Cheshire, 1989).
16. James Gillespie, "New Federalims", in Brett et. al., eds., Developments in Australian Politics (Melbourne: MacMillan, 1994), p. 67.
17. Brian Galligan, Owen Hughes, Cliff Walsh eds., Intergovernmental Relations and Public Policy (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1991), p. 10.
18. Martin Painter, The Council of Australian Governments and Intergovernmental Cooperation - Competitive or Collaborative Federalism? (Canberra: Federalism Research Centre, Australian National University, 1995), p. 4.
19. Homosexuality was decriminalised as follows: SA 1972, ACT 1976, Vic 1980, NT 1983, NSW 1984, WA 1989, Qld 1990.
20. Unsuccessful attempts at legislative reform include 1978/9, 1987, 1990/91, September 1993 and June 1996.
21. See Michael Stokes, "The Constitution of Tasmania", Public Law Review 3 (2) (June 1992), pp. 99-112; R. D. Lumb, "The External Affairs Power and Constitutional Reform", The Australian Law Journal vol 62 (1988), pp. 679-689.
22. See Michael Stokes, "The Constitution of Tasmania", Public Law Review 3 (2) (June 1992), pp. 99-112; R. D. Lumb, "The External Affairs Power and Constitutional Reform", The Australian Law Journal vol 62 (1988), pp. 679-689.
23. Christopher Caleo, "Implications of Australia's Accession to the First Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights", Public Law Review 4 (3) (September 1993), pp. 175-192; Wayne Morgan, "Tasmania, the United Nations and unnatural sexual intercourse", Civil Liberty (August 1994), pp. 15-17; United Nations Document CCPR/C/50/D/488/1992, View of the Human Rights Committee under article 5, paragraph 4, of the Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights - Fiftieth Session concerning Communication No. 488/1992 submitted by Nicholas Toonen (1992), pp. 4-9.
24. Christopher Caleo, "Implications of Australia's Accession to the First Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights", Public Law Review 4 (3) (September 1993), pp. 175-192; Wayne Morgan, "Tasmania, the United Nations and unnatural sexual intercourse", Civil Liberty (August 1994), pp. 15-17; United Nations Document CCPR/C/50/D/488/1992, View of the Human Rights Committee under article 5, paragraph 4, of the Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights - Fiftieth Session concerning Communication No. 488/1992 submitted by Nicholas Toonen (1992), pp. 4-9.
25. Christopher Caleo, "Implications of Australia's Accession to the First Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights", Public Law Review 4 (3) (September 1993), pp. 175-192; Wayne Morgan, "Tasmania, the United Nations and unnatural sexual intercourse", Civil Liberty (August 1994), pp. 15-17; United Nations Document CCPR/C/50/D/488/1992, View of the Human Rights Committee under article 5, paragraph 4, of the Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights - Fiftieth Session concerning Communication No. 488/1992 submitted by Nicholas Toonen (1992), pp. 4-9.
26. Hugh Collins, "Federalism, the States and International Affairs: A Political Science Perspective", in Galligan ed., Australian Federalism (Melbourne: Longman Cheshire, 1989); John Ravenhill, "Australia", Michelmann & Soldatos eds., Federalism and International Relations: The Role of Subnational Units (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990).
27. Hugh Collins, "Federalism, the States and International Affairs: A Political Science Perspective", in Galligan ed., Australian Federalism (Melbourne: Longman Cheshire, 1989); John Ravenhill, "Australia", Michelmann & Soldatos eds., Federalism and International Relations: The Role of Subnational Units (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990).
28. Anne Twomey, Strange Bedfellows: The UN Human Rights Committee and the Tasmanian Parliament (Parliamentary Research Service, Parliament of the Commonwealth of Australia No. 6, 1994); N. O'Neill & R. Handley, Retreat from Injustice: Human Rights in Australian Law (Sydney: The Federation Press, 1994).
29. Anne Twomey, Strange Bedfellows: The UN Human Rights Committee and the Tasmanian Parliament (Parliamentary Research Service, Parliament of the Commonwealth of Australia No. 6, 1994); N. O'Neill & R. Handley, Retreat from Injustice: Human Rights in Australian Law (Sydney: The Federation Press, 1994).
30. For example, the Racial Discrimination Act 1975 (Cth) was passed under the auspices of the external affairs power, to implement the terms of the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Racial Discrimination, ratified by Australia in 1975.
31. Anne Twomey, Strange Bedfellows: The UN Human Rights Committee and the Tasmanian Parliament (Parliamentary Research Service, Parliament of the Commonwealth of Australia No. 6, 1994), pp. 7-8.
32. See A. Rose, "Commonwealth State Aspects: Implementation of the First Optional Protocol" (Paper delivered at a symposium), Internationalising Human Rights: Australia's Accession to the First Optional Protocol (Melbourne: Centre for Comparative Constitutional Studies, University of Melbourne, 1992); Peter Bailey, Human Rights: Australia in an International Context (Sydney: Butterworths, 1990).
33. See A. Rose, "Commonwealth State Aspects: Implementation of the First Optional Protocol" (Paper delivered at a symposium), Internationalising Human Rights: Australia's Accession to the First Optional Protocol (Melbourne: Centre for Comparative Constitutional Studies, University of Melbourne, 1992); Peter Bailey, Human Rights: Australia in an International Context (Sydney: Butterworths, 1990).
34. Consultation that took place in Ministerial meetings and the Standing Committee of Attorneys-General is cited in A. Rose, "Commonwealth State Aspects: Implementation of the First Optional Protocol", Internationalising Human Rights: Australia's Accession to the First Optional Protocol (Melbourne: Centre for Comparative Constitutional Studies, University of Melbourne, 1992), p. 42. The consultation extended also to consideration of administration procedures for processing communications under the Protocol.
35. Wayne Morgan, "Identifying evil for what it is: Tasmania, Sexual Perversity and the United Nations", Melbourne University Law Review (19) (1994), pp. 740-757.
36. Tim Tenbensel, "International Human Rights Conventions and Australian Political Debates: Issues Raised by the Toonen Case", Australian Journal of Political Science, 31 (1) (1996), pp. 7- 23; Hilary Charlesworth, "Australia's Accession to the First Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights", Melbourne University Law Review 18 (2) (December 1991), pp. 428-434.
37. Tim Tenbensel, "International Human Rights Conventions and Australian Political Debates: Issues Raised by the Toonen Case", Australian Journal of Political Science, 31 (1) (1996), pp. 7- 23; Hilary Charlesworth, "Australia's Accession to the First Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights", Melbourne University Law Review 18 (2) (December 1991), pp. 428-434.
38. Commonwealth Parliamentary Debates House of Representatives, hereafter CPDHR (19 October 1994), pp. 2265, 2270.
39. Trick or Treaty? Commonwealth Power to Make and Implement Treaties, hereafter Trick or Treaty? (Canberra: Senate Legal and Constitutional References Committee, Parliament of the Commonwealth of Australia, 1995), pp. 12-13.
40. Council of Australian Governments Communique, Attachment C, Canberra, 14 June 1996.
41. Ibid.
42. Trick or Treaty? (Canberra: Senate Legal and Constitutional References Committee, Parliament of the Commonwealth of Australia, 1995), p. 1.
43. Trick or Treaty? (Canberra: Senate Legal and Constitutional References Committee, Parliament of the Commonwealth of Australia, 1995), pp. 4, 85.
44. The ICCPR requires that member nations provide five-year reports detailing compliance with its terms. Australia submitted its First Report in 1981, the year after ratification, and its Second Report in 1987. The Third Report, due in 1991, was submitted in 1994. Reports are submitted by the Commonwealth Attorney-General's Department.
45. Cited in A. Rose, "Commonwealth State Aspects: Implementation of the First Optional Protocol", Internationalising Human Rights: Australia's Accession to the First Optional Protocol (Melbourne: Centre for Comparative Constitutional Studies, University of Melbourne, 1992), p. 39.
46. The admissibility of complaints to the UNHRC is limited by a number of factors including that all domestic avenues for remedying the alleged violation must be exhausted and that alleged violations must have occurred after accession by the country concerned. The procedures involved are lengthy and time-consuming, and the views of the UNHRC are not legally binding on the country concerned. See Rodney Croome, Rodney, "Australian gay rights case goes to the United Nations", Australian Gay and Lesbian Law Journal (2) (1992), pp. 55-70; Hilary Charlesworth, "Australia's Accession to the First Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights", Melbourne University Law Review 18 (2) (December 1991), pp. 428-434; P. Thomson, "Using the Optional Protocol: The Practical Issues" (Paper delivered at a symposium), Internationalising Human Rights. Australia's Accession to the First Optional Protocol (Melbourne: Centre for Comparative Constitutional Studies, University of Melbourne, 1992).
47. The admissibility of complaints to the UNHRC is limited by a number of factors including that all domestic avenues for remedying the alleged violation must be exhausted and that alleged violations must have occurred after accession by the country concerned. The procedures involved are lengthy and time-consuming, and the views of the UNHRC are not legally binding on the country concerned. See Rodney Croome, Rodney, "Australian gay rights case goes to the United Nations", Australian Gay and Lesbian Law Journal (2) (1992), pp. 55-70; Hilary Charlesworth, "Australia's Accession to the First Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights", Melbourne University Law Review 18 (2) (December 1991), pp. 428-434; P. Thomson, "Using the Optional Protocol: The Practical Issues" (Paper delivered at a symposium), Internationalising Human Rights. Australia's Accession to the First Optional Protocol (Melbourne: Centre for Comparative Constitutional Studies, University of Melbourne, 1992).
48. The admissibility of complaints to the UNHRC is limited by a number of factors including that all domestic avenues for remedying the alleged violation must be exhausted and that alleged violations must have occurred after accession by the country concerned. The procedures involved are lengthy and time-consuming, and the views of the UNHRC are not legally binding on the country concerned. See Rodney Croome, Rodney, "Australian gay rights case goes to the United Nations", Australian Gay and Lesbian Law Journal (2) (1992), pp. 55-70; Hilary Charlesworth, "Australia's Accession to the First Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights", Melbourne University Law Review 18 (2) (December 1991), pp. 428-434; P. Thomson, "Using the Optional Protocol: The Practical Issues" (Paper delivered at a symposium), Internationalising Human Rights. Australia's Accession to the First Optional Protocol (Melbourne: Centre for Comparative Constitutional Studies, University of Melbourne, 1992).
49. This point is also noted in Report of the Human Rights Commission on Certain Provisions of the Tasmanian Criminal Code, hereafter HREOC (Sydney: Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission, 1994).
50. Wayne Morgan, "Sexuality and Human Rights: The First Communication by an Australian to the Human Rights Committee under the Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights", The Australian Year Book of International Law 14 (1993), p. 289.
51. In Brian Galligan ed., Australian Federalism (Melbourne: Longman Cheshire, 1989).
52. Rodney Croome, "Australian gay rights case goes to the United Nations", Australian Gay and Lesbian Law Journal (2) (1992), p. 60; Rodney Croome, "Sexual (mis)conduct", Alternative Law Journal 20 (6) (December 1995), p. 282; Wayne Morgan, "Protecting rights or just passing the buck?" Human Rights Defender 3 (6) (December 1994). p. 5, 6.
53. Rodney Croome, "Australian gay rights case goes to the United Nations", Australian Gay and Lesbian Law Journal (2) (1992), p. 60; Rodney Croome, "Sexual (mis)conduct", Alternative Law Journal 20 (6) (December 1995), p. 282; Wayne Morgan, "Protecting rights or just passing the buck?" Human Rights Defender 3 (6) (December 1994). p. 5, 6.
54. Rodney Croome, "Australian gay rights case goes to the United Nations", Australian Gay and Lesbian Law Journal (2) (1992), p. 60; Rodney Croome, "Sexual (mis)conduct", Alternative Law Journal 20 (6) (December 1995), p. 282; Wayne Morgan, "Protecting rights or just passing the buck?" Human Rights Defender 3 (6) (December 1994). p. 5, 6.
55. Wayne Morgan, "Protecting rights or just passing the buck?" Human Rights Defender 3 (6) (December 1994). p. 4-5; Rodney Croome, "Sexual (mis)conduct", Alternative Law Journal 20 (6) (December 1995), p. 283.
56. Wayne Morgan, "Protecting rights or just passing the buck?" Human Rights Defender 3 (6) (December 1994). p. 4-5; Rodney Croome, "Sexual (mis)conduct", Alternative Law Journal 20 (6) (December 1995), p. 283.
57. Senate Legal and Constitutional Legislation Committee Hansard, Reference: Human Rights (Sexual Conduct) Bill 1994 (Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia, 1994), p. 300. See also Senate debate including Commonwealth Parliamentary Debates Senate, hereafter CPDS (22 September 1994), p. 1166.
58. Senate Legal and Constitutional Legislation Committee Hansard, Reference: Human Rights (Sexual Conduct) Bill 1994 (Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia, 1994), p. 300. See also Senate debate including Commonwealth Parliamentary Debates Senate, hereafter CPDS (22 September 1994), p. 1166.
59. Senate Legal and Constitutional Legislation Committee Hansard, Reference: Human Rights (Sexual Conduct) Bill 1994 (Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia, 1994), p. 302, 307. In discussing the potential impact of the Privacy Bill on incest, it was conceded by legal advisers that in extremely limited and particular circumstances, it could be envisaged that the Bill may invalidate the execution of incest laws, for example in instances of incest between a postmenopausal woman and her brother. Under normal circumstances incest laws would also not be considered "arbitrary" (SLCLC 1994).
60. Rodney Croome, "Sexual (mis)conduct", Alternative Law Journal 20 (6) (December 1995), pp. 282-284; Rodney Croome, Interview conducted by Kath Gelber, 1996.
61. Rodney Croome, "Sexual (mis)conduct", Alternative Law Journal 20 (6) (December 1995), pp. 282-284; Rodney Croome, Interview conducted by Kath Gelber, 1996.
62. Anne Twomey, Strange Bedfellows: The UN Human Rights Committee and the Tasmanian Parliament (Parliamentary Research Service, Parliament of the Commonwealth of Australia No. 6, 1994), p. 23.
63. Note, for example, Justice Brennan's comments in recognising the significance of the First Optional Protocol to the ICCPR in the Mabo case. "The common law does not necessarily conform with international law, but international law is a legitimate and important influence on the development of the common law." Cited in Rod Kemp, "International Tribunals and the Attack on Australian Democracy", Proceedings of the Fourth Conference of The Samuel Griffith Society (Melbourne: The Samuel Griffith Society, 1994).
64. David Solomon, The Political Impact of the High Court (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1992), p. 7.
65. A. Rose, "Commonwealth State Aspects: Implementation of the First Optional Protocol", Internationalising Human Rights: Australia's Accession to the First Optional Protocol (Melbourne: Centre for Comparative Constitutional Studies, University of Melbourne, 1992), p. 43.
66. Senate Legal and Constitutional Legislation Committee Hansard, Reference: Administrative Decisions (Effect of International Instruments) Bill 1995 (Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia, 1995), p. 215.
67. HREOC (Sydney: Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission (1994), p. 9. The Tasmanian government also claimed that its endorsement of the Strategy as a whole was on the grounds of public health. This appears to contradict its justification for retention of the anti-gay laws.
68. Meredith Edwards & Alan Henderson, "COAG: A vehicle for reform", in Carroll & eds., Microeconomics Reform and Federalism (Canberra: Federalism Research Centre, Australian National University, 1995), p. 40.
69. Wayne Morgan, "Protecting rights or just passing the buck?" Human Rights Defender 3 (6) (December 1994). p. 4.; Rodney Croome, Interview conducted by Kath Gelber, 1996.
70. Wayne Morgan, "Protecting rights or just passing the buck?" Human Rights Defender 3 (6) (December 1994). p. 4.; Rodney Croome, Interview conducted by Kath Gelber, 1996.
71. A. Rose, "Commonwealth State Aspects: Implementation of the First Optional Protocol", Internationalising Human Rights: Australia's Accession to the First Optional Protocol (Melbourne: Centre for Comparative Constitutional Studies, University of Melbourne, 1992).
72. Peter Kirby, "Federal-State Issues in Australia's Accession to the Optional Protocol" (Paper delivered at a symposium), Internationalising Human Rights: Australia's Accession to the First Optional Protocol (Melbourne: Centre for Comparative Constitutional Studies, University of Melbourne, 1992).
73. Sarah Pritchard, "Gay Rights Victory at UN", Human Rights Defender 3 (3) (June 1994), p. 15.
74. CPDS (8 December 1994), p. 4292. See also Campbell Sharman's critique of these, and related, views, "Executive Federalism", in Galligan et. al., eds., Intergovernmental Relations and Public Policy (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1991).
75. CPDS (8 December 1994), p. 4292. See also Campbell Sharman's critique of these, and related, views, "Executive Federalism", in Galligan et. al., eds., Intergovernmental Relations and Public Policy (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1991).
76. Brian Galligan, Owen Hughes & Cliff Walsh eds., Intergovernmental Relations and Public Policy (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1991), p. 19.
77. See Galligan, Hughes & Walsh note 57, p. 8-9.
78. CPDHR (19 October 1994), p. 2263.
79. Trick or Treaty? (Canberra: Senate Legal and Constitutional References Committee, Parliament of the Commonwealth of Australia, 1995), pp. 5, 88.
80. Campbell Sharman, "Executive Federalism", in Galligan et. al., eds., Intergovernmental Relations and Public Policy (Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 1991 ), p. 33.
81. See Sydney Morning Herald, 26 January 1996: 3.