Party politics in the Baltic states: Social bases and institutional context

East European Politics and Societies

Volumn 13, Issue 1, 1999, Pages 148-182

  Pettai, Vello ^a   Kreuzer, Marcus ^a  

^a NONE

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0033446453     PISSN: 08883254     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0888325499013001005     Document Type: Article

References (71)

1. A comparison of any of the numerous single-country Baltic studies reveals this trend, while several Baltic-wide monographs make this point explicitly. See Rein Taagepera, Estonia: Return to Independence (Boulder: Westview Press, 1993); Andrejs Plakans, The Latvians: A Short History (Stanford, Calif.: Hoover Institution Press, 1995); Juris Dreifelds, Latvia in Transition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996); V. Stanley Vardys and Judith Sedaitis, Lithuania: The Rebel Nation (Boulder: Westview Press, 1997); Ole Nørgaard, Dan Hindsgaul, Lars Johannsen, Helle Willumsen, The Baltic States After Independence (Cheltenham, U.K.: Edward Elgar, 1996); Walter Iwaskiw, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania: Country Studies (Washington D.C.: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, 1996); Graham Smith, ed., The Baltic States: The National Self-Determination of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania (London: Macmillan Press, 1994).
2. A comparison of any of the numerous single-country Baltic studies reveals this trend, while several Baltic-wide monographs make this point explicitly. See Rein Taagepera, Estonia: Return to Independence (Boulder: Westview Press, 1993); Andrejs Plakans, The Latvians: A Short History (Stanford, Calif.: Hoover Institution Press, 1995); Juris Dreifelds, Latvia in Transition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996); V. Stanley Vardys and Judith Sedaitis, Lithuania: The Rebel Nation (Boulder: Westview Press, 1997); Ole Nørgaard, Dan Hindsgaul, Lars Johannsen, Helle Willumsen, The Baltic States After Independence (Cheltenham, U.K.: Edward Elgar, 1996); Walter Iwaskiw, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania: Country Studies (Washington D.C.: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, 1996); Graham Smith, ed., The Baltic States: The National Self-Determination of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania (London: Macmillan Press, 1994).
3. A comparison of any of the numerous single-country Baltic studies reveals this trend, while several Baltic-wide monographs make this point explicitly. See Rein Taagepera, Estonia: Return to Independence (Boulder: Westview Press, 1993); Andrejs Plakans, The Latvians: A Short History (Stanford, Calif.: Hoover Institution Press, 1995); Juris Dreifelds, Latvia in Transition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996); V. Stanley Vardys and Judith Sedaitis, Lithuania: The Rebel Nation (Boulder: Westview Press, 1997); Ole Nørgaard, Dan Hindsgaul, Lars Johannsen, Helle Willumsen, The Baltic States After Independence (Cheltenham, U.K.: Edward Elgar, 1996); Walter Iwaskiw, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania: Country Studies (Washington D.C.: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, 1996); Graham Smith, ed., The Baltic States: The National Self-Determination of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania (London: Macmillan Press, 1994).
4. A comparison of any of the numerous single-country Baltic studies reveals this trend, while several Baltic-wide monographs make this point explicitly. See Rein Taagepera, Estonia: Return to Independence (Boulder: Westview Press, 1993); Andrejs Plakans, The Latvians: A Short History (Stanford, Calif.: Hoover Institution Press, 1995); Juris Dreifelds, Latvia in Transition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996); V. Stanley Vardys and Judith Sedaitis, Lithuania: The Rebel Nation (Boulder: Westview Press, 1997); Ole Nørgaard, Dan Hindsgaul, Lars Johannsen, Helle Willumsen, The Baltic States After Independence (Cheltenham, U.K.: Edward Elgar, 1996); Walter Iwaskiw, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania: Country Studies (Washington D.C.: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, 1996); Graham Smith, ed., The Baltic States: The National Self-Determination of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania (London: Macmillan Press, 1994).
5. A comparison of any of the numerous single-country Baltic studies reveals this trend, while several Baltic-wide monographs make this point explicitly. See Rein Taagepera, Estonia: Return to Independence (Boulder: Westview Press, 1993); Andrejs Plakans, The Latvians: A Short History (Stanford, Calif.: Hoover Institution Press, 1995); Juris Dreifelds, Latvia in Transition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996); V. Stanley Vardys and Judith Sedaitis, Lithuania: The Rebel Nation (Boulder: Westview Press, 1997); Ole Nørgaard, Dan Hindsgaul, Lars Johannsen, Helle Willumsen, The Baltic States After Independence (Cheltenham, U.K.: Edward Elgar, 1996); Walter Iwaskiw, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania: Country Studies (Washington D.C.: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, 1996); Graham Smith, ed., The Baltic States: The National Self-Determination of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania (London: Macmillan Press, 1994).
6. A comparison of any of the numerous single-country Baltic studies reveals this trend, while several Baltic-wide monographs make this point explicitly. See Rein Taagepera, Estonia: Return to Independence (Boulder: Westview Press, 1993); Andrejs Plakans, The Latvians: A Short History (Stanford, Calif.: Hoover Institution Press, 1995); Juris Dreifelds, Latvia in Transition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996); V. Stanley Vardys and Judith Sedaitis, Lithuania: The Rebel Nation (Boulder: Westview Press, 1997); Ole Nørgaard, Dan Hindsgaul, Lars Johannsen, Helle Willumsen, The Baltic States After Independence (Cheltenham, U.K.: Edward Elgar, 1996); Walter Iwaskiw, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania: Country Studies (Washington D.C.: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, 1996); Graham Smith, ed., The Baltic States: The National Self-Determination of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania (London: Macmillan Press, 1994).
7. A comparison of any of the numerous single-country Baltic studies reveals this trend, while several Baltic-wide monographs make this point explicitly. See Rein Taagepera, Estonia: Return to Independence (Boulder: Westview Press, 1993); Andrejs Plakans, The Latvians: A Short History (Stanford, Calif.: Hoover Institution Press, 1995); Juris Dreifelds, Latvia in Transition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996); V. Stanley Vardys and Judith Sedaitis, Lithuania: The Rebel Nation (Boulder: Westview Press, 1997); Ole Nørgaard, Dan Hindsgaul, Lars Johannsen, Helle Willumsen, The Baltic States After Independence (Cheltenham, U.K.: Edward Elgar, 1996); Walter Iwaskiw, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania: Country Studies (Washington D.C.: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, 1996); Graham Smith, ed., The Baltic States: The National Self-Determination of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania (London: Macmillan Press, 1994).
8. Recent works that touch upon Baltic party politics include Ole Nørgaard, Lars Johannsen, and Anette Pedersen, "The Baltic Republics: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania: The Development of Multi-Party Systems," in Bogdan Szajkowski, ed., Political Parties of Eastern Europe, Russia, and the Successor States (Essex, U.K.: Longman, 1994); David Arter, Parties and Democracy in the Post-Soviet Republics: The Case of Estonia (Brookfield, Vt: Dartmouth, 1996); and Terry D. Clark, "The Lithuanian Political Party System: A Case Study of Democratic Consolidation," East European Politics and Societies 9 (Winter 1995): 41-62. In addition, Herbert Kitschelt cites the Baltic states in his comparative model of party cleavages in post-communist democracies, but he treats them in a rather ad hoc fashion, disregarding their obvious differences. See Herbert Kitschelt, "Formation of Party Cleavages in Post-Communist Democracies: Theoretical Propositions," Party Politics 1 (October 1995): 447-72.
9. Recent works that touch upon Baltic party politics include Ole Nørgaard, Lars Johannsen, and Anette Pedersen, "The Baltic Republics: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania: The Development of Multi-Party Systems," in Bogdan Szajkowski, ed., Political Parties of Eastern Europe, Russia, and the Successor States (Essex, U.K.: Longman, 1994); David Arter, Parties and Democracy in the Post-Soviet Republics: The Case of Estonia (Brookfield, Vt: Dartmouth, 1996); and Terry D. Clark, "The Lithuanian Political Party System: A Case Study of Democratic Consolidation," East European Politics and Societies 9 (Winter 1995): 41-62. In addition, Herbert Kitschelt cites the Baltic states in his comparative model of party cleavages in post-communist democracies, but he treats them in a rather ad hoc fashion, disregarding their obvious differences. See Herbert Kitschelt, "Formation of Party Cleavages in Post-Communist Democracies: Theoretical Propositions," Party Politics 1 (October 1995): 447-72.
10. Recent works that touch upon Baltic party politics include Ole Nørgaard, Lars Johannsen, and Anette Pedersen, "The Baltic Republics: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania: The Development of Multi-Party Systems," in Bogdan Szajkowski, ed., Political Parties of Eastern Europe, Russia, and the Successor States (Essex, U.K.: Longman, 1994); David Arter, Parties and Democracy in the Post-Soviet Republics: The Case of Estonia (Brookfield, Vt: Dartmouth, 1996); and Terry D. Clark, "The Lithuanian Political Party System: A Case Study of Democratic Consolidation," East European Politics and Societies 9 (Winter 1995): 41-62. In addition, Herbert Kitschelt cites the Baltic states in his comparative model of party cleavages in post-communist democracies, but he treats them in a rather ad hoc fashion, disregarding their obvious differences. See Herbert Kitschelt, "Formation of Party Cleavages in Post-Communist Democracies: Theoretical Propositions," Party Politics 1 (October 1995): 447-72.
11. Recent works that touch upon Baltic party politics include Ole Nørgaard, Lars Johannsen, and Anette Pedersen, "The Baltic Republics: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania: The Development of Multi-Party Systems," in Bogdan Szajkowski, ed., Political Parties of Eastern Europe, Russia, and the Successor States (Essex, U.K.: Longman, 1994); David Arter, Parties and Democracy in the Post-Soviet Republics: The Case of Estonia (Brookfield, Vt: Dartmouth, 1996); and Terry D. Clark, "The Lithuanian Political Party System: A Case Study of Democratic Consolidation," East European Politics and Societies 9 (Winter 1995): 41-62. In addition, Herbert Kitschelt cites the Baltic states in his comparative model of party cleavages in post-communist democracies, but he treats them in a rather ad hoc fashion, disregarding their obvious differences. See Herbert Kitschelt, "Formation of Party Cleavages in Post-Communist Democracies: Theoretical Propositions," Party Politics 1 (October 1995): 447-72.
12. These included the addition of a Constitutional Court in 1996 and plans for a special section on basic rights and freedoms.
13. For a complete analysis of the constitution-making process in Estonia, see Vello Pettai, "Estonia: Positive and Negative Institutional Engineering" (Paper presented at European University Institute Conference on Institutional Engineering in Eastern Europe, Florence, Italy, January 24-25, 1997.) See also Rein Taagepera, "Estonia's Constitutional Assembly, 1991-1992," Journal of Baltic Studies 25 (Fall 1994): 211-32.
14. For a complete analysis of the constitution-making process in Estonia, see Vello Pettai, "Estonia: Positive and Negative Institutional Engineering" (Paper presented at European University Institute Conference on Institutional Engineering in Eastern Europe, Florence, Italy, January 24-25, 1997.) See also Rein Taagepera, "Estonia's Constitutional Assembly, 1991-1992," Journal of Baltic Studies 25 (Fall 1994): 211-32.
15. In February 1993, the country went on to hold its first presidential election in which the popular ex-communist leader Algirdas Brazaukas was elected directly in the first round of voting, beating the compromise right-wing candidate Stasys Lozoraitis by 23 points. In December 1997, the Lithuanian-American Valdas Adamkus barely edged out the left-wing candidate Arturas Palauskas to win the country's second presidential election.
16. Jeff Chinn and Robert Kaiser, Russians as the New Minority. Ethnicity and Nationalism in the Soviet Successor States (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1996), 119-20.
17. This was down from the prewar proportions of 88 percent and 77 percent, respectively.
18. These initial resolutions were followed up by formal citizenship laws in Estonia in February 1992 and in Latvia in July 1994. Estonia further revamped its citizenship law in January 1995.
19. For Estonia, there are no definitive figures, since citizens and residents are no longer classified according to ethnicity (as during the Soviet era). However, a public-opinion poll in April 1992 showed as few as 2 percent of Russians in Estonia saying that they were citizens according to the new rules. This figure rose to 16 percent in February 1993, but it is possible that during the September 1992 parliamentary elections in Estonia the number of eligible voters of non-Estonian descent was not more than 10 percent. See Marika Kirch and Aksel Kirch, "Search for Security in Estonia: New Identity Structure," Security Dialogue 26 (December 1995): 439-48. In Latvia, the figure is drawn from a nationwide registry of citizens and non-citizens, in which "ethnicity" was officially designated for each resident. See "Par Latvijas Republikas cilvēkiem," Latvijas Vēstnesis, 22 March 1995, 5.
20. For additional analysis, see Vello Pettai, "Estonia: Old Maps and New Roads," Journal of Democracy 4:1 (1993): 81-90.
21. Barbara Geddes, "A Comparative Perspective on the Leninist Legacy in Eastern Europe," Comparative Political Studies 28:2 (1995): 251.
22. For an elaboration of this problem, see Barbara Geddes, The Politician's Dilemma: Building State Capacity in Latin America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996).
23. For a more detailed analysis of this point, see Marcus Kreuzer, "Electoral Institutions, Political Organization and Party Development: French and German Socialists and Mass Politics," Comparative Politics 30:3 (1998): 273-92; and Marcus Kreuzer, Institutions & Innovation: Voters, Politicians & Interest Groups in the Consolidation of Democracy. France and Germany 1870-1939. (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, forthcoming).
24. For a more detailed analysis of this point, see Marcus Kreuzer, "Electoral Institutions, Political Organization and Party Development: French and German Socialists and Mass Politics," Comparative Politics 30:3 (1998): 273-92; and Marcus Kreuzer, Institutions & Innovation: Voters, Politicians & Interest Groups in the Consolidation of Democracy. France and Germany 1870-1939. (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, forthcoming).
25. Michael Gallagher and Michael Marsh, eds., Candidate Selection in Comparative Perspective (London: Sage, 1988).
26. A preliminary review of candidate lists from the October 1998 Latvian elections showed this pattern of weak institutionalization continuing. While the overall proportion of repeat candidates rose to 32.4 percent, the number of breakaway incumbent MPs also rose to 32 percent.
27. Giovanni Sartori, Parties and Party Systems (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976); and Bingham Powell, Contemporary Democracies: Participation, Stability and Violence (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1980).
28. Giovanni Sartori, Parties and Party Systems (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976); and Bingham Powell, Contemporary Democracies: Participation, Stability and Violence (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1980).
29. 2, where p is the percentage vote total of the i-th party. See Rein Taagepera and Matthew Shugart, Seats and Votes (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989), 77-81.
30. i for each party.
31. Taagepera and Shugart, Seats and Votes, 82-83.
32. Giovanni Sartori, "From the Sociology of Politics to Political Sociology," in Seymour Martin Lipset, ed., Politics and the Social Sciences (New York: Oxford University Press, 1969), 65-100.
33. For the exact formula, see Stefano Bartolini and Peter Mair, Identity and Competition and Electoral Availability: The Stabilization of European Electorates 1885-1985 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1990), 47.
34. Scott Mainwaring and Timothy Scully. "Introduction," in Scott Mainwaring and Timothy Scully, eds., Building Democratic Institutions: Party Systems in Latin America (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1995), 8.
35. Bartolini and Mair, Identity and Competition, 100.
36. Cf. Kitschelt, "Formation of Party Cleavages"; Herbert Kitschelt, "The Formation of Party Systems in East Central Europe," Politics and Society 20 (March 1992): 7-50.
37. Cf. Kitschelt, "Formation of Party Cleavages"; Herbert Kitschelt, "The Formation of Party Systems in East Central Europe," Politics and Society 20 (March 1992): 7-50.
38. An indication of each party's ideological views was established based on a review of individual party programs and electoral campaign literature. Further insight was gained through a survey of news reports and public statements. In Lithuania, only parties that gained seats through the multi-mandate district voting are included.
39. In 1992 it ran as the Union of Poles, while in 1996 it ran as Polish Electoral Action.
40. Vello Pettai, "Political Stability Through Disenfranchisement," Transition 3 (4 April 1997): 21-23.
41. For the Baltic electoral laws, see Vabarügi Presidendija Riigikogu valimised 1992: Dokumente ja materjale (Tallinn: Eesti Vabariigi Valimiskomisjon, 1992), 8-23; Riigikogu valimine: 5. märts 1995 (Tallinn: Eesti Vabariigi Valimiskomisjon, 1995), 1-13; Latvijas Republikas 5. Saeimas Vēlēšanas (Rīga: Latvijas Republikas Centrālȧ Vēlēšanu Komisija, 1993), A-10, A-23; "Saeimas vēlēšanu likums," Saeimā-Ministru Kabinetā, 7 June 1995: 1-2; "Law on Elections to the Seimas," 9 July 1992, Law No. I-2721; and "Law on the Amendment of the Law on Elections to the Seimas," 27 June 1996, Law No. 1408
42. For the Baltic electoral laws, see Vabarügi Presidendija Riigikogu valimised 1992: Dokumente ja materjale (Tallinn: Eesti Vabariigi Valimiskomisjon, 1992), 8-23; Riigikogu valimine: 5. märts 1995 (Tallinn: Eesti Vabariigi Valimiskomisjon, 1995), 1-13; Latvijas Republikas 5. Saeimas Vēlēšanas (Rīga: Latvijas Republikas Centrālȧ Vēlēšanu Komisija, 1993), A-10, A-23; "Saeimas vēlēšanu likums," Saeimā-Ministru Kabinetā, 7 June 1995: 1-2; "Law on Elections to the Seimas," 9 July 1992, Law No. I-2721; and "Law on the Amendment of the Law on Elections to the Seimas," 27 June 1996, Law No. 1408
43. For the Baltic electoral laws, see Vabarügi Presidendija Riigikogu valimised 1992: Dokumente ja materjale (Tallinn: Eesti Vabariigi Valimiskomisjon, 1992), 8-23; Riigikogu valimine: 5. märts 1995 (Tallinn: Eesti Vabariigi Valimiskomisjon, 1995), 1-13; Latvijas Republikas 5. Saeimas Vēlēšanas (Rīga: Latvijas Republikas Centrālȧ Vēlēšanu Komisija, 1993), A-10, A-23; "Saeimas vēlēšanu likums," Saeimā-Ministru Kabinetā, 7 June 1995: 1-2; "Law on Elections to the Seimas," 9 July 1992, Law No. I-2721; and "Law on the Amendment of the Law on Elections to the Seimas," 27 June 1996, Law No. 1408
44. For the Baltic electoral laws, see Vabarügi Presidendija Riigikogu valimised 1992: Dokumente ja materjale (Tallinn: Eesti Vabariigi Valimiskomisjon, 1992), 8-23; Riigikogu valimine: 5. märts 1995 (Tallinn: Eesti Vabariigi Valimiskomisjon, 1995), 1-13; Latvijas Republikas 5. Saeimas Vēlēšanas (Rīga: Latvijas Republikas Centrālȧ Vēlēšanu Komisija, 1993), A-10, A-23; "Saeimas vēlēšanu likums," Saeimā-Ministru Kabinetā, 7 June 1995: 1-2; "Law on Elections to the Seimas," 9 July 1992, Law No. I-2721; and "Law on the Amendment of the Law on Elections to the Seimas," 27 June 1996, Law No. 1408
45. For the Baltic electoral laws, see Vabarügi Presidendija Riigikogu valimised 1992: Dokumente ja materjale (Tallinn: Eesti Vabariigi Valimiskomisjon, 1992), 8-23; Riigikogu valimine: 5. märts 1995 (Tallinn: Eesti Vabariigi Valimiskomisjon, 1995), 1-13; Latvijas Republikas 5. Saeimas Vēlēšanas (Rīga: Latvijas Republikas Centrālȧ Vēlēšanu Komisija, 1993), A-10, A-23; "Saeimas vēlēšanu likums," Saeimā-Ministru Kabinetā, 7 June 1995: 1-2; "Law on Elections to the Seimas," 9 July 1992, Law No. I-2721; and "Law on the Amendment of the Law on Elections to the Seimas," 27 June 1996, Law No. 1408
46. For the Baltic electoral laws, see Vabarügi Presidendija Riigikogu valimised 1992: Dokumente ja materjale (Tallinn: Eesti Vabariigi Valimiskomisjon, 1992), 8-23; Riigikogu valimine: 5. märts 1995 (Tallinn: Eesti Vabariigi Valimiskomisjon, 1995), 1-13; Latvijas Republikas 5. Saeimas Vēlēšanas (Rīga: Latvijas Republikas Centrālȧ Vēlēšanu Komisija, 1993), A-10, A-23; "Saeimas vēlēšanu likums," Saeimā-Ministru Kabinetā, 7 June 1995: 1-2; "Law on Elections to the Seimas," 9 July 1992, Law No. I-2721; and "Law on the Amendment of the Law on Elections to the Seimas," 27 June 1996, Law No. 1408
47. . 29. Christian Lucky, "Table of Twelve Electoral Laws," East European Constitutional Review 3:2 (1994): 65-77.
48. Bernard Grofman and Arend Lijphart, "Introduction," in Arend Lijphart and Bernard Grofman, eds., Electoral Laws and Their Consequences (New York: Agathon Press, 1986), 2.
49. Twelve districts existed in 1992.
50. Taagepera and Shugart, Seats and Votes, 266-69.
51. In 1992, Lithuania had a threshold of 4 percent. It also had a special threshold for ethnic minority parties (e.g., the Poles and the Russians) of roughly 2 percent. However, in 1996 the basic threshold was raised to 5 percent, the minority threshold was abolished, and an additional 7 percent threshold was established for electoral coalitions. In Latvia, a 4 percent threshold existed for the first election in 1993.
52. adj would be 101/1, or 101.
53. In Lithuania, however, the calculation of the Hare quota is not done on the basis of the total number of votes cast but only on the basis of the votes that were cast for the parties that surpassed the electoral threshold. This move lowers the average quota and therefore favors the larger parties once the quota is used to figure out each party's number of seats.
54. In addition, based on a change made in the electoral law in 1994, candidates must have received at least 10 percent of the Hare quota in their district in order to be elected at this tier. This threshold was instituted to prevent unpopular or unknown candidates from riding the coattails of a popular fellow party candidate too easily. Furthermore, only parties that have surpassed the 5 percent nationwide threshold are eligible for second-tier seats.
55. 0.9, etc. This modification again favors larger parties, since their vote totals are diminished more slowly by each round of division.
56. Rein Taagepera, "Estonian Parliamentary Elections, March 1995," Electoral Studies 14:3 (1995): 328-29.
57. Richard Katz, "Intraparty Preference Voting," in Bernard Grotman and Arend Lijphart, eds., Electoral Laws and Their Political Consequences (New York: Agathon Press, 1986), 85-103.
58. Rae's original differentiation between categorical and ordinal ballots does not account for such mixed ballot structures. See Douglas Rae, The Political Consequences of Electoral Laws (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1967); and Taagepera and Shugart, Seats and Votes, 15-16.
59. This assumes, of course, that the voter has first chosen a party to support, and then votes for an individual candidate from that party running in his or her district. However, if the voter simply chooses according to who is running in the district, then the vote is more personalized.
60. Giovanni Sartori, Comparative Constitutional Engineering (New York: NYU Press, 1994), 11, 69.
61. See "Law on the Amendment," 1996, Article 85, Para. 5. Also, it is worth noting that under the 1996 law, parties could avoid the preferential voting by voters if they announced this to the authorities and the public before the start of the campaign. Out of 24 parties competing in the 1996 elections, only 5 chose not to accept the preferential voting.
62. The one exception being Richard S. Katz, A Theory of Parties and Electoral Systems (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1980), 48-52.
63. Arend Lijphart, Electoral Systems and Party Systems: A Study of Twenty-Seven Democracies, 1945-1990 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994), 134-138.
64. In March 1998, the Latvian Parliament amended its electoral law to abolish electoral coalitions; however, it agreed to allow political "unions" among parties to field candidates during the October 1998 elections. In November 1998, the Estonian Parliament also outlawed apparentements, however, many parties in advance of the March 1999 elections simply merged their lists under the name of one party.
65. Indeed, in 1996 12 of the 22 incumbents from single-seat constituencies who were returned to Parliament owed their reelection to their high placement on the national list after suffering defeats in their local districts.
66. Matthew Shugart and John Carey, Presidents and Assemblies: Constitutional Design and Electoral Dynamics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 167-225.
67. "Erakonnaseadus," Riigi Teataja, I 1994, 40, 654.
68. "Lietuvos Respublikos Politinus Partiju Istatymas," Nr. I-606 (25 September 1990).
69. "Par priekšvēlēšanu aĝitāciju pirms Saeimas vēlēšanām," Latvijas Vēstnesis, 11 August 1995.
70. "Politisko organizāciju (partiju) finansēšanas likums," Valsts Ziņotājs, 7 September 1995.
71. For example, reports filed for 1997 showed that the Democratic Party-Saimnieks was the wealthiest party in Latvia, with a turnover of nearly $800,000. Close behind was Latvia's Way (roughly $700,000), followed by For Fatherland and Freedom ($300,000). All in all, the 1997 figures (totaling $1.2 million) were twice the amount reported for 1996. Nellija Ločmele, "Partijas pērn apgrozījušas Ls 637,000," Diena, 3 March 1998.