Voluntarism against the open shop: Labor and business strategies in the battle for American labor markets

Studies in American Political Development

Volumn 13, Issue 1, 1999, Pages 146-185

  Robertson, David Brian ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI ST LOUIS   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0033435328     PISSN: 0898588X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/s0898588x99001972     Document Type: Article

References (364)

1. Franz Traxler, "Collective Bargaining and Industrial Change: A Case of Disorganization? A Comparative Analysis of Eighteen OECD Countries," European Sociological Review 12 (1996): 271-87; Bruce Western, Between Class and Market: Postwar Unionism in the Capitalist Democracies (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1997).
2. Franz Traxler, "Collective Bargaining and Industrial Change: A Case of Disorganization? A Comparative Analysis of Eighteen OECD Countries," European Sociological Review 12 (1996): 271-87; Bruce Western, Between Class and Market: Postwar Unionism in the Capitalist Democracies (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1997).
3. Maurice Duverger, Political Parties: Their Organization and Activity in the Modern State (1951; London: Methuen, Ltd., 1964, 20-22; Giovanni Sartori, Parties and Paty Systems: A Framework for Analysis (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1976), 1:192 ; Frances Fox Piven, ed., Labor Parties in Postindustrial Societies (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992); Seymour Martin Lipset, American Exceptionalism: A Double-Edged Sword (New York: W.W. Norton, 1996), 77-109.
4. Maurice Duverger, Political Parties: Their Organization and Activity in the Modern State (1951; London: Methuen, Ltd., 1964, 20-22; Giovanni Sartori, Parties and Paty Systems: A Framework for Analysis (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1976), 1:192 ; Frances Fox Piven, ed., Labor Parties in Postindustrial Societies (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992); Seymour Martin Lipset, American Exceptionalism: A Double-Edged Sword (New York: W.W. Norton, 1996), 77-109.
5. Maurice Duverger, Political Parties: Their Organization and Activity in the Modern State (1951; London: Methuen, Ltd., 1964, 20-22; Giovanni Sartori, Parties and Paty Systems: A Framework for Analysis (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1976), 1:192 ; Frances Fox Piven, ed., Labor Parties in Postindustrial Societies (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992); Seymour Martin Lipset, American Exceptionalism: A Double-Edged Sword (New York: W.W. Norton, 1996), 77-109.
6. Maurice Duverger, Political Parties: Their Organization and Activity in the Modern State (1951; London: Methuen, Ltd., 1964, 20-22; Giovanni Sartori, Parties and Paty Systems: A Framework for Analysis (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1976), 1:192 ; Frances Fox Piven, ed., Labor Parties in Postindustrial Societies (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992); Seymour Martin Lipset, American Exceptionalism: A Double-Edged Sword (New York: W.W. Norton, 1996), 77-109.
7. The New Deal's effect on the relationship between business and labor is beyond the scope of this essay. The development of business and labor strategies to 1932, however, made it much more difficult to inhibit business autonomy in a sustained, substantial way. Although the New Deal's tilt toward labor caused many corporations to accommodate unions, in the post-World War II period, the Taft-Hartley Act and the "Treaty of Detroit" substantially circumscribed organized labor's challenge to employers' power and autonomy. See, for example, Howell John Harris, The Right to Manage: Industrial Relations Policies of American Business in the 1940s (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1982).
8. Victoria C. Hattam, Labor Visions and State Power: The Origins of Business Unionism in the United States (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993), 3; Michael Rogin, "Volunteerism: The Political Functions of an Antipolitical Doctrine," Industrial and Labor Relations Review, 15 1962):521-35; Derek C. Bok, "Reflections on the Distinctive Character of American Labor Laws," Harvard Law Review 84 (1971):1394-463; Seymour Martin Lipset, "North American Labor Movements: A Comparative Perspective," in Unions in Transition: Entering the Second Century, ed. Lipset (San Francisco: Institute for Contemporary Studies, 1986), 421-52.
9. Victoria C. Hattam, Labor Visions and State Power: The Origins of Business Unionism in the United States (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993), 3; Michael Rogin, "Volunteerism: The Political Functions of an Antipolitical Doctrine," Industrial and Labor Relations Review, 15 1962):521-35; Derek C. Bok, "Reflections on the Distinctive Character of American Labor Laws," Harvard Law Review 84 (1971):1394-463; Seymour Martin Lipset, "North American Labor Movements: A Comparative Perspective," in Unions in Transition: Entering the Second Century, ed. Lipset (San Francisco: Institute for Contemporary Studies, 1986), 421-52.
10. Victoria C. Hattam, Labor Visions and State Power: The Origins of Business Unionism in the United States (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993), 3; Michael Rogin, "Volunteerism: The Political Functions of an Antipolitical Doctrine," Industrial and Labor Relations Review, 15 1962):521-35; Derek C. Bok, "Reflections on the Distinctive Character of American Labor Laws," Harvard Law Review 84 (1971):1394-463; Seymour Martin Lipset, "North American Labor Movements: A Comparative Perspective," in Unions in Transition: Entering the Second Century, ed. Lipset (San Francisco: Institute for Contemporary Studies, 1986), 421-52.
11. Victoria C. Hattam, Labor Visions and State Power: The Origins of Business Unionism in the United States (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993), 3; Michael Rogin, "Volunteerism: The Political Functions of an Antipolitical Doctrine," Industrial and Labor Relations Review, 15 1962):521-35; Derek C. Bok, "Reflections on the Distinctive Character of American Labor Laws," Harvard Law Review 84 (1971):1394-463; Seymour Martin Lipset, "North American Labor Movements: A Comparative Perspective," in Unions in Transition: Entering the Second Century, ed. Lipset (San Francisco: Institute for Contemporary Studies, 1986), 421-52.
12. Kim Voss, "Disposition is Not Action: The Rise and Demise of the Knights of Labor," Studies in American Political Development 6 (1992):272-321; and Voss, The Making of American Exceptionalism: The Knights of Labor and Class Formation in the Nineteenth Century (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1993).
13. Kim Voss, "Disposition is Not Action: The Rise and Demise of the Knights of Labor," Studies in American Political Development 6 (1992):272-321; and Voss, The Making of American Exceptionalism: The Knights of Labor and Class Formation in the Nineteenth Century (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1993).
14. Martin Shefter, "Trade Unions and Political Machines: The Organization and Disorganization of the American Working Class," in Political Parties and the State: The American Historical Experience, ed. Shefter (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994), 101-68.
15. Julie Greene, Pure and Simple Politics: The American Federation of Labor and Political Activism, 1881-1917 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 36-47.
16. Conventionally, a closed shop is one in which hiring is closed to those who are not union members. A union shop refers to a shop in which one must join a union as a condition of retaining employment. In 1902, Gompers carefully emphasized that the AFL sought union shops rather than closed shops; Proceedings of the Annual Convention of the American Federation of Labor (hereafter, AFL Proceedings), 1902, 20.
17. Minutes of the Executive Council of the American Federation of Labor, in American Federation of Labor Records: The Samuel Gompers Era (Microfilm Corporation of America, 1979), Reel 2 (hereafter AFL Executive Council Minutes), July 21, 1900.
18. Ruth L. Horowitz, Political Ideologies of Organized Labor (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Books, 1978), 28.
19. AFL Proceedings, 1901, 9.
20. Samuel Gompers, Seventy Years of Life and Labour (New York: E.P. Dutton, 1925), 1:338. The degree to which the Federation actually backed up its goal of inclusiveness with organizetional resources, and the degree to which it tolerated racial segregation of organized workers, merit additional discussion that is beyond the scope of this article. See Greene, Pure and Simple Politics, 36-47.
21. Samuel Gompers, Seventy Years of Life and Labour (New York: E.P. Dutton, 1925), 1:338. The degree to which the Federation actually backed up its goal of inclusiveness with organizetional resources, and the degree to which it tolerated racial segregation of organized workers, merit additional discussion that is beyond the scope of this article. See Greene, Pure and Simple Politics, 36-47.
22. As is the conclusion of Horowitz, Political Ideologies of Organized Labor, 42. For Christopher Tomlins, Gompers's earlier assertions of militant autonomy resembled syndicalism (The State and the Unions: Labor Relations, Law, and the Organized Labor Movement in America, 1880-1960 [Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985], 56). On the importance of the union shop in the United States relative to Britain, see John R. Commons, Labor and Administration (New York: Macmillan, 1913), 85-105.
23. As is the conclusion of Horowitz, Political Ideologies of Organized Labor, 42. For Christopher Tomlins, Gompers's earlier assertions of militant autonomy resembled syndicalism (The State and the Unions: Labor Relations, Law, and the Organized Labor Movement in America, 1880-1960 [Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985], 56). On the importance of the union shop in the United States relative to Britain, see John R. Commons, Labor and Administration (New York: Macmillan, 1913), 85-105.
24. As is the conclusion of Horowitz, Political Ideologies of Organized Labor, 42. For Christopher Tomlins, Gompers's earlier assertions of militant autonomy resembled syndicalism (The State and the Unions: Labor Relations, Law, and the Organized Labor Movement in America, 1880-1960 [Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985], 56). On the importance of the union shop in the United States relative to Britain, see John R. Commons, Labor and Administration (New York: Macmillan, 1913), 85-105.
25. AFL Proceeding, 1901, 232-35, 240. For a generation, AFL leaders invoked the Scranton resolution as the authoritative AFL position on the crafts should be the basis of organization; see AFL Proceedings, 1922, 337-38.
26. AFL Proceeding, 1901, 232-35, 240. For a generation, AFL leaders invoked the Scranton resolution as the authoritative AFL position on the crafts should be the basis of organization; see AFL Proceedings, 1922, 337-38.
27. Horowitz, Political Ideologies of Organized Labor, 32; Stuart B. Kaufman, et al., eds., The Samuel Gompers Papers (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1997), 6:58-60; Daniel Nelson, Unemployment Insurance: The American Experience, 1915-1935 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1969), 65-67, 77. See also the discussion of eight-hour laws and health insurance, below.
28. Horowitz, Political Ideologies of Organized Labor, 32; Stuart B. Kaufman, et al., eds., The Samuel Gompers Papers (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1997), 6:58-60; Daniel Nelson, Unemployment Insurance: The American Experience, 1915-1935 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1969), 65-67, 77. See also the discussion of eight-hour laws and health insurance, below.
29. Horowitz, Political Ideologies of Organized Labor, 32; Stuart B. Kaufman, et al., eds., The Samuel Gompers Papers (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1997), 6:58-60; Daniel Nelson, Unemployment Insurance: The American Experience, 1915-1935 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1969), 65-67, 77. See also the discussion of eight-hour laws and health insurance, below.
30. David Montgomery, The Fall of the House of Labor: The Workplace, the State, and American Labor Activism, 1865-1925 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 269.
31. William Forbath, "Law and the Shaping of Labor Politics in the United States and England," in Labor Law in America: Historical and Critical Essays, eds. Christopher J. Tomlins and Andrew J. King (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992), 204; U.S. Industrial Commission, Final Report (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1902), 19:864-65. P.K. Edwards statistically analyzes strike data since 1881 in Strikes in the United States, 1881-1974 (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1981). On the comparability of class consciousness in the United States and Europe, see Sean Wilentz, "Against Exceptionalism: Class Consciousness and the American Labor Movement, 1790-1920," International Labor and Working Class History 26 (1984):1-24.
32. William Forbath, "Law and the Shaping of Labor Politics in the United States and England," in Labor Law in America: Historical and Critical Essays, eds. Christopher J. Tomlins and Andrew J. King (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992), 204; U.S. Industrial Commission, Final Report (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1902), 19:864-65. P.K. Edwards statistically analyzes strike data since 1881 in Strikes in the United States, 1881-1974 (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1981). On the comparability of class consciousness in the United States and Europe, see Sean Wilentz, "Against Exceptionalism: Class Consciousness and the American Labor Movement, 1790-1920," International Labor and Working Class History 26 (1984):1-24.
33. William Forbath, "Law and the Shaping of Labor Politics in the United States and England," in Labor Law in America: Historical and Critical Essays, eds. Christopher J. Tomlins and Andrew J. King (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992), 204; U.S. Industrial Commission, Final Report (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1902), 19:864-65. P.K. Edwards statistically analyzes strike data since 1881 in Strikes in the United States, 1881-1974 (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1981). On the comparability of class consciousness in the United States and Europe, see Sean Wilentz, "Against Exceptionalism: Class Consciousness and the American Labor Movement, 1790-1920," International Labor and Working Class History 26 (1984):1-24.
34. William Forbath, "Law and the Shaping of Labor Politics in the United States and England," in Labor Law in America: Historical and Critical Essays, eds. Christopher J. Tomlins and Andrew J. King (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992), 204; U.S. Industrial Commission, Final Report (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1902), 19:864-65. P.K. Edwards statistically analyzes strike data since 1881 in Strikes in the United States, 1881-1974 (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1981). On the comparability of class consciousness in the United States and Europe, see Sean Wilentz, "Against Exceptionalism: Class Consciousness and the American Labor Movement, 1790-1920," International Labor and Working Class History 26 (1984):1-24.
35. Melvyn Dubosky, The State and Labor in Modern America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994), 40-44;
36. Perry K. Blatz, "Workplace Militancy and Unionization: The UMWA and the Anthracite Mine Workers, 1890-1912," in The United Mine Workers of America: A Model of Solidarity?, ed. John H.M. Laslett (University Park: Penn State University Press, 1996), 51-71.
37. Some of the major court cases of the early 1900s, such as Loewe v. Lawler and Buck's Stove and Range v. Gompers, detail specific boycotts; see Daniel R. Ernest, Lawyer, Against Labor: From Individual Rights to Corporate Liberalism (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1995). On the use of the boycott, see John R. Commons, "European and American Unions," in Commons, Labor and Administration, 149-57.
38. Some of the major court cases of the early 1900s, such as Loewe v. Lawler and Buck's Stove and Range v. Gompers, detail specific boycotts; see Daniel R. Ernest, Lawyer, Against Labor: From Individual Rights to Corporate Liberalism (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1995). On the use of the boycott, see John R. Commons, "European and American Unions," in Commons, Labor and Administration, 149-57.
39. Gompers at the 1896 AFL Convention, quoted in Samuel Gompers, Labor and the Common Welfare (New York: E.P. Dutton, 1919), 126.
40. If labor is to wait until the millennium, if we are going to wait until labor elects a majority of the legislature and a governor and then a President of the United States, who shall appoint the justices of the Supreme Court, I am afraid we are going to wait a long time! (Gompers in 1906, in Gompers, Labor and the Common Welfare, 128)
41. Dubofsky, The State and Labor in Modern America, 49; John H.M. Laslett, Labor and the Left: A Study of Socialist and Radical Influences in the American Labor Movement, 1881-1924 (New York: Basic Books, 1970).
42. Dubofsky, The State and Labor in Modern America, 49; John H.M. Laslett, Labor and the Left: A Study of Socialist and Radical Influences in the American Labor Movement, 1881-1924 (New York: Basic Books, 1970).
43. AFL Executive Council Minutes, March 21, 1900, and September 20, 1901.
44. See reports of such meetings in AFL Executive Council Minutes, April 20, 1897; February 22, 1898; February 13, 1899; October 16, 1899; December 20, 1899; February 18, 1901. On the injunction bill vote, see Congressional Record, February 18, 1901, 2589-98.
45. See reports of such meetings in AFL Executive Council Minutes, April 20, 1897; February 22, 1898; February 13, 1899; October 16, 1899; December 20, 1899; February 18, 1901. On the injunction bill vote, see Congressional Record, February 18, 1901, 2589-98.
46. Theodore Roosevelt to Joseph Cannon, letter, September 16, 1906, in Joseph G. Cannon Papers, Illinois State Historical Library.
47. Oscar T. Straus, Manuscript, "Part 2: Brief Personal Records January 1, 1908-March 4, 1909," 241, Oscar S. Straus Papers, Box 23, U.S. Library of Congress.
48. In the late 1890s, the AFL clearly ranked the eight-hour law at the top of unions' legislative agenda, with injunction and seamen's bills ranked second, immigration restriction third, and convict labor limitation fourth. See AFL Executive Council Minutes, April 21, 1897, and December 21, 1897. Clearly, the rising tide of injunctions and Gompers's own liability in the case of Loewe v. Lawler was making injunctions a top priority by mid-1902; see AFL Executive Council Minutes, April 19, 1902; January 21, 1903; and on Loewe, September 21, 1903.
49. In the late 1890s, the AFL clearly ranked the eight-hour law at the top of unions' legislative agenda, with injunction and seamen's bills ranked second, immigration restriction third, and convict labor limitation fourth. See AFL Executive Council Minutes, April 21, 1897, and December 21, 1897. Clearly, the rising tide of injunctions and Gompers's own liability in the case of Loewe v. Lawler was making injunctions a top priority by mid-1902; see AFL Executive Council Minutes, April 19, 1902; January 21, 1903; and on Loewe, September 21, 1903.
50. Gompers in U.S. Senate, Committee on Education and Labor, Hearings on Eight Hours for Laborers on Government Work, Senate Doc. 141 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1903), 11. The House vote to suspend the rules for a vote on the bill was 151 to 24; Congressional Record, May 21, 1990, 5804-5, and June 6, 1900, 6800.
51. Gompers in U.S. Senate, Committee on Education and Labor, Hearings on Eight Hours for Laborers on Government Work, Senate Doc. 141 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1903), 11. The House vote to suspend the rules for a vote on the bill was 151 to 24; Congressional Record, May 21, 1990, 5804-5, and June 6, 1900, 6800.
52. See House Judiciary Committee, "Limiting the Meaning of the Word Conspiracy," House Report 1522, 57 Cong., 1 sess. (April 10, 1902). On House passage, see Congressional Record, May 2, 1902, 4995.
53. See House Judiciary Committee, "Limiting the Meaning of the Word Conspiracy," House Report 1522, 57 Cong., 1 sess. (April 10, 1902). On House passage, see Congressional Record, May 2, 1902, 4995.
54. Gary Marks, Unions in Politics: Britain, Germany, and the United States in the Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1989), 120-94.
55. Keith Burges, "New Unionism for Old? The Amalgamated Society of Engineers in Britain," in The Development of Trade Unionism in Great Britain and Germany, 1880-1914, eds. Wolfgang J. Mommsen and Hans-Gerhard Husung (London: Allen and Unwin, 1985), 176; U.S. Commissioner of Labor, Regulation and Restriction of Output, 11th Special Report (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1904), 751; Henry Pelling, A History of British Trade Unionism (London: Penguin Books, 1963), 123-27; H.A. Clegg, Alan Fox, and A.F. Thompson, A History of British Trade Unions Since 1889 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1964) 1:374.
56. Keith Burges, "New Unionism for Old? The Amalgamated Society of Engineers in Britain," in The Development of Trade Unionism in Great Britain and Germany, 1880-1914, eds. Wolfgang J. Mommsen and Hans-Gerhard Husung (London: Allen and Unwin, 1985), 176; U.S. Commissioner of Labor, Regulation and Restriction of Output, 11th Special Report (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1904), 751; Henry Pelling, A History of British Trade Unionism (London: Penguin Books, 1963), 123-27; H.A. Clegg, Alan Fox, and A.F. Thompson, A History of British Trade Unions Since 1889 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1964) 1:374.
57. Keith Burges, "New Unionism for Old? The Amalgamated Society of Engineers in Britain," in The Development of Trade Unionism in Great Britain and Germany, 1880-1914, eds. Wolfgang J. Mommsen and Hans-Gerhard Husung (London: Allen and Unwin, 1985), 176; U.S. Commissioner of Labor, Regulation and Restriction of Output, 11th Special Report (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1904), 751; Henry Pelling, A History of British Trade Unionism (London: Penguin Books, 1963), 123-27; H.A. Clegg, Alan Fox, and A.F. Thompson, A History of British Trade Unions Since 1889 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1964) 1:374.
58. Keith Burges, "New Unionism for Old? The Amalgamated Society of Engineers in Britain," in The Development of Trade Unionism in Great Britain and Germany, 1880-1914, eds. Wolfgang J. Mommsen and Hans-Gerhard Husung (London: Allen and Unwin, 1985), 176; U.S. Commissioner of Labor, Regulation and Restriction of Output, 11th Special Report (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1904), 751; Henry Pelling, A History of British Trade Unionism (London: Penguin Books, 1963), 123-27; H.A. Clegg, Alan Fox, and A.F. Thompson, A History of British Trade Unions Since 1889 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1964) 1:374.
59. John A. Moses, Trade Unionism in Germany from Bismark to Hitler, 1869-1933 (Totowa, N.J.: Barnes & Noble), 1:133-37.
60. John R. Commons, "Introduction," to John R. Commons et al., History of Labour in the United States (New York: Macmillan, 1918), 1:17.
61. Hattam, Labor Visions and State Power, William E. Forbath, Law and the Shaping of the American Labor Movement (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1991), 168-69; Tomlins, The State and the Unions; David Montgomery, Beyond Equality: Labor and the Radical Republicans (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1967), 326; Theda Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers: The Political Origins of Social Policy in the United States (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap, 1992), 226-29.
62. Hattam, Labor Visions and State Power, William E. Forbath, Law and the Shaping of the American Labor Movement (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1991), 168-69; Tomlins, The State and the Unions; David Montgomery, Beyond Equality: Labor and the Radical Republicans (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1967), 326; Theda Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers: The Political Origins of Social Policy in the United States (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap, 1992), 226-29.
63. Hattam, Labor Visions and State Power, William E. Forbath, Law and the Shaping of the American Labor Movement (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1991), 168-69; Tomlins, The State and the Unions; David Montgomery, Beyond Equality: Labor and the Radical Republicans (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1967), 326; Theda Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers: The Political Origins of Social Policy in the United States (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap, 1992), 226-29.
64. Hattam, Labor Visions and State Power, William E. Forbath, Law and the Shaping of the American Labor Movement (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1991), 168-69; Tomlins, The State and the Unions; David Montgomery, Beyond Equality: Labor and the Radical Republicans (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1967), 326; Theda Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers: The Political Origins of Social Policy in the United States (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap, 1992), 226-29.
65. Hattam, Labor Visions and State Power, William E. Forbath, Law and the Shaping of the American Labor Movement (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1991), 168-69; Tomlins, The State and the Unions; David Montgomery, Beyond Equality: Labor and the Radical Republicans (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1967), 326; Theda Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers: The Political Origins of Social Policy in the United States (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap, 1992), 226-29.
66. For perspectives on the independent judiciary as an explanation of U.S. labor and social policy conservatism, see George Lovell, "The Ambiguities of Labor's Legislative Reforms in New York State in the Late Nineteenth Century," and Victoria Hattam, "Reply to Lovell: Politics of Commitment or Calculation?" Studies in American Political Development 8 (1994):81-110; Mevlin I. Urofsky, "State Courts and Protective Legislation during the Progressive Era: A Reevaluation," Journal of American History 72 (1985):63-91.
67. For perspectives on the independent judiciary as an explanation of U.S. labor and social policy conservatism, see George Lovell, "The Ambiguities of Labor's Legislative Reforms in New York State in the Late Nineteenth Century," and Victoria Hattam, "Reply to Lovell: Politics of Commitment or Calculation?" Studies in American Political Development 8 (1994):81-110; Mevlin I. Urofsky, "State Courts and Protective Legislation during the Progressive Era: A Reevaluation," Journal of American History 72 (1985):63-91.
68. For perspectives on the independent judiciary as an explanation of U.S. labor and social policy conservatism, see George Lovell, "The Ambiguities of Labor's Legislative Reforms in New York State in the Late Nineteenth Century," and Victoria Hattam, "Reply to Lovell: Politics of Commitment or Calculation?" Studies in American Political Development 8 (1994):81-110; Mevlin I. Urofsky, "State Courts and Protective Legislation during the Progressive Era: A Reevaluation," Journal of American History 72 (1985):63-91.
69. . U.S. Senate Committee on Education and Labor, Report of the Committee of the Senate on the Relations Between Labor and Capital (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1885), 1:297; U.S. House of Representatives, Hearings on Hours of Labor for Workmen, 1990, quoted in Kaufman, ed., The Samuel Gompers Papers 5:227-28.
70. . U.S. Senate Committee on Education and Labor, Report of the Committee of the Senate on the Relations Between Labor and Capital (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1885), 1:297; U.S. House of Representatives, Hearings on Hours of Labor for Workmen, 1990, quoted in Kaufman, ed., The Samuel Gompers Papers 5:227-28.
71. The number of laws that we can not secure the enactment of under the plea of the legislators and Congressmen that it would be unconstitutional is marvelous, and the few laws that we do secure after years and years of agitation are declared unconstitutional ... it ... simply makes men who usually look on the bright side ... become pessimistic (Gompers, in U.S. Senate, Report of the Chicago Strike of June-July, 1894 by the United States Strike Commission, 53 Cong., 2nd sess., Ex Doc. 7 [Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1895] 204
72. Stephen B. Wood, Constitutional Politics in the Progressive Era: Child Labor and the Law (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1968);
73. Walter Trattner, Crusade for the Children: A History of the National Child Labor Committee and Child Labor Reform in America (Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 1970); Hammer v. Dagenhart et al. 247 U.S. 251 (June 3, 1918).
74. I do not claim that federal structures per se inherently impede redistributive policies or protective labor legislation. The argument here only pertains to American federalism Many political scientists identify its federal system as a key to America's unique politics and public policy: Theodore J. Lowi, "Why is There No Socialism in the United States? A Federal Analysis," in The Costs of Federalism, eds. Robert T. Golembiewski and Aaron Wildavsky (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Press, 1984), 37-53; Robert Salisbury, "Why No Corporatism in America?," in Trends Toward Corporatist Intermediation, eds. Phillippe Schmitter and Gerhard Lembruch (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1979); Morton Grodzins, The American System: A New View of Government in the United States (Chicago: Rand-McNally, 1966), 254-260; Grant McConnell, Private Power and American Democracy, (New York: Alfred Knopf, 1966), 178; James L. Sundquist, "A Comparison of Policy-Making Capacity in the United Sates and Five European Countries: The Case of Population Distribution," in Population Policy Analysis, eds. Michael E. Kraft and Mark Schneider (Lexington, Mass.: Lexington Books, 1978); David Brian Robertson and Dennis R. Judd, The Development of American Public Policy: The Structure of Policy Restraint (Glenview and Boston: Scott, Foresman/Little, Brown, 1989).
75. I do not claim that federal structures per se inherently impede redistributive policies or protective labor legislation. The argument here only pertains to American federalism Many political scientists identify its federal system as a key to America's unique politics and public policy: Theodore J. Lowi, "Why is There No Socialism in the United States? A Federal Analysis," in The Costs of Federalism, eds. Robert T. Golembiewski and Aaron Wildavsky (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Press, 1984), 37-53; Robert Salisbury, "Why No Corporatism in America?," in Trends Toward Corporatist Intermediation, eds. Phillippe Schmitter and Gerhard Lembruch (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1979); Morton Grodzins, The American System: A New View of Government in the United States (Chicago: Rand-McNally, 1966), 254-260; Grant McConnell, Private Power and American Democracy, (New York: Alfred Knopf, 1966), 178; James L. Sundquist, "A Comparison of Policy-Making Capacity in the United Sates and Five European Countries: The Case of Population Distribution," in Population Policy Analysis, eds. Michael E. Kraft and Mark Schneider (Lexington, Mass.: Lexington Books, 1978); David Brian Robertson and Dennis R. Judd, The Development of American Public Policy: The Structure of Policy Restraint (Glenview and Boston: Scott, Foresman/Little, Brown, 1989).
76. I do not claim that federal structures per se inherently impede redistributive policies or protective labor legislation. The argument here only pertains to American federalism Many political scientists identify its federal system as a key to America's unique politics and public policy: Theodore J. Lowi, "Why is There No Socialism in the United States? A Federal Analysis," in The Costs of Federalism, eds. Robert T. Golembiewski and Aaron Wildavsky (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Press, 1984), 37-53; Robert Salisbury, "Why No Corporatism in America?," in Trends Toward Corporatist Intermediation, eds. Phillippe Schmitter and Gerhard Lembruch (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1979); Morton Grodzins, The American System: A New View of Government in the United States (Chicago: Rand-McNally, 1966), 254-260; Grant McConnell, Private Power and American Democracy, (New York: Alfred Knopf, 1966), 178; James L. Sundquist, "A Comparison of Policy-Making Capacity in the United Sates and Five European Countries: The Case of Population Distribution," in Population Policy Analysis, eds. Michael E. Kraft and Mark Schneider (Lexington, Mass.: Lexington Books, 1978); David Brian Robertson and Dennis R. Judd, The Development of American Public Policy: The Structure of Policy Restraint (Glenview and Boston: Scott, Foresman/Little, Brown, 1989).
77. I do not claim that federal structures per se inherently impede redistributive policies or protective labor legislation. The argument here only pertains to American federalism Many political scientists identify its federal system as a key to America's unique politics and public policy: Theodore J. Lowi, "Why is There No Socialism in the United States? A Federal Analysis," in The Costs of Federalism, eds. Robert T. Golembiewski and Aaron Wildavsky (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Press, 1984), 37-53; Robert Salisbury, "Why No Corporatism in America?," in Trends Toward Corporatist Intermediation, eds. Phillippe Schmitter and Gerhard Lembruch (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1979); Morton Grodzins, The American System: A New View of Government in the United States (Chicago: Rand-McNally, 1966), 254-260; Grant McConnell, Private Power and American Democracy, (New York: Alfred Knopf, 1966), 178; James L. Sundquist, "A Comparison of Policy-Making Capacity in the United Sates and Five European Countries: The Case of Population Distribution," in Population Policy Analysis, eds. Michael E. Kraft and Mark Schneider (Lexington, Mass.: Lexington Books, 1978); David Brian Robertson and Dennis R. Judd, The Development of American Public Policy: The Structure of Policy Restraint (Glenview and Boston: Scott, Foresman/Little, Brown, 1989).
78. I do not claim that federal structures per se inherently impede redistributive policies or protective labor legislation. The argument here only pertains to American federalism Many political scientists identify its federal system as a key to America's unique politics and public policy: Theodore J. Lowi, "Why is There No Socialism in the United States? A Federal Analysis," in The Costs of Federalism, eds. Robert T. Golembiewski and Aaron Wildavsky (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Press, 1984), 37-53; Robert Salisbury, "Why No Corporatism in America?," in Trends Toward Corporatist Intermediation, eds. Phillippe Schmitter and Gerhard Lembruch (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1979); Morton Grodzins, The American System: A New View of Government in the United States (Chicago: Rand-McNally, 1966), 254-260; Grant McConnell, Private Power and American Democracy, (New York: Alfred Knopf, 1966), 178; James L. Sundquist, "A Comparison of Policy-Making Capacity in the United Sates and Five European Countries: The Case of Population Distribution," in Population Policy Analysis, eds. Michael E. Kraft and Mark Schneider (Lexington, Mass.: Lexington Books, 1978); David Brian Robertson and Dennis R. Judd, The Development of American Public Policy: The Structure of Policy Restraint (Glenview and Boston: Scott, Foresman/Little, Brown, 1989).
79. I do not claim that federal structures per se inherently impede redistributive policies or protective labor legislation. The argument here only pertains to American federalism Many political scientists identify its federal system as a key to America's unique politics and public policy: Theodore J. Lowi, "Why is There No Socialism in the United States? A Federal Analysis," in The Costs of Federalism, eds. Robert T. Golembiewski and Aaron Wildavsky (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Press, 1984), 37-53; Robert Salisbury, "Why No Corporatism in America?," in Trends Toward Corporatist Intermediation, eds. Phillippe Schmitter and Gerhard Lembruch (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1979); Morton Grodzins, The American System: A New View of Government in the United States (Chicago: Rand-McNally, 1966), 254-260; Grant McConnell, Private Power and American Democracy, (New York: Alfred Knopf, 1966), 178; James L. Sundquist, "A Comparison of Policy-Making Capacity in the United Sates and Five European Countries: The Case of Population Distribution," in Population Policy Analysis, eds. Michael E. Kraft and Mark Schneider (Lexington, Mass.: Lexington Books, 1978); David Brian Robertson and Dennis R. Judd, The Development of American Public Policy: The Structure of Policy Restraint (Glenview and Boston: Scott, Foresman/Little, Brown, 1989).
80. On interstate competition in the Progressive era, see David A. Moss, Socializing Security: Progressive Era-Economists and the Origins of American Social Policy (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1996); William Graebner, "Federalism in the Progressive Era: A Structural Interpretation of Reform," Journal of American History 64 (1977):351-77; David Brian Robertson, "The Bias of American Federalism: The Limits of Welfare State Development in the Progressive Era," Journal of Policy History 1 (1989);261-91. For more contemporary perspectives, see Dennis O. Grady, "State Economic Development Incentives: Why Do States Compete?" State and Local Government Review 19 (1987):86-94; Daphne A. Kenyon, Interjurisdictional Tax and Policy Competition: Good or Bad for the Federal System? (Washington, D.C.: Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations, 1991); Daphne A. Kenyon and John Kincaid, eds. Competition Among State and Local Governments: Efficiency and Equity in American Federalism (Washington, D.C.: Urban Institute Press, 1991).
81. On interstate competition in the Progressive era, see David A. Moss, Socializing Security: Progressive Era-Economists and the Origins of American Social Policy (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1996); William Graebner, "Federalism in the Progressive Era: A Structural Interpretation of Reform," Journal of American History 64 (1977):351-77; David Brian Robertson, "The Bias of American Federalism: The Limits of Welfare State Development in the Progressive Era," Journal of Policy History 1 (1989);261-91. For more contemporary perspectives, see Dennis O. Grady, "State Economic Development Incentives: Why Do States Compete?" State and Local Government Review 19 (1987):86-94; Daphne A. Kenyon, Interjurisdictional Tax and Policy Competition: Good or Bad for the Federal System? (Washington, D.C.: Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations, 1991); Daphne A. Kenyon and John Kincaid, eds. Competition Among State and Local Governments: Efficiency and Equity in American Federalism (Washington, D.C.: Urban Institute Press, 1991).
82. On interstate competition in the Progressive era, see David A. Moss, Socializing Security: Progressive Era-Economists and the Origins of American Social Policy (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1996); William Graebner, "Federalism in the Progressive Era: A Structural Interpretation of Reform," Journal of American History 64 (1977):351-77; David Brian Robertson, "The Bias of American Federalism: The Limits of Welfare State Development in the Progressive Era," Journal of Policy History 1 (1989);261-91. For more contemporary perspectives, see Dennis O. Grady, "State Economic Development Incentives: Why Do States Compete?" State and Local Government Review 19 (1987):86-94; Daphne A. Kenyon, Interjurisdictional Tax and Policy Competition: Good or Bad for the Federal System? (Washington, D.C.: Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations, 1991); Daphne A. Kenyon and John Kincaid, eds. Competition Among State and Local Governments: Efficiency and Equity in American Federalism (Washington, D.C.: Urban Institute Press, 1991).
83. On interstate competition in the Progressive era, see David A. Moss, Socializing Security: Progressive Era-Economists and the Origins of American Social Policy (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1996); William Graebner, "Federalism in the Progressive Era: A Structural Interpretation of Reform," Journal of American History 64 (1977):351-77; David Brian Robertson, "The Bias of American Federalism: The Limits of Welfare State Development in the Progressive Era," Journal of Policy History 1 (1989);261-91. For more contemporary perspectives, see Dennis O. Grady, "State Economic Development Incentives: Why Do States Compete?" State and Local Government Review 19 (1987):86-94; Daphne A. Kenyon, Interjurisdictional Tax and Policy Competition: Good or Bad for the Federal System? (Washington, D.C.: Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations, 1991); Daphne A. Kenyon and John Kincaid, eds. Competition Among State and Local Governments: Efficiency and Equity in American Federalism (Washington, D.C.: Urban Institute Press, 1991).
84. On interstate competition in the Progressive era, see David A. Moss, Socializing Security: Progressive Era-Economists and the Origins of American Social Policy (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1996); William Graebner, "Federalism in the Progressive Era: A Structural Interpretation of Reform," Journal of American History 64 (1977):351-77; David Brian Robertson, "The Bias of American Federalism: The Limits of Welfare State Development in the Progressive Era," Journal of Policy History 1 (1989);261-91. For more contemporary perspectives, see Dennis O. Grady, "State Economic Development Incentives: Why Do States Compete?" State and Local Government Review 19 (1987):86-94; Daphne A. Kenyon, Interjurisdictional Tax and Policy Competition: Good or Bad for the Federal System? (Washington, D.C.: Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations, 1991); Daphne A. Kenyon and John Kincaid, eds. Competition Among State and Local Governments: Efficiency and Equity in American Federalism (Washington, D.C.: Urban Institute Press, 1991).
85. On interstate competition in the Progressive era, see David A. Moss, Socializing Security: Progressive Era-Economists and the Origins of American Social Policy (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1996); William Graebner, "Federalism in the Progressive Era: A Structural Interpretation of Reform," Journal of American History 64 (1977):351-77; David Brian Robertson, "The Bias of American Federalism: The Limits of Welfare State Development in the Progressive Era," Journal of Policy History 1 (1989);261-91. For more contemporary perspectives, see Dennis O. Grady, "State Economic Development Incentives: Why Do States Compete?" State and Local Government Review 19 (1987):86-94; Daphne A. Kenyon, Interjurisdictional Tax and Policy Competition: Good or Bad for the Federal System? (Washington, D.C.: Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations, 1991); Daphne A. Kenyon and John Kincaid, eds. Competition Among State and Local Governments: Efficiency and Equity in American Federalism (Washington, D.C.: Urban Institute Press, 1991).
86. This case was made, for example, in United States Industrial Commission, Final Report (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1902), 775,
87. and later by Robert H. Jackson (U.S. Department of Justice) , in Senate Committee on Education and Labor and House Committee on Labor, Joint Hearings on Fair Labor Standards Act of 1937 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1937), 6-7.
88. Louis Brandeis, dissent in Liggett Co. v. Lee, 288 U.S. 517 (1933).
89. F.B. Gordon, "Georgia's Tempting Invitation to Mill-man and Immigrant," American Industries 3 (1904):13; see also William Allen White, "What's the Matter with Kansas?" Emporia Gazette, August 15, 1896; Florence Kelley, "The Federal Government and the Working Children," Annals 27 (1906):289-92. The staff of the U.S. Commission on Industrial Relations was preparing extensive and comprehensive research on the problem in 1914, but disagreement between the Commission members and the research chief terminated much of this research in early 1915; see Alexander M. Daly, "Preliminary Report," in Reports of the United States Commission on Industrial Relations, 1912-1915, National Archives Microfilm Publication T4, Roll 13, U.S. National Archives, College Park.
90. F.B. Gordon, "Georgia's Tempting Invitation to Mill-man and Immigrant," American Industries 3 (1904):13; see also William Allen White, "What's the Matter with Kansas?" Emporia Gazette, August 15, 1896; Florence Kelley, "The Federal Government and the Working Children," Annals 27 (1906):289-92. The staff of the U.S. Commission on Industrial Relations was preparing extensive and comprehensive research on the problem in 1914, but disagreement between the Commission members and the research chief terminated much of this research in early 1915; see Alexander M. Daly, "Preliminary Report," in Reports of the United States Commission on Industrial Relations, 1912-1915, National Archives Microfilm Publication T4, Roll 13, U.S. National Archives, College Park.
91. F.B. Gordon, "Georgia's Tempting Invitation to Mill-man and Immigrant," American Industries 3 (1904):13; see also William Allen White, "What's the Matter with Kansas?" Emporia Gazette, August 15, 1896; Florence Kelley, "The Federal Government and the Working Children," Annals 27 (1906):289-92. The staff of the U.S. Commission on Industrial Relations was preparing extensive and comprehensive research on the problem in 1914, but disagreement between the Commission members and the research chief terminated much of this research in early 1915; see Alexander M. Daly, "Preliminary Report," in Reports of the United States Commission on Industrial Relations, 1912-1915, National Archives Microfilm Publication T4, Roll 13, U.S. National Archives, College Park.
92. F.B. Gordon, "Georgia's Tempting Invitation to Mill-man and Immigrant," American Industries 3 (1904):13; see also William Allen White, "What's the Matter with Kansas?" Emporia Gazette, August 15, 1896; Florence Kelley, "The Federal Government and the Working Children," Annals 27 (1906):289-92. The staff of the U.S. Commission on Industrial Relations was preparing extensive and comprehensive research on the problem in 1914, but disagreement between the Commission members and the research chief terminated much of this research in early 1915; see Alexander M. Daly, "Preliminary Report," in Reports of the United States Commission on Industrial Relations, 1912-1915, National Archives Microfilm Publication T4, Roll 13, U.S. National Archives, College Park.
93. J. Lynn Barnard, Factory Legislation in Pennsylvania: Its History and Administration (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, 1907), 18; Clary M. Beyer, History of Labor Legislation for Women in Three States, U.S. Department of Labor, Women's Bureau, Bulletin 66 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1929), 18-33; Fred Rogers Fairchild, The Factory Legislation of the State of New York (New York: American Economic Association, 1905), 45.
94. J. Lynn Barnard, Factory Legislation in Pennsylvania: Its History and Administration (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, 1907), 18; Clary M. Beyer, History of Labor Legislation for Women in Three States, U.S. Department of Labor, Women's Bureau, Bulletin 66 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1929), 18-33; Fred Rogers Fairchild, The Factory Legislation of the State of New York (New York: American Economic Association, 1905), 45.
95. J. Lynn Barnard, Factory Legislation in Pennsylvania: Its History and Administration (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, 1907), 18; Clary M. Beyer, History of Labor Legislation for Women in Three States, U.S. Department of Labor, Women's Bureau, Bulletin 66 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1929), 18-33; Fred Rogers Fairchild, The Factory Legislation of the State of New York (New York: American Economic Association, 1905), 45.
96. Montgomery, Beyond Equality, 312; Testimony of George Blair, in Senate Committee on Education and Labor, Relations Between Labor and Capital, 2:40 (see also testimony of George M. Weston 1:1059); Marion Cotter Cahill, Shorter Hours: A Study of the Movement Since the Civil War (New York: Columbia University, 1932), 24-25.
97. Montgomery, Beyond Equality, 312; Testimony of George Blair, in Senate Committee on Education and Labor, Relations Between Labor and Capital, 2:40 (see also testimony of George M. Weston 1:1059); Marion Cotter Cahill, Shorter Hours: A Study of the Movement Since the Civil War (New York: Columbia University, 1932), 24-25.
98. Montgomery, Beyond Equality, 312; Testimony of George Blair, in Senate Committee on Education and Labor, Relations Between Labor and Capital, 2:40 (see also testimony of George M. Weston 1:1059); Marion Cotter Cahill, Shorter Hours: A Study of the Movement Since the Civil War (New York: Columbia University, 1932), 24-25.
99. Susan Lehrer, Origins of Protective Labor Legislation for Women, 1905-1925 (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1987), 209-10.
100. U.S. Industrial Commission, Final Report, 922; Congressional Record, April 2, 1908, 4484; House Committee on Labor, Child-Labor Bill, Report No. 1400, 63rd Cong., 3rd sess. (February 13, 1915), 7-8; Elizabeth Davidson, Child Labor Legislation in the Southern Textile States (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1939), 55.
101. U.S. Industrial Commission, Final Report, 922; Congressional Record, April 2, 1908, 4484; House Committee on Labor, Child-Labor Bill, Report No. 1400, 63rd Cong., 3rd sess. (February 13, 1915), 7-8; Elizabeth Davidson, Child Labor Legislation in the Southern Textile States (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1939), 55.
102. U.S. Industrial Commission, Final Report, 922; Congressional Record, April 2, 1908, 4484; House Committee on Labor, Child-Labor Bill, Report No. 1400, 63rd Cong., 3rd sess. (February 13, 1915), 7-8; Elizabeth Davidson, Child Labor Legislation in the Southern Textile States (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1939), 55.
103. U.S. Industrial Commission, Final Report, 922; Congressional Record, April 2, 1908, 4484; House Committee on Labor, Child-Labor Bill, Report No. 1400, 63rd Cong., 3rd sess. (February 13, 1915), 7-8; Elizabeth Davidson, Child Labor Legislation in the Southern Textile States (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1939), 55.
104. Elizabeth Brandeis, "Labor Legislation," in John R. Commons et al., History of Labor Legislation in the United States (New York: Macmillan, 1935), 3:509; Vivian Hart, Bound by Our Constitution: Women, Workers, and the Minimum Wage (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994), 70.
105. Elizabeth Brandeis, "Labor Legislation," in John R. Commons et al., History of Labor Legislation in the United States (New York: Macmillan, 1935), 3:509; Vivian Hart, Bound by Our Constitution: Women, Workers, and the Minimum Wage (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994), 70.
106. Thomas I. Parkinson, "Problems and Progress of Workmen's Compensation Legislation, American Labor Legislation Review 1 (1911):55-71; Harry Weiss, "Employers' Liability and Workmen's Compensation," in Commons et al., History of Labor Legislation in the United States, 3:600.
107. Thomas I. Parkinson, "Problems and Progress of Workmen's Compensation Legislation, American Labor Legislation Review 1 (1911):55-71; Harry Weiss, "Employers' Liability and Workmen's Compensation," in Commons et al., History of Labor Legislation in the United States, 3:600.
108. Robertson, "The Bias of American Federalism."
109. "Business done in such States [with protective labor legislation for women] may be at an economic disadvantage when compared with States which have no such regulations", Hammer v. Dagenhart et al. 247 U.S. 251 (June 3, 1918).
110. Cahill, "Shorter Hours, 68-77; AFL Proceedings, 1898, 22, and 1899, 12. On the tenement house cigar case, see Gompers, Seventy Years of Life and Labour, 1:183-98; Forbath, Law and the Shaping of the American Labor Movement (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1991); Hattom, Labor Visions and State Power, 159-61; Kaufman, ed., The Samuel Gompers Papers, 1:169-70.
111. Cahill, "Shorter Hours, 68-77; AFL Proceedings, 1898, 22, and 1899, 12. On the tenement house cigar case, see Gompers, Seventy Years of Life and Labour, 1:183-98; Forbath, Law and the Shaping of the American Labor Movement (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1991); Hattom, Labor Visions and State Power, 159-61; Kaufman, ed., The Samuel Gompers Papers, 1:169-70.
112. Cahill, "Shorter Hours, 68-77; AFL Proceedings, 1898, 22, and 1899, 12. On the tenement house cigar case, see Gompers, Seventy Years of Life and Labour, 1:183-98; Forbath, Law and the Shaping of the American Labor Movement (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1991); Hattom, Labor Visions and State Power, 159-61; Kaufman, ed., The Samuel Gompers Papers, 1:169-70.
113. Cahill, "Shorter Hours, 68-77; AFL Proceedings, 1898, 22, and 1899, 12. On the tenement house cigar case, see Gompers, Seventy Years of Life and Labour, 1:183-98; Forbath, Law and the Shaping of the American Labor Movement (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1991); Hattom, Labor Visions and State Power, 159-61; Kaufman, ed., The Samuel Gompers Papers, 1:169-70.
114. Cahill, "Shorter Hours, 68-77; AFL Proceedings, 1898, 22, and 1899, 12. On the tenement house cigar case, see Gompers, Seventy Years of Life and Labour, 1:183-98; Forbath, Law and the Shaping of the American Labor Movement (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1991); Hattom, Labor Visions and State Power, 159-61; Kaufman, ed., The Samuel Gompers Papers, 1:169-70.
115. Cahill, "Shorter Hours, 68-77; AFL Proceedings, 1898, 22, and 1899, 12. On the tenement house cigar case, see Gompers, Seventy Years of Life and Labour, 1:183-98; Forbath, Law and the Shaping of the American Labor Movement (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1991); Hattom, Labor Visions and State Power, 159-61; Kaufman, ed., The Samuel Gompers Papers, 1:169-70.
116. James Duncan, "The Law's Delay," American Federationist 7 (1900):270; AFL Proceedings, 1902, 180, and 1905, 32.
117. James Duncan, "The Law's Delay," American Federationist 7 (1900):270; AFL Proceedings, 1902, 180, and 1905, 32.
118. H.A. Clegg, Alan Fox, and A.F. Thompson, A History of British Trade Unions Since 1889 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1964), 161-68; Klaus Saul, "Repression or Integration? The State, Trade Unions, and Industrial Disputes in Imperial Germany"; and Geoffrey Alderman, "The National Free Labour Association: Working-Class Opposition to New Unionism in Britain," in Mommsen and Husung, eds., The Development of Trade Unionism in Great Britain and Germany, 1880-1914, 302-10, 338-56; W.L. Guttsman, The German Social Democratic Party. From Ghetto to Government (London: Allen and Unwin, 1981), 90.
119. H.A. Clegg, Alan Fox, and A.F. Thompson, A History of British Trade Unions Since 1889 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1964), 161-68; Klaus Saul, "Repression or Integration? The State, Trade Unions, and Industrial Disputes in Imperial Germany"; and Geoffrey Alderman, "The National Free Labour Association: Working-Class Opposition to New Unionism in Britain," in Mommsen and Husung, eds., The Development of Trade Unionism in Great Britain and Germany, 1880-1914, 302-10, 338-56; W.L. Guttsman, The German Social Democratic Party. From Ghetto to Government (London: Allen and Unwin, 1981), 90.
120. H.A. Clegg, Alan Fox, and A.F. Thompson, A History of British Trade Unions Since 1889 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1964), 161-68; Klaus Saul, "Repression or Integration? The State, Trade Unions, and Industrial Disputes in Imperial Germany"; and Geoffrey Alderman, "The National Free Labour Association: Working-Class Opposition to New Unionism in Britain," in Mommsen and Husung, eds., The Development of Trade Unionism in Great Britain and Germany, 1880-1914, 302-10, 338-56; W.L. Guttsman, The German Social Democratic Party. From Ghetto to Government (London: Allen and Unwin, 1981), 90.
121. H.A. Clegg, Alan Fox, and A.F. Thompson, A History of British Trade Unions Since 1889 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1964), 161-68; Klaus Saul, "Repression or Integration? The State, Trade Unions, and Industrial Disputes in Imperial Germany"; and Geoffrey Alderman, "The National Free Labour Association: Working-Class Opposition to New Unionism in Britain," in Mommsen and Husung, eds., The Development of Trade Unionism in Great Britain and Germany, 1880-1914, 302-10, 338-56; W.L. Guttsman, The German Social Democratic Party. From Ghetto to Government (London: Allen and Unwin, 1981), 90.
122. Voss, "Disposition is Not Action," and The Making of American Exceptionalism.
123. Sanford M. Jacoby, "American Exceptionalism Revisited: The Importance of Management," in Masters to Managers: Historical Perspectives on American Employers, ed. Sanford M. Jacoby (New York: Columbia University Press, 1991), 173-200: See also Gerald Fnedman, "The State and the Making of the Working Class, 1880-1914," Theory and Society 17 (1988):403-30 David Montgomery, "New Tendencies in Union Struggles and Strategies in Europe and the United States 1916-1922," in Work, Community and Power: The Experience of Labor in Europe and America, 1900-1925, eds. James E. Cronin and Carmen Sirianni (Philadeaphia: Temple University Press, 1983), 88-116; Michael Goldfield, The Decline of Organized Labor In The United States (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987).
124. Sanford M. Jacoby, "American Exceptionalism Revisited: The Importance of Management," in Masters to Managers: Historical Perspectives on American Employers, ed. Sanford M. Jacoby (New York: Columbia University Press, 1991), 173-200: See also Gerald Fnedman, "The State and the Making of the Working Class, 1880-1914," Theory and Society 17 (1988):403-30 David Montgomery, "New Tendencies in Union Struggles and Strategies in Europe and the United States 1916-1922," in Work, Community and Power: The Experience of Labor in Europe and America, 1900-1925, eds. James E. Cronin and Carmen Sirianni (Philadeaphia: Temple University Press, 1983), 88-116; Michael Goldfield, The Decline of Organized Labor In The United States (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987).
125. Sanford M. Jacoby, "American Exceptionalism Revisited: The Importance of Management," in Masters to Managers: Historical Perspectives on American Employers, ed. Sanford M. Jacoby (New York: Columbia University Press, 1991), 173-200: See also Gerald Fnedman, "The State and the Making of the Working Class, 1880-1914," Theory and Society 17 (1988):403-30 David Montgomery, "New Tendencies in Union Struggles and Strategies in Europe and the United States 1916-1922," in Work, Community and Power: The Experience of Labor in Europe and America, 1900-1925, eds. James E. Cronin and Carmen Sirianni (Philadeaphia: Temple University Press, 1983), 88-116; Michael Goldfield, The Decline of Organized Labor In The United States (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987).
126. Sanford M. Jacoby, "American Exceptionalism Revisited: The Importance of Management," in Masters to Managers: Historical Perspectives on American Employers, ed. Sanford M. Jacoby (New York: Columbia University Press, 1991), 173-200: See also Gerald Fnedman, "The State and the Making of the Working Class, 1880-1914," Theory and Society 17 (1988):403-30 David Montgomery, "New Tendencies in Union Struggles and Strategies in Europe and the United States 1916-1922," in Work, Community and Power: The Experience of Labor in Europe and America, 1900-1925, eds. James E. Cronin and Carmen Sirianni (Philadeaphia: Temple University Press, 1983), 88-116; Michael Goldfield, The Decline of Organized Labor In The United States (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987).
127. Jeffrey Haydu, "Trade Agreement vs. Open Shop: Employers' Choices before WWI," Industrial Relations 28 (1989):159-73; see also Jacoby, "American Exceptionalism Revisited," 178.
128. Jeffrey Haydu, "Trade Agreement vs. Open Shop: Employers' Choices before WWI," Industrial Relations 28 (1989):159-73; see also Jacoby, "American Exceptionalism Revisited," 178.
129. U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on the Judiciary, Hearings on Trust Legislation (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1914), 1197-217; Henry R. Seager and Charles A. Gulick, Trust and Corporation Problems (New Tork: Harper and Brother, 1929), 552-627; Hans B. Thorelli, The Federal Antitrust Policy: Origination of an American Tradition (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1955) 34; see also Morton J. Keller, "The Pluralist State: American Economic Regulation in Comparative Perspective, 1900-1930," in Regulation in Perspective: Historical Essays, ed. Thomas K. McCraw (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1981), 62-64; Martin J. Sklar, The Corporate Reconstruction of American Capitalism, 1890-1916: The Market, The Law, and Politics (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988), 154-56. For a more formal presentation of collective action among capitalists, see John R. Bowman, Capitalist Collective Action: Competition, Cooperation, and Conflict in the Coal Industry (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989) 1-31.
130. U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on the Judiciary, Hearings on Trust Legislation (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1914), 1197-217; Henry R. Seager and Charles A. Gulick, Trust and Corporation Problems (New Tork: Harper and Brother, 1929), 552-627; Hans B. Thorelli, The Federal Antitrust Policy: Origination of an American Tradition (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1955) 34; see also Morton J. Keller, "The Pluralist State: American Economic Regulation in Comparative Perspective, 1900-1930," in Regulation in Perspective: Historical Essays, ed. Thomas K. McCraw (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1981), 62-64; Martin J. Sklar, The Corporate Reconstruction of American Capitalism, 1890-1916: The Market, The Law, and Politics (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988), 154-56. For a more formal presentation of collective action among capitalists, see John R. Bowman, Capitalist Collective Action: Competition, Cooperation, and Conflict in the Coal Industry (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989) 1-31.
131. U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on the Judiciary, Hearings on Trust Legislation (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1914), 1197-217; Henry R. Seager and Charles A. Gulick, Trust and Corporation Problems (New Tork: Harper and Brother, 1929), 552-627; Hans B. Thorelli, The Federal Antitrust Policy: Origination of an American Tradition (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1955) 34; see also Morton J. Keller, "The Pluralist State: American Economic Regulation in Comparative Perspective, 1900-1930," in Regulation in Perspective: Historical Essays, ed. Thomas K. McCraw (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1981), 62-64; Martin J. Sklar, The Corporate Reconstruction of American Capitalism, 1890-1916: The Market, The Law, and Politics (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988), 154-56. For a more formal presentation of collective action among capitalists, see John R. Bowman, Capitalist Collective Action: Competition, Cooperation, and Conflict in the Coal Industry (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989) 1-31.
132. U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on the Judiciary, Hearings on Trust Legislation (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1914), 1197-217; Henry R. Seager and Charles A. Gulick, Trust and Corporation Problems (New Tork: Harper and Brother, 1929), 552-627; Hans B. Thorelli, The Federal Antitrust Policy: Origination of an American Tradition (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1955) 34; see also Morton J. Keller, "The Pluralist State: American Economic Regulation in Comparative Perspective, 1900-1930," in Regulation in Perspective: Historical Essays, ed. Thomas K. McCraw (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1981), 62-64; Martin J. Sklar, The Corporate Reconstruction of American Capitalism, 1890-1916: The Market, The Law, and Politics (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988), 154-56. For a more formal presentation of collective action among capitalists, see John R. Bowman, Capitalist Collective Action: Competition, Cooperation, and Conflict in the Coal Industry (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989) 1-31.
133. U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on the Judiciary, Hearings on Trust Legislation (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1914), 1197-217; Henry R. Seager and Charles A. Gulick, Trust and Corporation Problems (New Tork: Harper and Brother, 1929), 552-627; Hans B. Thorelli, The Federal Antitrust Policy: Origination of an American Tradition (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1955) 34; see also Morton J. Keller, "The Pluralist State: American Economic Regulation in Comparative Perspective, 1900-1930," in Regulation in Perspective: Historical Essays, ed. Thomas K. McCraw (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1981), 62-64; Martin J. Sklar, The Corporate Reconstruction of American Capitalism, 1890-1916: The Market, The Law, and Politics (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988), 154-56. For a more formal presentation of collective action among capitalists, see John R. Bowman, Capitalist Collective Action: Competition, Cooperation, and Conflict in the Coal Industry (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989) 1-31.
134. U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on the Judiciary, Hearings on Trust Legislation (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1914), 1197-217; Henry R. Seager and Charles A. Gulick, Trust and Corporation Problems (New Tork: Harper and Brother, 1929), 552-627; Hans B. Thorelli, The Federal Antitrust Policy: Origination of an American Tradition (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1955) 34; see also Morton J. Keller, "The Pluralist State: American Economic Regulation in Comparative Perspective, 1900-1930," in Regulation in Perspective: Historical Essays, ed. Thomas K. McCraw (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1981), 62-64; Martin J. Sklar, The Corporate Reconstruction of American Capitalism, 1890-1916: The Market, The Law, and Politics (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988), 154-56. For a more formal presentation of collective action among capitalists, see John R. Bowman, Capitalist Collective Action: Competition, Cooperation, and Conflict in the Coal Industry (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989) 1-31.
135. Keith Sisson, The Management of Collective Bargaining: An International Comparison (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1987), 136; Peter Swenson, "Bringing Capital Back In, or Social Democracy Reconsidered: Employer Power, Cross-Class Alliances, and Centralization of Industrial Relations in Denmark and Sweden," World Politics 43 (1991):513-44.
136. Keith Sisson, The Management of Collective Bargaining: An International Comparison (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1987), 136; Peter Swenson, "Bringing Capital Back In, or Social Democracy Reconsidered: Employer Power, Cross-Class Alliances, and Centralization of Industrial Relations in Denmark and Sweden," World Politics 43 (1991):513-44.
137. Bo Stråth, The Organization of Labour Markets: Modernity, Culture and Governance in Germany, Sweden, Britain, and Japan (London: Routledge, 1996), 36; Klaus Schönhoven, "Localism - Craft Union - Industrial Union: Organization Patterns in German Trade Unionism," in Mommsen and Husung, eds., The Development of Trade Unionism in Great Britain and Germany, 1880-1914, 227; Sisson, The Management of Collective Bargaining, 147.
138. Bo Stråth, The Organization of Labour Markets: Modernity, Culture and Governance in Germany, Sweden, Britain, and Japan (London: Routledge, 1996), 36; Klaus Schönhoven, "Localism -Craft Union - Industrial Union: Organization Patterns in German Trade Unionism," in Mommsen and Husung, eds., The Development of Trade Unionism in Great Britain and Germany, 1880-1914, 227; Sisson, The Management of Collective Bargaining, 147.
139. Bo Stråth, The Organization of Labour Markets: Modernity, Culture and Governance in Germany, Sweden, Britain, and Japan (London: Routledge, 1996), 36; Klaus Schönhoven, "Localism - Craft Union - Industrial Union: Organization Patterns in German Trade Unionism," in Mommsen and Husung, eds., The Development of Trade Unionism in Great Britain and Germany, 1880-1914, 227; Sisson, The Management of Collective Bargaining, 147.
140. James B. Jefferys, The Story of the Engineers, 1800-1945 (London: Johnson Reprint Company, 1970), 139-49; Eric Wigham, The Power to Manage: A History of the Engineering Employers' Federation (London: Macmillan, 1973) ; Sisson, The Management of Collective Bargaining, 165.
141. James B. Jefferys, The Story of the Engineers, 1800-1945 (London: Johnson Reprint Company, 1970), 139-49; Eric Wigham, The Power to Manage: A History of the Engineering Employers' Federation (London: Macmillan, 1973) ; Sisson, The Management of Collective Bargaining, 165.
142. James B. Jefferys, The Story of the Engineers, 1800-1945 (London: Johnson Reprint Company, 1970), 139-49; Eric Wigham, The Power to Manage: A History of the Engineering Employers' Federation (London: Macmillan, 1973) ; Sisson, The Management of Collective Bargaining, 165.
143. Sisson, The Management of Collective Bargaining, 138; Moses, Trade Unionism in Germany from Bismark to Hitler, 1:222-23; Gerald D. Feldman, Iron and Steel in the German Inflation, 1916-1923 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1977), 82-83.
144. Sisson, The Management of Collective Bargaining, 138; Moses, Trade Unionism in Germany from Bismark to Hitler, 1:222-23; Gerald D. Feldman, Iron and Steel in the German Inflation, 1916-1923 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1977), 82-83.
145. Sisson, The Management of Collective Bargaining, 138; Moses, Trade Unionism in Germany from Bismark to Hitler, 1:222-23; Gerald D. Feldman, Iron and Steel in the German Inflation, 1916-1923 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1977), 82-83.
146. Senate Committee on Education and Labor, Relations Between Labor and Capital, 1, 449; U.S. Commissioner of Labor, Regulation and Restriction of Output, 13, 178, 485-86; Clarence E. Bonnett, History of Employers' Associations in the United States (New York: Vantage Press, 1956), 299, 350-51; Montgomery, The Fall of the House of Labor, 159; David Brody, "Market Unionism in America: The Case of Coal," in In Labor's Cause: Main Themes on the History of the American Worker, ed. Brody (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 131-37.
147. Senate Committee on Education and Labor, Relations Between Labor and Capital, 1, 449; U.S. Commissioner of Labor, Regulation and Restriction of Output, 13, 178, 485-86; Clarence E. Bonnett, History of Employers' Associations in the United States (New York: Vantage Press, 1956), 299, 350-51; Montgomery, The Fall of the House of Labor, 159; David Brody, "Market Unionism in America: The Case of Coal," in In Labor's Cause: Main Themes on the History of the American Worker, ed. Brody (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 131-37.
148. Senate Committee on Education and Labor, Relations Between Labor and Capital, 1, 449; U.S. Commissioner of Labor, Regulation and Restriction of Output, 13, 178, 485-86; Clarence E. Bonnett, History of Employers' Associations in the United States (New York: Vantage Press, 1956), 299, 350-51; Montgomery, The Fall of the House of Labor, 159; David Brody, "Market Unionism in America: The Case of Coal," in In Labor's Cause: Main Themes on the History of the American Worker, ed. Brody (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 131-37.
149. Senate Committee on Education and Labor, Relations Between Labor and Capital, 1, 449; U.S. Commissioner of Labor, Regulation and Restriction of Output, 13, 178, 485-86; Clarence E. Bonnett, History of Employers' Associations in the United States (New York: Vantage Press, 1956), 299, 350-51; Montgomery, The Fall of the House of Labor, 159; David Brody, "Market Unionism in America: The Case of Coal," in In Labor's Cause: Main Themes on the History of the American Worker, ed. Brody (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 131-37.
150. Senate Committee on Education and Labor, Relations Between Labor and Capital, 1, 449; U.S. Commissioner of Labor, Regulation and Restriction of Output, 13, 178, 485-86; Clarence E. Bonnett, History of Employers' Associations in the United States (New York: Vantage Press, 1956), 299, 350-51; Montgomery, The Fall of the House of Labor, 159; David Brody, "Market Unionism in America: The Case of Coal," in In Labor's Cause: Main Themes on the History of the American Worker, ed. Brody (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 131-37.
151. U.S. Senate, Relations Between Labor and Capital, 1, 359; Daniel Robinson Ernst, "The Lawyers and the Labor Trust: A History of the American Anti-Boycott Association, 1902-1919," Ph.D. diss., Princeton University, 1989), 139-40.
152. U.S. Senate, Relations Between Labor and Capital, 1, 359; Daniel Robinson Ernst, "The Lawyers and the Labor Trust: A History of the American Anti-Boycott Association, 1902-1919," Ph.D. diss., Princeton University, 1989), 139-40.
153. Mark Perlman, The Machinists: A New Study in American Trade Unionism (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1916), 25-27; Montgomery, The Fall of the Labor, 261-69.
154. Mark Perlman, The Machinists: A New Study in American Trade Unionism (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1916), 25-27; Montgomery, The Fall of the Labor, 261-69.
155. Perlman, The Machinists, 25-27; Montgomery, The Fall of the House of Labor, 261-69. On the National Civic Federation, see Marguerite Green, The National Civic Federation and the American Labor Movement, 1900-1925 (Washington, D.C.: Catholic University of America Press, 1956); James Weinstein, The Corporate Ideal in the Liberal State, 1900-1918 (Boston: Beacon Press, 1968); Clarence E. Wunderlin, Jr., Visions of a Industrial Order: Social Science and Labor Theory in America's Progressive Era (New York: Columbia University Press, 1992).
156. Perlman, The Machinists, 25-27; Montgomery, The Fall of the House of Labor, 261-69. On the National Civic Federation, see Marguerite Green, The National Civic Federation and the American Labor Movement, 1900-1925 (Washington, D.C.: Catholic University of America Press, 1956); James Weinstein, The Corporate Ideal in the Liberal State, 1900-1918 (Boston: Beacon Press, 1968); Clarence E. Wunderlin, Jr., Visions of a Industrial Order: Social Science and Labor Theory in America's Progressive Era (New York: Columbia University Press, 1992).
157. Perlman, The Machinists, 25-27; Montgomery, The Fall of the House of Labor, 261-69. On the National Civic Federation, see Marguerite Green, The National Civic Federation and the American Labor Movement, 1900-1925 (Washington, D.C.: Catholic University of America Press, 1956); James Weinstein, The Corporate Ideal in the Liberal State, 1900-1918 (Boston: Beacon Press, 1968); Clarence E. Wunderlin, Jr., Visions of a Industrial Order: Social Science and Labor Theory in America's Progressive Era (New York: Columbia University Press, 1992).
158. Perlman, The Machinists, 25-27; Montgomery, The Fall of the House of Labor, 261-69. On the National Civic Federation, see Marguerite Green, The National Civic Federation and the American Labor Movement, 1900-1925 (Washington, D.C.: Catholic University of America Press, 1956); James Weinstein, The Corporate Ideal in the Liberal State, 1900-1918 (Boston: Beacon Press, 1968); Clarence E. Wunderlin, Jr., Visions of a Industrial Order: Social Science and Labor Theory in America's Progressive Era (New York: Columbia University Press, 1992).
159. Perlman, The Machinists, 25-27; Montgomery, The Fall of the House of Labor, 261-69. On the National Civic Federation, see Marguerite Green, The National Civic Federation and the American Labor Movement, 1900-1925 (Washington, D.C.: Catholic University of America Press, 1956); James Weinstein, The Corporate Ideal in the Liberal State, 1900-1918 (Boston: Beacon Press, 1968); Clarence E. Wunderlin, Jr., Visions of a Industrial Order: Social Science and Labor Theory in America's Progressive Era (New York: Columbia University Press, 1992).
160. J. Rogers Hollingsworth, "The Logic of Coordinating American Manufacture Sections," in Governance of the American Economy, eds. John L. Campbell, J. Rogers Hollingsworth, and Leon N. Lindberg (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 67.
161. Christopher Grandy, New Jersey and the Fiscal Origins of Modern American Corporation Law (New York: Garland, 1993), 56; Harry N. Scheiber, "Federalism and the American Economic Order, 1789-1910," Law and Sociaty Review 10 (1975), 57-118; Henry N. Butler, "Nineteenth Century Jurisdictional Competition in the Granting of Corporate Privileges," Journal of Legal Studies 14 (1985), 129-66; U.S. House of Representatives, Report on Joint Resolution Proposing an Amendment to the Constitution, 56th Cong., 1 sess., Report 1501 (May 15, 1900); Alton D. Adams, "State Control of Trusts," Political Science Quarterly 18 (1903):462-79; Seager and Gulick, Trust and Corporation Problems, 351-361; President Theodore Search, in Proceedings of the Annual Convention of the National Association of Manufacturers (hereafter, NAM Proceedings), 1901, 17-18.
162. Christopher Grandy, New Jersey and the Fiscal Origins of Modern American Corporation Law (New York: Garland, 1993), 56; Harry N. Scheiber, "Federalism and the American Economic Order, 1789-1910," Law and Sociaty Review 10 (1975), 57-118; Henry N. Butler, "Nineteenth Century Jurisdictional Competition in the Granting of Corporate Privileges," Journal of Legal Studies 14 (1985), 129-66; U.S. House of Representatives, Report on Joint Resolution Proposing an Amendment to the Constitution, 56th Cong., 1 sess., Report 1501 (May 15, 1900); Alton D. Adams, "State Control of Trusts," Political Science Quarterly 18 (1903):462-79; Seager and Gulick, Trust and Corporation Problems, 351-361; President Theodore Search, in Proceedings of the Annual Convention of the National Association of Manufacturers (hereafter, NAM Proceedings), 1901, 17-18.
163. Christopher Grandy, New Jersey and the Fiscal Origins of Modern American Corporation Law (New York: Garland, 1993), 56; Harry N. Scheiber, "Federalism and the American Economic Order, 1789-1910," Law and Sociaty Review 10 (1975), 57-118; Henry N. Butler, "Nineteenth Century Jurisdictional Competition in the Granting of Corporate Privileges," Journal of Legal Studies 14 (1985), 129-66; U.S. House of Representatives, Report on Joint Resolution Proposing an Amendment to the Constitution, 56th Cong., 1 sess., Report 1501 (May 15, 1900); Alton D. Adams, "State Control of Trusts," Political Science Quarterly 18 (1903):462-79; Seager and Gulick, Trust and Corporation Problems, 351-361; President Theodore Search, in Proceedings of the Annual Convention of the National Association of Manufacturers (hereafter, NAM Proceedings), 1901, 17-18.
164. Christopher Grandy, New Jersey and the Fiscal Origins of Modern American Corporation Law (New York: Garland, 1993), 56; Harry N. Scheiber, "Federalism and the American Economic Order, 1789-1910," Law and Sociaty Review 10 (1975), 57-118; Henry N. Butler, "Nineteenth Century Jurisdictional Competition in the Granting of Corporate Privileges," Journal of Legal Studies 14 (1985), 129-66; U.S. House of Representatives, Report on Joint Resolution Proposing an Amendment to the Constitution, 56th Cong., 1 sess., Report 1501 (May 15, 1900); Alton D. Adams, "State Control of Trusts," Political Science Quarterly 18 (1903):462-79; Seager and Gulick, Trust and Corporation Problems, 351-361; President Theodore Search, in Proceedings of the Annual Convention of the National Association of Manufacturers (hereafter, NAM Proceedings), 1901, 17-18.
165. Christopher Grandy, New Jersey and the Fiscal Origins of Modern American Corporation Law (New York: Garland, 1993), 56; Harry N. Scheiber, "Federalism and the American Economic Order, 1789-1910," Law and Sociaty Review 10 (1975), 57-118; Henry N. Butler, "Nineteenth Century Jurisdictional Competition in the Granting of Corporate Privileges," Journal of Legal Studies 14 (1985), 129-66; U.S. House of Representatives, Report on Joint Resolution Proposing an Amendment to the Constitution, 56th Cong., 1 sess., Report 1501 (May 15, 1900); Alton D. Adams, "State Control of Trusts," Political Science Quarterly 18 (1903):462-79; Seager and Gulick, Trust and Corporation Problems, 351-361; President Theodore Search, in Proceedings of the Annual Convention of the National Association of Manufacturers (hereafter, NAM Proceedings), 1901, 17-18.
166. Christopher Grandy, New Jersey and the Fiscal Origins of Modern American Corporation Law (New York: Garland, 1993), 56; Harry N. Scheiber, "Federalism and the American Economic Order, 1789-1910," Law and Sociaty Review 10 (1975), 57-118; Henry N. Butler, "Nineteenth Century Jurisdictional Competition in the Granting of Corporate Privileges," Journal of Legal Studies 14 (1985), 129-66; U.S. House of Representatives, Report on Joint Resolution Proposing an Amendment to the Constitution, 56th Cong., 1 sess., Report 1501 (May 15, 1900); Alton D. Adams, "State Control of Trusts," Political Science Quarterly 18 (1903):462-79; Seager and Gulick, Trust and Corporation Problems, 351-361; President Theodore Search, in Proceedings of the Annual Convention of the National Association of Manufacturers (hereafter, NAM Proceedings), 1901, 17-18.
167. Christopher Grandy, New Jersey and the Fiscal Origins of Modern American Corporation Law (New York: Garland, 1993), 56; Harry N. Scheiber, "Federalism and the American Economic Order, 1789-1910," Law and Sociaty Review 10 (1975), 57-118; Henry N. Butler, "Nineteenth Century Jurisdictional Competition in the Granting of Corporate Privileges," Journal of Legal Studies 14 (1985), 129-66; U.S. House of Representatives, Report on Joint Resolution Proposing an Amendment to the Constitution, 56th Cong., 1 sess., Report 1501 (May 15, 1900); Alton D. Adams, "State Control of Trusts," Political Science Quarterly 18 (1903):462-79; Seager and Gulick, Trust and Corporation Problems, 351-361; President Theodore Search, in Proceedings of the Annual Convention of the National Association of Manufacturers (hereafter, NAM Proceedings), 1901, 17-18.
168. Thorelli, The Federal Antitrust Policy, 72-79; Sherman quote, 181.
169. Thorelli, The Federal Antitrust Policy, 72-79; Sherman quote, 181.
170. Thorelli, The Federal Antitrust Policy, 79-83; Seager and Gulick, Trust and Corporation Problems, 53-57; Steven L. Piott, The Anti-Monopoly Persuasion: Popular Resistance to the Rise of Big Business in the Midwest (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1985).
171. Thorelli, The Federal Antitrust Policy, 79-83; Seager and Gulick, Trust and Corporation Problems, 53-57; Steven L. Piott, The Anti-Monopoly Persuasion: Popular Resistance to the Rise of Big Business in the Midwest (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1985).
172. Thorelli, The Federal Antitrust Policy, 79-83; Seager and Gulick, Trust and Corporation Problems, 53-57; Steven L. Piott, The Anti-Monopoly Persuasion: Popular Resistance to the Rise of Big Business in the Midwest (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1985).
173. Thorelli, The Federal Antitrust Policy, 79-83; William Letwin, Law and Economic Policy in America: The Evolution of the Merman Antitrust Act (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965), 55-70; Piott, The Anti-Monopoly Persuasion.
174. Thorelli, The Federal Antitrust Policy, 79-83; William Letwin, Law and Economic Policy in America: The Evolution of the Merman Antitrust Act (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965), 55-70; Piott, The Anti-Monopoly Persuasion.
175. Thorelli, The Federal Antitrust Policy, 79-83; William Letwin, Law and Economic Policy in America: The Evolution of the Merman Antitrust Act (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965), 55-70; Piott, The Anti-Monopoly Persuasion.
176. Grandy, New Jersey and the Fiscal Origins of Modern American Corporation Law, 43-46; Butler, "Nineteenth Century Jurisdictional Competition." Data on large company incorporations form George Heberton Evans, Jr., Business Incorporations in the United States, York: National Burea of Economic Research, 1948), 123-40.
177. Grandy, New Jersey and the Fiscal Origins of Modern American Corporation Law, 43-46; Butler, "Nineteenth Century Jurisdictional Competition." Data on large company incorporations form George Heberton Evans, Jr., Business Incorporations in the United States, York: National Burea of Economic Research, 1948), 123-40.
178. Richard W. Leopold, Elihu Root and the Conservative Tradition (Boston: Little, Brown, 1954), 16.
179. Report of the Committee on National Incorporation, NAM Proceeding, 1908, 226-28; Thorelli, The Federal Antitrust Policy, 84, 259-65; Lucian Arye Bebchuk, "Federalism and the Corporation: The Desirable Limits on State Competition Corporate Law," Harvard Law Review 105 (1992):1437-510. Delaware, with need for even fewer state revenues than New Jersey, eventually supplanted New Jersey as a corporate haven; see William L. Cary, "Federalism and Corporate Law: Relfections Upon Delaware," Yale Law Journal 83 (1974):663-705.
180. Report of the Committee on National Incorporation, NAM Proceeding, 1908, 226-28; Thorelli, The Federal Antitrust Policy, 84, 259-65; Lucian Arye Bebchuk, "Federalism and the Corporation: The Desirable Limits on State Competition Corporate Law," Harvard Law Review 105 (1992):1437-510. Delaware, with need for even fewer state revenues than New Jersey, eventually supplanted New Jersey as a corporate haven; see William L. Cary, "Federalism and Corporate Law: Relfections Upon Delaware," Yale Law Journal 83 (1974):663-705.
181. Report of the Committee on National Incorporation, NAM Proceeding, 1908, 226-28; Thorelli, The Federal Antitrust Policy, 84, 259-65; Lucian Arye Bebchuk, "Federalism and the Corporation: The Desirable Limits on State Competition Corporate Law," Harvard Law Review 105 (1992):1437-510. Delaware, with need for even fewer state revenues than New Jersey, eventually supplanted New Jersey as a corporate haven; see William L. Cary, "Federalism and Corporate Law: Relfections Upon Delaware," Yale Law Journal 83 (1974):663-705.
182. Report of the Committee on National Incorporation, NAM Proceeding, 1908, 226-28; Thorelli, The Federal Antitrust Policy, 84, 259-65; Lucian Arye Bebchuk, "Federalism and the Corporation: The Desirable Limits on State Competition Corporate Law," Harvard Law Review 105 (1992):1437-510. Delaware, with need for even fewer state revenues than New Jersey, eventually supplanted New Jersey as a corporate haven; see William L. Cary, "Federalism and Corporate Law: Relfections Upon Delaware," Yale Law Journal 83 (1974):663-705.
183. Naomi R. Lamoreaux, The Great Merger Movement in American Business, 1895-1904 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 1-6; Seager and Gulick, Trust and Corporation Problems, 60-67; Alfred D. Chandler, Jr., The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1977), 317-19; Evans, Business Incorporations in the United States, 1800-1943, 123-40.
184. Naomi R. Lamoreaux, The Great Merger Movement in American Business, 1895-1904 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 1-6; Seager and Gulick, Trust and Corporation Problems, 60-67; Alfred D. Chandler, Jr., The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1977), 317-19; Evans, Business Incorporations in the United States, 1800-1943, 123-40.
185. Naomi R. Lamoreaux, The Great Merger Movement in American Business, 1895-1904 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 1-6; Seager and Gulick, Trust and Corporation Problems, 60-67; Alfred D. Chandler, Jr., The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1977), 317-19; Evans, Business Incorporations in the United States, 1800-1943, 123-40.
186. Naomi R. Lamoreaux, The Great Merger Movement in American Business, 1895-1904 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 1-6; Seager and Gulick, Trust and Corporation Problems, 60-67; Alfred D. Chandler, Jr., The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1977), 317-19; Evans, Business Incorporations in the United States, 1800-1943, 123-40.
187. Sklar, The Corporate Reconstruction of American Capitalism, 164-65; quote, 168.
188. Alfred L. Bernheim, ed., Big Business: Its Growth and Its Place (New York: Twentieth Century Fund, 1937), 13; Mansel G. Blackford, A History of Small Business in America (New York: Twayne, 1991), 57; Sklar, The Corporate Reconstruction of American Capitalism, 164-65, 168; Lamoreaux, The Great Merger Movement in American Business, 1895-1904; Chandler, The Visible Hand.
189. Alfred L. Bernheim, ed., Big Business: Its Growth and Its Place (New York: Twentieth Century Fund, 1937), 13; Mansel G. Blackford, A History of Small Business in America (New York: Twayne, 1991), 57; Sklar, The Corporate Reconstruction of American Capitalism, 164-65, 168; Lamoreaux, The Great Merger Movement in American Business, 1895-1904; Chandler, The Visible Hand.
190. Alfred L. Bernheim, ed., Big Business: Its Growth and Its Place (New York: Twentieth Century Fund, 1937), 13; Mansel G. Blackford, A History of Small Business in America (New York: Twayne, 1991), 57; Sklar, The Corporate Reconstruction of American Capitalism, 164-65, 168; Lamoreaux, The Great Merger Movement in American Business, 1895-1904; Chandler, The Visible Hand.
191. Alfred L. Bernheim, ed., Big Business: Its Growth and Its Place (New York: Twentieth Century Fund, 1937), 13; Mansel G. Blackford, A History of Small Business in America (New York: Twayne, 1991), 57; Sklar, The Corporate Reconstruction of American Capitalism, 164-65, 168; Lamoreaux, The Great Merger Movement in American Business, 1895-1904; Chandler, The Visible Hand.
192. Alfred L. Bernheim, ed., Big Business: Its Growth and Its Place (New York: Twentieth Century Fund, 1937), 13; Mansel G. Blackford, A History of Small Business in America (New York: Twayne, 1991), 57; Sklar, The Corporate Reconstruction of American Capitalism, 164-65, 168; Lamoreaux, The Great Merger Movement in American Business, 1895-1904; Chandler, The Visible Hand.
193. "It will absolutely control labor in that given industry," Rep. L.F. Livingston (DG.), in U.S. Industrial Commission, Trusts and Industrial Combinations (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1900), 1, 289.
194. Gerald G. Eggert, Steelmakers and Labor Reform, 1886-1923 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1981), 34-38; Lewis quoted in Robert H. Zieger, the CIO, 1935-1955 (Durham: University of North Carolina Press, 1995): 54. The AFL upbraided President Taft's Justice Department for instigating antitrust proceedings against American Tobacco and Standard Oil while ignoring U.S. Steel. It endorsed state investigations of the company in 1909; see AFL Proceedings, 1910, 308.
195. Gerald G. Eggert, Steelmakers and Labor Reform, 1886-1923 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1981), 34-38; Lewis quoted in Robert H. Zieger, the CIO, 1935-1955 (Durham: University of North Carolina Press, 1995): 54. The AFL upbraided President Taft's Justice Department for instigating antitrust proceedings against American Tobacco and Standard Oil while ignoring U.S. Steel. It endorsed state investigations of the company in 1909; see AFL Proceedings, 1910, 308.
196. Gerald G. Eggert, Steelmakers and Labor Reform, 1886-1923 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1981), 34-38; Lewis quoted in Robert H. Zieger, the CIO, 1935-1955 (Durham: University of North Carolina Press, 1995): 54. The AFL upbraided President Taft's Justice Department for instigating antitrust proceedings against American Tobacco and Standard Oil while ignoring U.S. Steel. It endorsed state investigations of the company in 1909; see AFL Proceedings, 1910, 308.
197. Robert Ozanne, A Century of Labor-Management Relations at McCormick and International Harvester (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1967), 70; Don D. Lescohier, "Working Condirions," in Commons et al. History of Labor Legislation in the United States 3:297-98; Jonathan Rees, "Managing the Mills: Labor Policy in the American Steel Industry, 1892-1937," (Ph.D. diss., University of Wisconsin - Madison, 1997).
198. Robert Ozanne, A Century of Labor-Management Relations at McCormick and International Harvester (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1967), 70; Don D. Lescohier, "Working Condirions," in Commons et al. History of Labor Legislation in the United States 3:297-98; Jonathan Rees, "Managing the Mills: Labor Policy in the American Steel Industry, 1892-1937," (Ph.D. diss., University of Wisconsin - Madison, 1997).
199. Robert Ozanne, A Century of Labor-Management Relations at McCormick and International Harvester (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1967), 70; Don D. Lescohier, "Working Condirions," in Commons et al. History of Labor Legislation in the United States 3:297-98; Jonathan Rees, "Managing the Mills: Labor Policy in the American Steel Industry, 1892-1937," (Ph.D. diss., University of Wisconsin - Madison, 1997).
200. Montgomery, The Fall of the House of Labor, 112-256; Daniel Jacoby, "The Transformation of Industrial Apprenticeship in the United States, "Journal of Economic History 51 (1991):887-910; Sanford Jacoby, Employing Bureaucracy: Managers, Unions, and the Transformation of Work in American Industry, 1900-1945 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1985); Stephen Meyer III, The Five Dollar Day: Labor, Management, and Social Control in the Ford Motor Company, 1908-1921 (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1981); Perlman, The Machinists, 28; Ton Korver, The Fictitious Commodity: A Study of the U.S. Labor Market, 1880-1940 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1990), 107-22.
201. Montgomery, The Fall of the House of Labor, 112-256; Daniel Jacoby, "The Transformation of Industrial Apprenticeship in the United States, "Journal of Economic History 51 (1991):887-910; Sanford Jacoby, Employing Bureaucracy: Managers, Unions, and the Transformation of Work in American Industry, 1900-1945 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1985); Stephen Meyer III, The Five Dollar Day: Labor, Management, and Social Control in the Ford Motor Company, 1908-1921 (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1981); Perlman, The Machinists, 28; Ton Korver, The Fictitious Commodity: A Study of the U.S. Labor Market, 1880-1940 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1990), 107-22.
202. Montgomery, The Fall of the House of Labor, 112-256; Daniel Jacoby, "The Transformation of Industrial Apprenticeship in the United States, "Journal of Economic History 51 (1991):887-910; Sanford Jacoby, Employing Bureaucracy: Managers, Unions, and the Transformation of Work in American Industry, 1900-1945 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1985); Stephen Meyer III, The Five Dollar Day: Labor, Management, and Social Control in the Ford Motor Company, 1908-1921 (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1981); Perlman, The Machinists, 28; Ton Korver, The Fictitious Commodity: A Study of the U.S. Labor Market, 1880-1940 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1990), 107-22.
203. Montgomery, The Fall of the House of Labor, 112-256; Daniel Jacoby, "The Transformation of Industrial Apprenticeship in the United States, "Journal of Economic History 51 (1991):887-910; Sanford Jacoby, Employing Bureaucracy: Managers, Unions, and the Transformation of Work in American Industry, 1900-1945 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1985); Stephen Meyer III, The Five Dollar Day: Labor, Management, and Social Control in the Ford Motor Company, 1908-1921 (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1981); Perlman, The Machinists, 28; Ton Korver, The Fictitious Commodity: A Study of the U.S. Labor Market, 1880-1940 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1990), 107-22.
204. Montgomery, The Fall of the House of Labor, 112-256; Daniel Jacoby, "The Transformation of Industrial Apprenticeship in the United States, "Journal of Economic History 51 (1991):887-910; Sanford Jacoby, Employing Bureaucracy: Managers, Unions, and the Transformation of Work in American Industry, 1900-1945 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1985); Stephen Meyer III, The Five Dollar Day: Labor, Management, and Social Control in the Ford Motor Company, 1908-1921 (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1981); Perlman, The Machinists, 28; Ton Korver, The Fictitious Commodity: A Study of the U.S. Labor Market, 1880-1940 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1990), 107-22.
205. Montgomery, The Fall of the House of Labor, 112-256; Daniel Jacoby, "The Transformation of Industrial Apprenticeship in the United States, "Journal of Economic History 51 (1991):887-910; Sanford Jacoby, Employing Bureaucracy: Managers, Unions, and the Transformation of Work in American Industry, 1900-1945 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1985); Stephen Meyer III, The Five Dollar Day: Labor, Management, and Social Control in the Ford Motor Company, 1908-1921 (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1981); Perlman, The Machinists, 28; Ton Korver, The Fictitious Commodity: A Study of the U.S. Labor Market, 1880-1940 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1990), 107-22.
206. Stuart D. Brandes, American Welfare Capitalism, 1880-1940 (Chicago: University of Chicago, 1976), 30-37; Gary quoted in Robert Wiebe, Businessmen and Reform: A Study of the progressive Movement (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 19620, 166-67; Montgomery, The Fall of the House of Labor, 235; Ozanne, A Century of Labor-Management Relations at McCormick and International Harvester, 71-84; Daniel M.G. Raff, "Ford Welfare Capitalism in Its Economic Context," in Jacoby, ed., Masters to Managers, 90-105.
207. Stuart D. Brandes, American Welfare Capitalism, 1880-1940 (Chicago: University of Chicago, 1976), 30-37; Gary quoted in Robert Wiebe, Businessmen and Reform: A Study of the progressive Movement (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 19620, 166-67; Montgomery, The Fall of the House of Labor, 235; Ozanne, A Century of Labor-Management Relations at McCormick and International Harvester, 71-84; Daniel M.G. Raff, "Ford Welfare Capitalism in Its Economic Context," in Jacoby, ed., Masters to Managers, 90-105.
208. Stuart D. Brandes, American Welfare Capitalism, 1880-1940 (Chicago: University of Chicago, 1976), 30-37; Gary quoted in Robert Wiebe, Businessmen and Reform: A Study of the progressive Movement (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 19620, 166-67; Montgomery, The Fall of the House of Labor, 235; Ozanne, A Century of Labor-Management Relations at McCormick and International Harvester, 71-84; Daniel M.G. Raff, "Ford Welfare Capitalism in Its Economic Context," in Jacoby, ed., Masters to Managers, 90-105.
209. Stuart D. Brandes, American Welfare Capitalism, 1880-1940 (Chicago: University of Chicago, 1976), 30-37; Gary quoted in Robert Wiebe, Businessmen and Reform: A Study of the progressive Movement (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 19620, 166-67; Montgomery, The Fall of the House of Labor, 235; Ozanne, A Century of Labor-Management Relations at McCormick and International Harvester, 71-84; Daniel M.G. Raff, "Ford Welfare Capitalism in Its Economic Context," in Jacoby, ed., Masters to Managers, 90-105.
210. Stuart D. Brandes, American Welfare Capitalism, 1880-1940 (Chicago: University of Chicago, 1976), 30-37; Gary quoted in Robert Wiebe, Businessmen and Reform: A Study of the progressive Movement (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 19620, 166-67; Montgomery, The Fall of the House of Labor, 235; Ozanne, A Century of Labor-Management Relations at McCormick and International Harvester, 71-84; Daniel M.G. Raff, "Ford Welfare Capitalism in Its Economic Context," in Jacoby, ed., Masters to Managers, 90-105.
211. Chandler, The Visible Hand, 320-44; see also McCraw, "Rethinking the Trust Question."
212. Chandler, The Visible Hand, 320-44; see also McCraw, "Rethinking the Trust Question."
213. Montgomery, The Fall of the House of Labor, 265.
214. Cynthia L. Estlund makes a similar argument about contemporary employer efforts to avoid unions in "Economic Rationality and Union Avoidance: Misunderstanding the National Labor Relations Act," Texas Law Review 73 (1993):921-91.
215. NAM Proceedings, 1906, 173-74.
216. C.W. Post in NAM Proceedings, 1903, 123.
217. Bonnet, History of Employers' Associations in the States; Ernst, "The Lawyers and the Labor Trust," 49; Montgomery, The Fall of the House Labor, 270; Taft, Organized Labor in American History, 219-20.
218. Bonnet, History of Employers' Associations in the States; Ernst, "The Lawyers and the Labor Trust," 49; Montgomery, The Fall of the House Labor, 270; Taft, Organized Labor in American History, 219-20.
219. Bonnet, History of Employers' Associations in the States; Ernst, "The Lawyers and the Labor Trust," 49; Montgomery, The Fall of the House Labor, 270; Taft, Organized Labor in American History, 219-20.
220. Bonnet, History of Employers' Associations in the States; Ernst, "The Lawyers and the Labor Trust," 49; Montgomery, The Fall of the House Labor, 270; Taft, Organized Labor in American History, 219-20.
221. NAM Proceedings, 1903, 16, 96, 288-89; Wiebe, Businessmen and Reform, 25-26.
222. NAM Proceedings, 1903, 16, 96, 288-89; Wiebe, Businessmen and Reform, 25-26.
223. Parry in NAM Proceedings, 1903, 16-17; Albion G. Taylor, Labor Policies of the National Association of Manufacturers (Urban: University of Illinois, 1928), 63, 66-67; Ernst, Lawyers Againts Labor, 47-68; Wiebe, Businessmen and Reform, 168, New York, July 12, 1905, 4, and March 11, 1906, 7.
224. Parry in NAM Proceedings, 1903, 16-17; Albion G. Taylor, Labor Policies of the National Association of Manufacturers (Urban: University of Illinois, 1928), 63, 66-67; Ernst, Lawyers Againts Labor, 47-68; Wiebe, Businessmen and Reform, 168, New York, July 12, 1905, 4, and March 11, 1906, 7.
225. Parry in NAM Proceedings, 1903, 16-17; Albion G. Taylor, Labor Policies of the National Association of Manufacturers (Urban: University of Illinois, 1928), 63, 66-67; Ernst, Lawyers Againts Labor, 47-68; Wiebe, Businessmen and Reform, 168, New York, July 12, 1905, 4, and March 11, 1906, 7.
226. Parry in NAM Proceedings, 1903, 16-17; Albion G. Taylor, Labor Policies of the National Association of Manufacturers (Urban: University of Illinois, 1928), 63, 66-67; Ernst, Lawyers Againts Labor, 47-68; Wiebe, Businessmen and Reform, 168, New York, July 12, 1905, 4, and March 11, 1906, 7.
227. Parry in NAM Proceedings, 1903, 16-17; Albion G. Taylor, Labor Policies of the National Association of Manufacturers (Urban: University of Illinois, 1928), 63, 66-67; Ernst, Lawyers Againts Labor, 47-68; Wiebe, Businessmen and Reform, 168, New York, July 12, 1905, 4, and March 11, 1906, 7.
228. U.S. House of Representatives, Lobby Investigation Select Committee, Charges Againts Members of the House and Lobbying Activities, Report 113, 63 Cong., 2nd sess. (December 9, 1913), 15.
229. NAM Proceedings, 1909, 112; Ernst, Lawyers Against Labor, 132 - Albert K. Steigerwalt, The National Association of Manufacturers, 1895-1914: A Study in Business Leadership (Ann Arbor: Bureau of Business Research, University of Michigan, 1964), 128-35. The intensive lobbying activities of the NAM are documented in U.S. Senate, Subcommittee of the Committee on the Judiciary, Hearings on Maintenance of a Lobby to Influence Legislation, 63 Cong., 1 sess. (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1913).
230. NAM Proceedings, 1909, 112; Ernst, Lawyers Against Labor, 132 - Albert K. Steigerwalt, The National Association of Manufacturers, 1895-1914: A Study in Business Leadership (Ann Arbor: Bureau of Business Research, University of Michigan, 1964), 128-35. The intensive lobbying activities of the NAM are documented in U.S. Senate, Subcommittee of the Committee on the Judiciary, Hearings on Maintenance of a Lobby to Influence Legislation, 63 Cong., 1 sess. (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1913).
231. NAM Proceedings, 1909, 112; Ernst, Lawyers Against Labor, 132 - Albert K. Steigerwalt, The National Association of Manufacturers, 1895-1914: A Study in Business Leadership (Ann Arbor: Bureau of Business Research, University of Michigan, 1964), 128-35. The intensive lobbying activities of the NAM are documented in U.S. Senate, Subcommittee of the Committee on the Judiciary, Hearings on Maintenance of a Lobby to Influence Legislation, 63 Cong., 1 sess. (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1913).
232. NAM Proceedings, 1909, 112; Ernst, Lawyers Against Labor, 132 - Albert K. Steigerwalt, The National Association of Manufacturers, 1895-1914: A Study in Business Leadership (Ann Arbor: Bureau of Business Research, University of Michigan, 1964), 128-35. The intensive lobbying activities of the NAM are documented in U.S. Senate, Subcommittee of the Committee on the Judiciary, Hearings on Maintenance of a Lobby to Influence Legislation, 63 Cong., 1 sess. (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1913).
233. "No Control over Child Labor; No Control Over Hours; Functions of the Federal Government," American Industries 5 (1907):1-3; AFL Proceedings, 1907, 33, and 1908, 23; Donald F. Anderson, William Howard Taft: A Conservative's Conception of the Presidency (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1968), 52-53; Elting Morison, ed., The Letters of Theodore Roosevelt (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1952), 6, 1077 (fn.). See also Joseph G. Cannon
234. "No Control over Child Labor; No Control Over Hours; Functions of the Federal Government," American Industries 5 (1907):1-3; AFL Proceedings, 1907, 33, and 1908, 23; Donald F. Anderson, William Howard Taft: A Conservative's Conception of the Presidency (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1968), 52-53; Elting Morison, ed., The Letters of Theodore Roosevelt (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1952), 6, 1077 (fn.). See also Joseph G. Cannon Papers, May 1-14, 1908, on the flood of employer mail beseeching Cannon to kill anti-injunction legislation.
235. "No Control over Child Labor; No Control Over Hours; Functions of the Federal Government," American Industries 5 (1907):1-3; AFL Proceedings, 1907, 33, and 1908, 23; Donald F. Anderson, William Howard Taft: A Conservative's Conception of the Presidency (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1968), 52-53; Elting Morison, ed., The Letters of Theodore Roosevelt (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1952), 6, 1077 (fn.). See also Joseph G. Cannon Papers, May 1-14, 1908, on the flood of employer mail beseeching Cannon to kill anti-injunction legislation.
236. "No Control over Child Labor; No Control Over Hours; Functions of the Federal Government," American Industries 5 (1907):1-3; AFL Proceedings, 1907, 33, and 1908, 23; Donald F. Anderson, William Howard Taft: A Conservative's Conception of the Presidency (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1968), 52-53; Elting Morison, ed., The Letters of Theodore Roosevelt (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1952), 6, 1077 (fn.). See also Joseph G. Cannon Papers, May 1-14, 1908, on the flood of employer mail beseeching Cannon to kill anti-injunction legislation.
237. Ernst, Lawyers Against Labor, 59-60.
238. Gompers in AFL Proceedings, 1911, 53-55.
239. Michael Kazin, Barons of Labor: The San Francisco Building Trades and Union Power in the Progressive Era (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987), 116; Howell Harris, "Getting It Together: The Metal Manufacturers Association of Philadelphia, c. 1900-1930, " injacoby, ed., Masters to Managers, 111-31; Stephen Amberg, The Union Inspiration in American Politics: The Autoworkers and the Making of a Liberal Industrial Order (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1994); 45-49; Steve Babson, Working Detroit: The Making of a Union Town (New York: Adama Books, 1984), 20-21.
240. Michael Kazin, Barons of Labor: The San Francisco Building Trades and Union Power in the Progressive Era (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987), 116; Howell Harris, "Getting It Together: The Metal Manufacturers Association of Philadelphia, c. 1900-1930, " injacoby, ed., Masters to Managers, 111-31; Stephen Amberg, The Union Inspiration in American Politics: The Autoworkers and the Making of a Liberal Industrial Order (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1994); 45-49; Steve Babson, Working Detroit: The Making of a Union Town (New York: Adama Books, 1984), 20-21.
241. Michael Kazin, Barons of Labor: The San Francisco Building Trades and Union Power in the Progressive Era (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987), 116; Howell Harris, "Getting It Together: The Metal Manufacturers Association of Philadelphia, c. 1900-1930 ," injacoby, ed., Masters to Managers, 111-31; Stephen Amberg, The Union Inspiration in American Politics: The Autoworkers and the Making of a Liberal Industrial Order (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1994); 45-49; Steve Babson, Working Detroit: The Making of a Union Town (New York: Adama Books, 1984), 20-21.
242. Michael Kazin, Barons of Labor: The San Francisco Building Trades and Union Power in the Progressive Era (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987), 116; Howell Harris, "Getting It Together: The Metal Manufacturers Association of Philadelphia, c. 1900-1930, " injacoby, ed., Masters to Managers, 111-31; Stephen Amberg, The Union Inspiration in American Politics: The Autoworkers and the Making of a Liberal Industrial Order (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1994); 45-49; Steve Babson, Working Detroit: The Making of a Union Town (New York: Adama Books, 1984), 20-21.
243. On Detroit, see Babson, Working Detriot, 19-21.
244. Kazin, Barons of Labor, 245-64; Dubofsky, The State and Labor in Modern American, 62, 78-85.
245. Kazin, Barons of Labor, 245-64; Dubofsky, The State and Labor in Modern American, 62, 78-85.
246. Seager and Gulick, Trust and Corporation Problems, 304-38, esp. 308. See also Robert F. Himmelberg, The Origins of the National Recovery Administration: Business, Government, and the Trade Association Issue, 1921-1933 (New York: Fordham University Press, 1976).
247. Seager and Gulick, Trust and Corporation Problems, 304-38, esp. 308. See also Robert F. Himmelberg, The Origins of the National Recovery Administration: Business, Government, and the Trade Association Issue, 1921-1933 (New York: Fordham University Press, 1976).
248. Frank T. Stockton, The Closed Shop in American Trade Unions (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1911).
249. Chandler, Visible Hand, 332-44.
250. Laslett, Labor and the Left, 144-81; Montgomery, The Fall of the House of Labor, 178-91. On Taylorism and the unions, see Samuel Haber, Efficiency and Uplift: Scientific Management in the Progressive Era, 1890-1920 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964); Korver, The Fictitious Commodity.
251. Laslett, Labor and the Left, 144-81; Montgomery, The Fall of the House of Labor, 178-91. On Taylorism and the unions, see Samuel Haber, Efficiency and Uplift: Scientific Management in the Progressive Era, 1890-1920 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964); Korver, The Fictitious Commodity.
252. Laslett, Labor and the Left, 144-81; Montgomery, The Fall of the House of Labor, 178-91. On Taylorism and the unions, see Samuel Haber, Efficiency and Uplift: Scientific Management in the Progressive Era, 1890-1920 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964); Korver, The Fictitious Commodity.
253. Laslett, Labor and the Left, 144-81; Montgomery, The Fall of the House of Labor, 178-91. On Taylorism and the unions, see Samuel Haber, Efficiency and Uplift: Scientific Management in the Progressive Era, 1890-1920 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964); Korver, The Fictitious Commodity.
254. Keith Burgess, "New Unionism for Old? The Amalgamated Society of Engineers in Britain," in Mommsen and Husung, eds., The Development of Trade Unionism in Great Britain and Germany, 176; U.S. Commissioner of Labor, Regulation and Restriction of Output, 751; Henry Felling, A History of British Trade Unionism (London: Penguin Books, 1963), 123-27; H.A. Clegg, Alan Fox, and A.F. Thompson, A History of British Trade Unions Since 1889, 1:374, "Labor organizations," Monthly Review of the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics 6 (1981) :427-31 ; Moses, Trade Unionism in Germany from Bismark to Hitler, 1, 138; Michael Schneider, A Brief History of the German Trade Unions, trans. by Barrie Selman (Bonn: VerlagJ.H.W. Dietz Nachf, 1991), 103; Schönhoven, "Localism - Craft Union - Industrial Union: Organizational Patterns in German Trade Unionism," in Mommsen and Husung, eds., The Development of Trade Unionism in Great Britain and Germany, 1880-1914, 227.
255. Keith Burgess, "New Unionism for Old? The Amalgamated Society of Engineers in Britain," in Mommsen and Husung, eds., The Development of Trade Unionism in Great Britain and Germany, 176; U.S. Commissioner of Labor, Regulation and Restriction of Output, 751; Henry Felling, A History of British Trade Unionism (London: Penguin Books, 1963), 123-27; H.A. Clegg, Alan Fox, and A.F. Thompson, A History of British Trade Unions Since 1889, 1:374, "Labor organizations," Monthly Review of the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics 6 (1981) :427-31 ; Moses, Trade Unionism in Germany from Bismark to Hitler, 1, 138; Michael Schneider, A Brief History of the German Trade Unions, trans. by Barrie Selman (Bonn: VerlagJ.H.W. Dietz Nachf, 1991), 103; Schönhoven, "Localism - Craft Union - Industrial Union: Organizational Patterns in German Trade Unionism," in Mommsen and Husung, eds., The Development of Trade Unionism in Great Britain and Germany, 1880-1914, 227.
256. Keith Burgess, "New Unionism for Old? The Amalgamated Society of Engineers in Britain," in Mommsen and Husung, eds., The Development of Trade Unionism in Great Britain and Germany, 176; U.S. Commissioner of Labor, Regulation and Restriction of Output, 751; Henry Felling, A History of British Trade Unionism (London: Penguin Books, 1963), 123-27; H.A. Clegg, Alan Fox, and A.F. Thompson, A History of British Trade Unions Since 1889, 1:374, "Labor organizations," Monthly Review of the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics 6 (1981) :427-31 ; Moses, Trade Unionism in Germany from Bismark to Hitler, 1, 138; Michael Schneider, A Brief History of the German Trade Unions, trans. by Barrie Selman (Bonn: VerlagJ.H.W. Dietz Nachf, 1991), 103; Schönhoven, "Localism - Craft Union - Industrial Union: Organizational Patterns in German Trade Unionism," in Mommsen and Husung, eds., The Development of Trade Unionism in Great Britain and Germany, 1880-1914, 227.
257. Keith Burgess, "New Unionism for Old? The Amalgamated Society of Engineers in Britain," in Mommsen and Husung, eds., The Development of Trade Unionism in Great Britain and Germany, 176; U.S. Commissioner of Labor, Regulation and Restriction of Output, 751; Henry Felling, A History of British Trade Unionism (London: Penguin Books, 1963), 123-27; H.A. Clegg, Alan Fox, and A.F. Thompson, A History of British Trade Unions Since 1889, 1:374, "Labor organizations," Monthly Review of the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics 6 (1981) :427-31 ; Moses, Trade Unionism in Germany from Bismark to Hitler, 1, 138; Michael Schneider, A Brief History of the German Trade Unions, trans. by Barrie Selman (Bonn: VerlagJ.H.W. Dietz Nachf, 1991), 103; Schönhoven, "Localism - Craft Union - Industrial Union: Organizational Patterns in German Trade Unionism," in Mommsen and Husung, eds., The Development of Trade Unionism in Great Britain and Germany, 1880-1914, 227.
258. Keith Burgess, "New Unionism for Old? The Amalgamated Society of Engineers in Britain," in Mommsen and Husung, eds., The Development of Trade Unionism in Great Britain and Germany, 176; U.S. Commissioner of Labor, Regulation and Restriction of Output, 751; Henry Felling, A History of British Trade Unionism (London: Penguin Books, 1963), 123-27; H.A. Clegg, Alan Fox, and A.F. Thompson, A History of British Trade Unions Since 1889, 1:374, "Labor organizations," Monthly Review of the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics 6 (1981) :427-31 ; Moses, Trade Unionism in Germany from Bismark to Hitler, 1, 138; Michael Schneider, A Brief History of the German Trade Unions, trans. by Barrie Selman (Bonn: VerlagJ.H.W. Dietz Nachf, 1991), 103; Schönhoven, "Localism - Craft Union - Industrial Union: Organizational Patterns in German Trade Unionism," in Mommsen and Husung, eds., The Development of Trade Unionism in Great Britain and Germany, 1880-1914, 227.
259. Keith Burgess, "New Unionism for Old? The Amalgamated Society of Engineers in Britain," in Mommsen and Husung, eds., The Development of Trade Unionism in Great Britain and Germany, 176; U.S. Commissioner of Labor, Regulation and Restriction of Output, 751; Henry Felling, A History of British Trade Unionism (London: Penguin Books, 1963), 123-27; H.A. Clegg, Alan Fox, and A.F. Thompson, A History of British Trade Unions Since 1889, 1:374, "Labor organizations," Monthly Review of the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics 6 (1981) :427-31 ; Moses, Trade Unionism in Germany from Bismark to Hitler, 1, 138; Michael Schneider, A Brief History of the German Trade Unions, trans. by Barrie Selman (Bonn: VerlagJ.H.W. Dietz Nachf, 1991), 103; Schönhoven, "Localism - Craft Union - Industrial Union: Organizational Patterns in German Trade Unionism," in Mommsen and Husung, eds., The Development of Trade Unionism in Great Britain and Germany, 1880-1914, 227.
260. Keith Burgess, "New Unionism for Old? The Amalgamated Society of Engineers in Britain," in Mommsen and Husung, eds., The Development of Trade Unionism in Great Britain and Germany, 176; U.S. Commissioner of Labor, Regulation and Restriction of Output, 751; Henry Felling, A History of British Trade Unionism (London: Penguin Books, 1963), 123-27; H.A. Clegg, Alan Fox, and A.F. Thompson, A History of British Trade Unions Since 1889, 1:374, "Labor organizations," Monthly Review of the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics 6 (1981) :427-31 ; Moses, Trade Unionism in Germany from Bismark to Hitler, 1, 138; Michael Schneider, A Brief History of the German Trade Unions, trans. by Barrie Selman (Bonn: VerlagJ.H.W. Dietz Nachf, 1991), 103; Schönhoven, "Localism - Craft Union - Industrial Union: Organizational Patterns in German Trade Unionism," in Mommsen and Husung, eds., The Development of Trade Unionism in Great Britain and Germany, 1880-1914, 227.
261. Keith Burgess, "New Unionism for Old? The Amalgamated Society of Engineers in Britain," in Mommsen and Husung, eds., The Development of Trade Unionism in Great Britain and Germany, 176; U.S. Commissioner of Labor, Regulation and Restriction of Output, 751; Henry Felling, A History of British Trade Unionism (London: Penguin Books, 1963), 123-27; H.A. Clegg, Alan Fox, and A.F. Thompson, A History of British Trade Unions Since 1889, 1:374, "Labor organizations," Monthly Review of the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics 6 (1981) :427-31 ; Moses, Trade Unionism in Germany from Bismark to Hitler, 1, 138; Michael Schneider, A Brief History of the German Trade Unions, trans. by Barrie Selman (Bonn: VerlagJ.H.W. Dietz Nachf, 1991), 103; Schönhoven, "Localism - Craft Union - Industrial Union: Organizational Patterns in German Trade Unionism," in Mommsen and Husung, eds., The Development of Trade Unionism in Great Britain and Germany, 1880-1914, 227.
262. Ozanne, A Century of Labor-Management Relations at McCormick and International Harvester, 56-57; Montgomery, The Fall of the House of Labor, 317-27.
263. Ozanne, A Century of Labor-Management Relations at McCormick and International Harvester, 56-57; Montgomery, The Fall of the House of Labor, 317-27.
264. Montgomery, The Fall of the House of Labor, 181; Perlman, The Machinists, 206.
265. Montgomery, The Fall of the House of Labor, 181; Perlman, The Machinists, 206.
266. Haydu, "Trade Agreements vs. Open Shop." Haydu compares British and American machinists. unionozation rates in Making American Industry Safe for Democracy: Comparative Perspectives on the State Employee Representation in the Era of World War I (Urban: University of Illinois Press, 1997), 50. See also Jacoby, "American Exceptionalism Revisited," 173-200.
267. Haydu, "Trade Agreements vs. Open Shop." Haydu compares British and American machinists. unionozation rates in Making American Industry Safe for Democracy: Comparative Perspectives on the State Employee Representation in the Era of World War I (Urban: University of Illinois Press, 1997), 50. See also Jacoby, "American Exceptionalism Revisited," 173-200.
268. Laslett, Labor and the Left, 167.
269. Brody, "Market Unionism in America: The Case of Coal," 131-37.
270. Gary Marks, Unions in Politics: Britain, Germany, and the United States in the Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1989), 173-79. Marks finds that German coal miners' unions were relatively weaker than British counterparts, were opposed by better organized coal operators, and were internally divided by ethnicity and religion. Nevertheless, the German miners also came to demand legislative solutions to the problem of labor protection (179-84).
271. H.A. Clegg, A History of British Trade Unions Since 1889, (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1985), 2, 1; Richard Hyman, "Mass Organization and Militancy in Britain: Contrasts and Continuities," in Mommsen and Husung, eds., The Development of Trade Unionism in Great Britain and Germany, 1880-1914, 256.
272. H.A. Clegg, A History of British Trade Unions Since 1889, (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1985), 2, 1; Richard Hyman, "Mass Organization and Militancy in Britain: Contrasts and Continuities," in Mommsen and Husung, eds., The Development of Trade Unionism in Great Britain and Germany, 1880-1914, 256.
273. Marks, Unions in Politics, 170, 184-94.
274. David Allen Corbin, Life, Work, and Rebellion in the Coal Fields: The Southern West Virginia Miners, 1880-1922 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1918); Williams Graebner, Coal Mining Safety in the Progressive Period: The Political Economy of Reform (Lexington, Ky.: University Press of Kentucky, 1976), 102. See also John C. Hennen, The Americanization of West Virginia: Creating a Modern Industrial State, 191-1925 (Lexington, Ky.: University Press of Kentucky, 1996).
275. David Allen Corbin, Life, Work, and Rebellion in the Coal Fields: The Southern West Virginia Miners, 1880-1922 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1918); Williams Graebner, Coal Mining Safety in the Progressive Period: The Political Economy of Reform (Lexington, Ky.: University Press of Kentucky, 1976), 102. See also John C. Hennen, The Americanization of West Virginia: Creating a Modern Industrial State, 191-1925 (Lexington, Ky.: University Press of Kentucky, 1996).
276. David Allen Corbin, Life, Work, and Rebellion in the Coal Fields: The Southern West Virginia Miners, 1880-1922 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1918); Williams Graebner, Coal Mining Safety in the Progressive Period: The Political Economy of Reform (Lexington, Ky.: University Press of Kentucky, 1976), 102. See also John C. Hennen, The Americanization of West Virginia: Creating a Modern Industrial State, 191-1925 (Lexington, Ky.: University Press of Kentucky, 1996).
277. William M. Boal, "Estimates of Unionism in West Virginia Coal, 1900-1935," Labor History 35 (1994):429-41.
278. Cobin, Life, Work, and Rebellion in the Coal Fields, 1-18, 114-15; Graebner, Coal Safety in the Progressive Period, 73-76, 86-91; Otis K. Rice, West Virginia: A History (Lexington, Ky.: University Press of Kentucky, 1985), 165-69, 185-92, 205-33; U.S. Industrial Commission, Capital and Labor in the Mining Industries (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1912), 12:xxvi-xxvii, 699.
279. Cobin, Life, Work, and Rebellion in the Coal Fields, 1-18, 114-15; Graebner, Coal Safety in the Progressive Period, 73-76, 86-91; Otis K. Rice, West Virginia: A History (Lexington, Ky.: University Press of Kentucky, 1985), 165-69, 185-92, 205-33; U.S. Industrial Commission, Capital and Labor in the Mining Industries (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1912), 12:xxvi-xxvii, 699.
280. Cobin, Life, Work, and Rebellion in the Coal Fields, 1-18, 114-15; Graebner, Coal Safety in the Progressive Period, 73-76, 86-91; Otis K. Rice, West Virginia: A History (Lexington, Ky.: University Press of Kentucky, 1985), 165-69, 185-92, 205-33; U.S. Industrial Commission, Capital and Labor in the Mining Industries (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1912), 12:xxvi-xxvii, 699.
281. Cobin, Life, Work, and Rebellion in the Coal Fields, 1-18, 114-15; Graebner, Coal Safety in the Progressive Period, 73-76, 86-91; Otis K. Rice, West Virginia: A History (Lexington, Ky.: University Press of Kentucky, 1985), 165-69, 185-92, 205-33; U.S. Industrial Commission, Capital and Labor in the Mining Industries (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1912), 12:xxvi-xxvii, 699.
282. Brody, "Market Unionism in America," 139-53; Frederick P. Lee "Possibilities of Establishing a National Minimum of Safety in the Coal Industry," American Labor Legislation Review 14 (1924), 71-80; Montgomery, The Fall of the House of Labor, 409.
283. Brody, "Market Unionism in America," 139-53; Frederick P. Lee "Possibilities of Establishing a National Minimum of Safety in the Coal Industry," American Labor Legislation Review 14 (1924), 71-80; Montgomery, The Fall of the House of Labor, 409.
284. Brody, "Market Unionism in America," 139-53; Frederick P. Lee "Possibilities of Establishing a National Minimum of Safety in the Coal Industry," American Labor Legislation Review 14 (1924), 71-80; Montgomery, The Fall of the House of Labor, 409.
285. This observation was made by Leo Wolman, Ebb and Flow in Trade Unionism (New York: National Bureau of Economic Research, 1936), 96.
286. U.S. Commissioner of Labor, Regulation and Restriction of Output, 270-84; William Haber, Industrial Relations in the Building Industrial Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Press, 1930), 238; Stockton, The Closed Shop in American Trade Unions, 133-34.
287. U.S. Commissioner of Labor, Regulation and Restriction of Output, 270-84; William Haber, Industrial Relations in the Building Industrial Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Press, 1930), 238; Stockton, The Closed Shop in American Trade Unions, 133-34.
288. U.S. Commissioner of Labor, Regulation and Restriction of Output, 270-84; William Haber, Industrial Relations in the Building Industrial Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Press, 1930), 238; Stockton, The Closed Shop in American Trade Unions, 133-34.
289. Kazin, Barons of Labor, 151, 305; Haber, Industrial Relations in the Buiding Industry, 197-256, 351-56; Alexander Keyssar, Out of Work: The First Century of Unemployment in Massachusetts (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1986), 210-11, Stockton, The Closed Shop in American Trade Unions, 133-34.
290. Kazin, Barons of Labor, 151, 305; Haber, Industrial Relations in the Buiding Industry, 197-256, 351-56; Alexander Keyssar, Out of Work: The First Century of Unemployment in Massachusetts (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1986), 210-11, Stockton, The Closed Shop in American Trade Unions, 133-34.
291. Kazin, Barons of Labor, 151, 305; Haber, Industrial Relations in the Buiding Industry, 197-256, 351-56; Alexander Keyssar, Out of Work: The First Century of Unemployment in Massachusetts (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1986), 210-11, Stockton, The Closed Shop in American Trade Unions, 133-34.
292. Kazin, Barons of Labor, 151, 305; Haber, Industrial Relations in the Buiding Industry, 197-256, 351-56; Alexander Keyssar, Out of Work: The First Century of Unemployment in Massachusetts (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1986), 210-11, Stockton, The Closed Shop in American Trade Unions, 133-34.
293. Wolman, Ebb and Flow in Trade Unionism, 87; George Sayers Bain and Robert Basil Blackwell, 1980), 171. On the British building trades unions, see Richard price, Masters, Unions, and Men: Work Control in Building and the Rise of Labour, 1830-1914 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980).
294. Wolman, Ebb and Flow in Trade Unionism, 87; George Sayers Bain and Robert Basil Blackwell, 1980), 171. On the British building trades unions, see Richard price, Masters, Unions, and Men: Work Control in Building and the Rise of Labour, 1830-1914 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980).
295. Irving Bernstein, The Lean Years (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1966), 109-17.
296. Marks, Unions in Politics, 120-54; U.S. Commissioner of Labor, Regulation and Restriction of Output, 35-36.
297. Marks, Unions in Politics, 120-54; U.S. Commissioner of Labor, Regulation and Restriction of Output, 35-36.
298. U.S. Commissioner of Labor, Regulation and Restriction of Output, 35-36; Marks, Unions in Politics, 145-51; Haydu, "Trade Agreements vs. Open Shop", J. David Greenstone, Labor in American Politics (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1969), 28-29; Stockton, The Closed Shop in American Trade Unions, 113.
299. U.S. Commissioner of Labor, Regulation and Restriction of Output, 35-36; Marks, Unions in Politics, 145-51; Haydu, "Trade Agreements vs. Open Shop", J. David Greenstone, Labor in American Politics (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1969), 28-29; Stockton, The Closed Shop in American Trade Unions, 113.
300. U.S. Commissioner of Labor, Regulation and Restriction of Output, 35-36; Marks, Unions in Politics, 145-51; Haydu, "Trade Agreements vs. Open Shop", J. David Greenstone, Labor in American Politics (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1969), 28-29; Stockton, The Closed Shop in American Trade Unions, 113.
301. U.S. Commissioner of Labor, Regulation and Restriction of Output, 35-36; Marks, Unions in Politics, 145-51; Haydu, "Trade Agreements vs. Open Shop", J. David Greenstone, Labor in American Politics (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1969), 28-29; Stockton, The Closed Shop in American Trade Unions, 113.
302. James H. Ducker, Men of the Steel Rails: Workers on the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe Railroad, 1869-1900 (Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 1983), 92-93.
303. Montgomery, The Fall of the House of Labor, 365-66, 399-404, 422-24.
304. The printers' success in winning the eight-hour day was held up as a special victory in 1905; see AFL Proceedings, 1905, 25, 79; "President Gompers in Europe," American Federationist 17 (1909):146-51.
305. The printers' success in winning the eight-hour day was held up as a special victory in 1905; see AFL Proceedings, 1905, 25, 79; "President Gompers in Europe," American Federationist 17 (1909):146-51.
306. Rogin, "Voluntarism."
307. Gompers, Seventy Years of Life and Labour, 1:406; AFL Proceeding, 1907, 23-29; Kazin, Barons of labor, 240-44.
308. Gompers, Seventy Years of Life and Labour, 1:406; AFL Proceeding, 1907, 23-29; Kazin, Barons of labor, 240-44.
309. Gompers, Seventy Years of Life and Labour, 1:406; AFL Proceeding, 1907, 23-29; Kazin, Barons of labor, 240-44.
310. Montgomery, The Fall of the House of Labor, 292-93.
311. Jean Tripp McKelvey, AFL Attitudes Toward Production, 1900-1932 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1952), 9-12, 80-98; see also John R. Commons, "Organized Labor's Attitude Towards Industrial Efficiency," American Economic Review 1 (1911):463-72. On the 1920's and William Green, see Craig Phelan, "William Green and the Ideal of Christian Corporation," in Labor Leaders in American, eds. Melvyn Dubofsky and Warren Van Tine (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987), 134-59.
312. Jean Tripp McKelvey, AFL Attitudes Toward Production, 1900-1932 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1952), 9-12, 80-98; see also John R. Commons, "Organized Labor's Attitude Towards Industrial Efficiency," American Economic Review 1 (1911):463-72. On the 1920's and William Green, see Craig Phelan, "William Green and the Ideal of Christian Corporation," in Labor Leaders in American, eds. Melvyn Dubofsky and Warren Van Tine (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987), 134-59.
313. Jean Tripp McKelvey, AFL Attitudes Toward Production, 1900-1932 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1952), 9-12, 80-98; see also John R. Commons, "Organized Labor's Attitude Towards Industrial Efficiency," American Economic Review 1 (1911):463-72. On the 1920's and William Green, see Craig Phelan, "William Green and the Ideal of Christian Corporation," in Labor Leaders in American, eds. Melvyn Dubofsky and Warren Van Tine (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987), 134-59.
314. Matthew Woll, in AFL Proceedings, 1910, 296; Eugene Staley, History of the Illinois State Federation of Labor (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1930); Irwin Yellowitz, Labor and the Progressive Movement in New York State, 1897-1916 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1965); Kazin, Barons of Labor, 151-53.
315. Matthew Woll, in AFL Proceedings, 1910, 296; Eugene Staley, History of the Illinois State Federation of Labor (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1930); Irwin Yellowitz, Labor and the Progressive Movement in New York State, 1897-1916 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1965); Kazin, Barons of Labor, 151-53.
316. Matthew Woll, in AFL Proceedings, 1910, 296; Eugene Staley, History of the Illinois State Federation of Labor (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1930); Irwin Yellowitz, Labor and the Progressive Movement in New York State, 1897-1916 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1965); Kazin, Barons of Labor, 151-53.
317. Matthew Woll, in AFL Proceedings, 1910, 296; Eugene Staley, History of the Illinois State Federation of Labor (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1930); Irwin Yellowitz, Labor and the Progressive Movement in New York State, 1897-1916 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1965); Kazin, Barons of Labor, 151-53.
318. Vernon H. Jensen, Lumber and Labor (New York: Farrar and Rinehart, 1945), 121-22; "Washington's First Experiment in Direct Legislation," Political Science Quarterly 30 (1915):235-53; Robert Edward Lee Knight, Industrial Relations in the San Francisco Bay Area, 1900-1918 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1960), 243; AFL Proceedings, 1914, 422, 425; Cahill, Shorter Hors, 24; John R. Commons and John B. Andrews, Principles of Labor Legislation, rev. ed. (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1927), 229; Bulletin of the Public Affairs Information Service (White Plains: H.W. Wilson, 1915) 1, 114-15.
319. Vernon H. Jensen, Lumber and Labor (New York: Farrar and Rinehart, 1945), 121-22; "Washington's First Experiment in Direct Legislation," Political Science Quarterly 30 (1915):235-53; Robert Edward Lee Knight, Industrial Relations in the San Francisco Bay Area, 1900-1918 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1960), 243; AFL Proceedings, 1914, 422, 425; Cahill, Shorter Hors, 24; John R. Commons and John B. Andrews, Principles of Labor Legislation, rev. ed. (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1927), 229; Bulletin of the Public Affairs Information Service (White Plains: H.W. Wilson, 1915) 1, 114-15.
320. Vernon H. Jensen, Lumber and Labor (New York: Farrar and Rinehart, 1945), 121-22; "Washington's First Experiment in Direct Legislation," Political Science Quarterly 30 (1915):235-53; Robert Edward Lee Knight, Industrial Relations in the San Francisco Bay Area, 1900-1918 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1960), 243; AFL Proceedings, 1914, 422, 425; Cahill, Shorter Hors, 24; John R. Commons and John B. Andrews, Principles of Labor Legislation, rev. ed. (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1927), 229; Bulletin of the Public Affairs Information Service (White Plains: H.W. Wilson, 1915) 1, 114-15.
321. Vernon H. Jensen, Lumber and Labor (New York: Farrar and Rinehart, 1945), 121-22; "Washington's First Experiment in Direct Legislation," Political Science Quarterly 30 (1915):235-53; Robert Edward Lee Knight, Industrial Relations in the San Francisco Bay Area, 1900-1918 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1960), 243; AFL Proceedings, 1914, 422, 425; Cahill, Shorter Hors, 24; John R. Commons and John B. Andrews, Principles of Labor Legislation, rev. ed. (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1927), 229; Bulletin of the Public Affairs Information Service (White Plains: H.W. Wilson, 1915) 1, 114-15.
322. Vernon H. Jensen, Lumber and Labor (New York: Farrar and Rinehart, 1945), 121-22; "Washington's First Experiment in Direct Legislation," Political Science Quarterly 30 (1915):235-53; Robert Edward Lee Knight, Industrial Relations in the San Francisco Bay Area, 1900-1918 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1960), 243; AFL Proceedings, 1914, 422, 425; Cahill, Shorter Hors, 24; John R. Commons and John B. Andrews, Principles of Labor Legislation, rev. ed. (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1927), 229; Bulletin of the Public Affairs Information Service (White Plains: H.W. Wilson, 1915) 1, 114-15.
323. Vernon H. Jensen, Lumber and Labor (New York: Farrar and Rinehart, 1945), 121-22; "Washington's First Experiment in Direct Legislation," Political Science Quarterly 30 (1915):235-53; Robert Edward Lee Knight, Industrial Relations in the San Francisco Bay Area, 1900-1918 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1960), 243; AFL Proceedings, 1914, 422, 425; Cahill, Shorter Hors, 24; John R. Commons and John B. Andrews, Principles of Labor Legislation, rev. ed. (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1927), 229; Bulletin of the Public Affairs Information Service (White Plains: H.W. Wilson, 1915) 1, 114-15.
324. Vernon H. Jensen, Lumber and Labor (New York: Farrar and Rinehart, 1945), 121-22; "Washington's First Experiment in Direct Legislation," Political Science Quarterly 30 (1915):235-53; Robert Edward Lee Knight, Industrial Relations in the San Francisco Bay Area, 1900-1918 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1960), 243; AFL Proceedings, 1914, 422, 425; Cahill, Shorter Hors, 24; John R. Commons and John B. Andrews, Principles of Labor Legislation, rev. ed. (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1927), 229; Bulletin of the Public Affairs Information Service (White Plains: H.W. Wilson, 1915) 1, 114-15.
325. The AFL tended to equate the public works law with the realization of the eight-hour day; see, for example, the article on "The Eight Hour Day in Government Work" in American Federationist 17 (1910), 1057-58.
326. AFL Proceedings, 1914, 422, 433.
327. Congressional Record, February 12, 1914, 3406.
328. Ibid., December 14, 1911, 382-85, 389.
329. AFL Proceedings, 1914, 425-436-37, 442.
330. Ibid., 421-44, and 1915, 484-503; see also Marc Karson, American Labor Unions and Policies, 1900-1918 (Carbondale, Ill.: Southern Illinois University Press, 1958), 128-30.
331. Ibid., 421-44, and 1915, 484-503; see also Marc Karson, American Labor Unions and Policies, 1900-1918 (Carbondale, Ill.: Southern Illinois University Press, 1958), 128-30.
332. AFL Proceedings, 1915, 484-504; see also Elizabeth Brandeis, "Labor Legislation," 557.
333. AFL Proceedings, 1915, 484-504; see also Elizabeth Brandeis, "Labor Legislation," 557.
334. On the eight-hour day movement, see Gary Cross, Worktime and Industrialization: An International History (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1988).
335. David A. Moss, Socializing Security: Progressive-Era Economists and the Origins of American Soaal Policy (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1996); David Brian Robertson, "Policy Entrepreneurs and Policy Divergence: John R. Commons and William Beveridge," Social Service Review 62 (1988), 504-31; Lafayette G. Harter, Jr., John R. Commons: His Assault on Laissez-Faire (Corvallis, Ore.: Oregon State University Press, 1962), 57-67, 73, 89-159; Weinstein, The Corporate Ideal in the Liberal State, 172-213; Wunderlin, Visions of a New Industrial Order; United States Commission on Industrial Relations, Final Report and Testimony, 64th Cong., 1st sess., Senate Doc. 415 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1915); H.M. Gitelman, "Management's Crisis of Confidence and the Origin of the National Industrial Conference Board," Business History Review 58 (1984):153-77.
336. David A. Moss, Socializing Security: Progressive-Era Economists and the Origins of American Soaal Policy (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1996); David Brian Robertson, "Policy Entrepreneurs and Policy Divergence: John R. Commons and William Beveridge," Social Service Review 62 (1988), 504-31; Lafayette G. Harter, Jr., John R. Commons: His Assault on Laissez-Faire (Corvallis, Ore.: Oregon State University Press, 1962), 57-67, 73, 89-159; Weinstein, The Corporate Ideal in the Liberal State, 172-213; Wunderlin, Visions of a New Industrial Order; United States Commission on Industrial Relations, Final Report and Testimony, 64th Cong., 1st sess., Senate Doc. 415 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1915); H.M. Gitelman, "Management's Crisis of Confidence and the Origin of the National Industrial Conference Board," Business History Review 58 (1984):153-77.
337. David A. Moss, Socializing Security: Progressive-Era Economists and the Origins of American Soaal Policy (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1996); David Brian Robertson, "Policy Entrepreneurs and Policy Divergence: John R. Commons and William Beveridge," Social Service Review 62 (1988), 504-31; Lafayette G. Harter, Jr., John R. Commons: His Assault on Laissez-Faire (Corvallis, Ore.: Oregon State University Press, 1962), 57-67, 73, 89-159; Weinstein, The Corporate Ideal in the Liberal State, 172-213; Wunderlin, Visions of a New Industrial Order; United States Commission on Industrial Relations, Final Report and Testimony, 64th Cong., 1st sess., Senate Doc. 415 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1915); H.M. Gitelman, "Management's Crisis of Confidence and the Origin of the National Industrial Conference Board," Business History Review 58 (1984):153-77.
338. David A. Moss, Socializing Security: Progressive-Era Economists and the Origins of American Soaal Policy (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1996); David Brian Robertson, "Policy Entrepreneurs and Policy Divergence: John R. Commons and William Beveridge," Social Service Review 62 (1988), 504-31; Lafayette G. Harter, Jr., John R. Commons: His Assault on Laissez-Faire (Corvallis, Ore.: Oregon State University Press, 1962), 57-67, 73, 89-159; Weinstein, The Corporate Ideal in the Liberal State, 172-213; Wunderlin, Visions of a New Industrial Order; United States Commission on Industrial Relations, Final Report and Testimony, 64th Cong., 1st sess., Senate Doc. 415 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1915); H.M. Gitelman, "Management's Crisis of Confidence and the Origin of the National Industrial Conference Board," Business History Review 58 (1984):153-77.
339. David A. Moss, Socializing Security: Progressive-Era Economists and the Origins of American Soaal Policy (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1996); David Brian Robertson, "Policy Entrepreneurs and Policy Divergence: John R. Commons and William Beveridge," Social Service Review 62 (1988), 504-31; Lafayette G. Harter, Jr., John R. Commons: His Assault on Laissez-Faire (Corvallis, Ore.: Oregon State University Press, 1962), 57-67, 73, 89-159; Weinstein, The Corporate Ideal in the Liberal State, 172-213; Wunderlin, Visions of a New Industrial Order; United States Commission on Industrial Relations, Final Report and Testimony, 64th Cong., 1st sess., Senate Doc. 415 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1915); H.M. Gitelman, "Management's Crisis of Confidence and the Origin of the National Industrial Conference Board," Business History Review 58 (1984):153-77.
340. David A. Moss, Socializing Security: Progressive-Era Economists and the Origins of American Soaal Policy (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1996); David Brian Robertson, "Policy Entrepreneurs and Policy Divergence: John R. Commons and William Beveridge," Social Service Review 62 (1988), 504-31; Lafayette G. Harter, Jr., John R. Commons: His Assault on Laissez-Faire (Corvallis, Ore.: Oregon State University Press, 1962), 57-67, 73, 89-159; Weinstein, The Corporate Ideal in the Liberal State, 172-213; Wunderlin, Visions of a New Industrial Order; United States Commission on Industrial Relations, Final Report and Testimony, 64th Cong., 1st sess., Senate Doc. 415 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1915); H.M. Gitelman, "Management's Crisis of Confidence and the Origin of the National Industrial Conference Board," Business History Review 58 (1984):153-77.
341. David A. Moss, Socializing Security: Progressive-Era Economists and the Origins of American Soaal Policy (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1996); David Brian Robertson, "Policy Entrepreneurs and Policy Divergence: John R. Commons and William Beveridge," Social Service Review 62 (1988), 504-31; Lafayette G. Harter, Jr., John R. Commons: His Assault on Laissez-Faire (Corvallis, Ore.: Oregon State University Press, 1962), 57-67, 73, 89-159; Weinstein, The Corporate Ideal in the Liberal State, 172-213; Wunderlin, Visions of a New Industrial Order; United States Commission on Industrial Relations, Final Report and Testimony, 64th Cong., 1st sess., Senate Doc. 415 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1915); H.M. Gitelman, "Management's Crisis of Confidence and the Origin of the National Industrial Conference Board," Business History Review 58 (1984):153-77.
342. John R. Commons, Institutional Economics (New York: Macmillan, 1934), 106.
343. John R. Commons and John B.Andrews, The Principles of Labor Legislation, 1st ed. (New York: Harper and Bros., 1916), 443-48.
344. United States Commission on Industrial Relations, Final Report, 221-26.
345. As Daniel Ernst point out, however, Commons was not a propone of central planning in the modern sense. Instead, he sought an agency that would encourage the use of the "best practices" already developed by business and labor. See Daniel R. Ernst, "Common Laborers? Industrial Pluralists, Legal Realists, and the Law of Industrial Disputes, 1915-1943," Law and History Review 11 (1993):59-100.
346. Moss, Socializing Security, 29-32; Yellowitz, Labor and the Progressive Movement in New York State, 120, 139-40; Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers, 229-31.
347. Moss, Socializing Security, 29-32; Yellowitz, Labor and the Progressive Movement in New York State, 120, 139-40; Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers, 229-31.
348. Moss, Socializing Security, 29-32; Yellowitz, Labor and the Progressive Movement in New York State, 120, 139-40; Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers, 229-31.
349. John B. Andrews, quoted in Moss, Socializing Security, 132; Report of the Social Insurance Commission of the State of California (Sacramento, Calif. State Printing Office, 1917), 280-83; Henry R. Seager, "Plan for a Health Insurance Act," American Labor Legislation Review 6 (1916):21-25; Seager, "Tendencies in Health Insurance Legislation," American Labor Legislation Reviews 6 (1916), 140-41; Seager, "Health Insurance: Tentative Draft of an Act," American Labor Legislation Review 6 (1916):238-68.
350. John B. Andrews, quoted in Moss, Socializing Security, 132; Report of the Social Insurance Commission of the State of California (Sacramento, Calif. State Printing Office, 1917), 280-83; Henry R. Seager, "Plan for a Health Insurance Act," American Labor Legislation Review 6 (1916):21-25; Seager, "Tendencies in Health Insurance Legislation," American Labor Legislation Reviews 6 (1916), 140-41; Seager, "Health Insurance: Tentative Draft of an Act," American Labor Legislation Review 6 (1916):238-68.
351. John B. Andrews, quoted in Moss, Socializing Security, 132; Report of the Social Insurance Commission of the State of California (Sacramento, Calif. State Printing Office, 1917), 280-83; Henry R. Seager, "Plan for a Health Insurance Act," American Labor Legislation Review 6 (1916):21-25; Seager, "Tendencies in Health Insurance Legislation," American Labor Legislation Reviews 6 (1916), 140-41; Seager, "Health Insurance: Tentative Draft of an Act," American Labor Legislation Review 6 (1916):238-68.
352. John B. Andrews, quoted in Moss, Socializing Security, 132; Report of the Social Insurance Commission of the State of California (Sacramento, Calif. State Printing Office, 1917), 280-83; Henry R. Seager, "Plan for a Health Insurance Act," American Labor Legislation Review 6 (1916):21-25; Seager, "Tendencies in Health Insurance Legislation," American Labor Legislation Reviews 6 (1916), 140-41; Seager, "Health Insurance: Tentative Draft of an Act," American Labor Legislation Review 6 (1916):238-68.
353. John B. Andrews, quoted in Moss, Socializing Security, 132; Report of the Social Insurance Commission of the State of California (Sacramento, Calif. State Printing Office, 1917), 280-83; Henry R. Seager, "Plan for a Health Insurance Act," American Labor Legislation Review 6 (1916):21-25; Seager, "Tendencies in Health Insurance Legislation," American Labor Legislation Reviews 6 (1916), 140-41; Seager, "Health Insurance: Tentative Draft of an Act," American Labor Legislation Review 6 (1916):238-68.
354. Samuel Gompers, "Labor vs. Its Barnacles," American Federationist 13 (1916):268-74; quote, 272.
355. Eugene Lyman Fisk, M.D., "Periodic Physical Examination of Employees, Its Economic and Social Value," American Industries 15 (1915):22-23; Magnus W. Alexander, "The Physician in Industry," American Industries 16 (1916):15-17. Note that the Alexander article appeared in we month before Gompers's attack on compulsory health insurance.
356. Eugene Lyman Fisk, M.D., "Periodic Physical Examination of Employees, Its Economic and Social Value," American Industries 15 (1915):22-23; Magnus W. Alexander, "The Physician in Industry," American Industries 16 (1916):15-17. Note that the Alexander article appeared in we month before Gompers's attack on compulsory health insurance.
357. Gompers, December 8, 1916, in U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Proceedings of the Conference on Social Insurance, Bulletin 212 (Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1917), 846.
358. Gompers, "Labor vs. Its Barnacles", see also Gompers, Voluntary Social Insurance vs. Compulsory," American Federationist 23 (1916):680.
359. Samuel Gompers, "Voluntary Social Insurance vs. Compulsory," American Federationist 23 (1916):335-36.
360. Gopers, "Voluntary Social Insurance vs. Compulsory," 350.
361. Western, Between Class and Merket.
362. Karen Orren, Belated Feudalism: Labor, the Law, and Liberal Development in the United States (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991); and Orren, "The Primacy of Labor in American Constitutional Development," American Political Science Review 89 (1995):377-88.
363. Karen Orren, Belated Feudalism: Labor, the Law, and Liberal Development in the United States (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991); and Orren, "The Primacy of Labor in American Constitutional Development," American Political Science Review 89 (1995):377-88.
364. Colin Gordon, New Deals: Business, Labor, and Politics in American, 1920-1935 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994).