Hypoglycemia in adults

Diabetes and Metabolism

Volumn 25, Issue 6, 1999, Pages 477-490

  Virally, M L ^a   Guillausseau, P J ^b  

^a HÔPITAL LARIBOISIÈRE   (France)

^b NONE

Author keywords

Adults; Diabetes mellitus; Extrapancreatic hypoglycemic tumor; Hypoglycemia; Insulinoma; Review

Indexed keywords

CATECHOLAMINE; GLUCAGON; GLUCOSE; INSULIN RECEPTOR ANTIBODY;

ADULT; AUTOIMMUNE DISEASE; DIABETES MELLITUS; ENDOCRINE DISEASE; GASTRECTOMY; GLUCOSE BLOOD LEVEL; HEART FAILURE; HUMAN; HYPOGLYCEMIA; INSULIN RELEASE; INSULIN TREATMENT; INSULINOMA; KIDNEY FAILURE; LIVER FAILURE; PANCREAS ISLET BETA CELL; REVIEW; SEPSIS;

ADULT; BLOOD GLUCOSE; FACTITIOUS DISORDERS; HUMANS; HYPOGLYCEMIA; INSULIN; INSULINOMA; PANCREATIC NEOPLASMS;

EID: 0033434062     PISSN: 03381684     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (122)

1. Schwartz NS, Clutter WE, Shah SD, Cryer PE. Glycemic thresholds for activation of glucose counterregulatory systems are higher than thresholds for symptoms. J Clin Invest, 1987, 79, 777-781.
2. Mitrakou A, Fanelli C, Veneman T, Perriello G, Calderone S, Platanisiotis D et al. Reversibility of unawareness of hypoglycemia in patients with insulinomas. N Engl J Med, 1993, 329, 834-839.
3. Fanelli C, Pampenelli S, Epifano AM, et al. Relative role of insulin and hypoglycamia on induction of neuroendocrine responses to, symptoms of, and deterioration of cognitive function in hypoglycemia in male and female humans. Diabetologia, 1994, 37, 797-807.
4. Heller SR, Cryer PE. Reduced neuroendocrine and symptomatic responses to subsequent hypoglycemia after one episode of hypoglycemia in nondiabetic humans. Diabetes, 1991, 40, 223-226.
5. Cryer PE. Glucose counterregulation: the prevention and correction of hypoglycemia in humans. Am J Physiol, 1993, 264 E, 149-155.
6. Towler DA, Havlin CE, Craft S, Cryer P. Mechanism of awareness of hypoglycemia. Diabetes, 1993, 42, 1791-1798.
7. Larger E, Hillaire-Buys H, Assan R, Blayac JP. Les hypoglycémies médicamenteuses en 1995. Données de la pharmacovigilance, analyse de la littérature. Journ Annu Diabetol Hotel Dieu, 1995, 89-105.
8. Pandit MK, Burke J, Gustafson AB, Minocha A, Peiris AN. Drug-induced disorders of glucose tolerance. Ann Intern Med, 1993, 118, 529-539.
9. Seltzer HS. Drug-induced hypoglycemia. A review of 1 418 cases. Endocr Metab Clin North Am, 1989, 18, 163-183.
10. Hekimsoy Z, Biberoglu S, Çomlekci A, Tarhan O, Mermut C, Biberoglu K. Trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole-induced hypoglycemia in a malnourished patient with severe infection. Eur J Endocrinol, 1997, 136, 304-306.
11. Assan R, Perronne C, Assan D, Chotard L, Mayaud C. Matheron S, Zucman D. Pentamidine-induced derangements of glucose homeostasis. Diabetes Care, 1995, 18, 47-55.
12. Herings RMC, de Boer A, Stricker BHC, Leufkens HGM, Porsius A. Hypoglycaemia associated with use of inhibitors of angiotensin converting enzyme. Lancet, 1995, 345, 1195-1198.
13. Ferner RE, Neil HAW. Sulphonylureas and hypoglycaemia. B Med J, 1988, 296, 949-950.
14. Cryer PE. Hypoglycemia is the limiting factor in the management of diabetes. Diab Metab Res Rev, 1999, 15, 42-46.
15. Boyle PJ, Schwartz NS, Shah SD, Clutter WE, Cryer PE. Plasma glucose concentrations at the onset of hypoglycemic symtpoms in patients with poorly controlled diabetes and in nondiabetics. N Engl J Med, 1988, 318, 1487-1492.
16. Sjöbom NC, Adamson U, Lins DE. The prevalence of impaired glucose counterregulation during an insulin infusion test in insulin-treated patients prone to severe hypoglycaemia. Diabetologia, 1989, 32, 818-825.
17. White NH, Skor DA, Cryer PE, Bier DM, Levandoski L, Santiago JV. Identification of type 1 diabetic patients at increased risk for hypoglycemia during intensive therapy. N Engl J Med. 1983, 308, 485-491.
18. Cryer PE, Fischer JN, Shamoom H. Hypoglycaemia. Diabetes Care, 1994, 17, 734-755.
19. Pramming S, Thorsteinsson B, Bendtson I, Ronn B, Binder C. Nocturnal hypoglycaemia in patients receiving conventional treatment with insulin. B Med J, 1985, 291, 376-379.
20. Gold AE, Mac Leod KM, Frier BM. Frequency of severe hypoglycaemia in patients with type I diabetes with impaired awareness of hypoglycemia. Diabetes Care, 1994, 17, 697-703.
21. Mokan M, Mitrakou A, Veneman T, Ryan C, Korytkowski M, Cryer P, et al. Hypoglycemia unawareness in IDDM. Diabetes Care, 1994, 17, 1397-1403.
22. Grimaldi A, Bosquet F, Davidoff P, Digy JP, Sachon C, Landault C et al. Unawareness of hypoglycemia by insulin-dependent diabetes. Horm Metab Res, 1990, 22, 90-95.
23. Hepburn DA, Patrick AW, Brash HM, Thomson I, Frier BM. Hypoglycaemia unawareness in type I diabetes: a lower plasma glucose is required to stimulate sympathoadrenal activation. Diabetic Med, 1991, 8, 934-945.
24. Amiel SA, Tamborlane WV, Simonson DC, Sherwin RS. Defective glucose counterregulation after strict control of insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med, 1987, 16, 1376-1383.
25. Amiel SA, Sherwin RS, Simonson DC, Tamborlane WV. Effect of intensive insulin therapy on glycemic thresholds for counterregulatory hormone release. Diabetes, 1988, 37, 901-907.
26. Boyle PJ, Schwartz NS, Shah SD, Clutter WE, Cryer PE. Plasma glucose concentrations at the onset of hypoglycemic symptoms in patients with poorly controlled diabetes and in nondiabetics. N Engl J Med. 1988, 318, 1487-1492.
27. Maran A, Lomas J, Macdonald IA, Amiel SA. Lack of preservation of higher brain function during hypoglycaemia in patients with intensively-treated IDDM. Diabetologia, 1995, 38, 1412-1418.
28. Davis SN, Shavers C, Costa F, Mosqueda-Garcia R. Role of cortisol in the pathogenesis of deficient counterregulation after antecedent hypoglycemia in normal humans. J Clin Invest, 1996, 98, 680-91.
29. Davis SN, Shavers C, Davis B, Costa F. Prevention of an increase in plasma cortisol during hypoglycemia preserves subsequent counterregulatory responses. J Clin Invest, 1997, 100, 429-3.
30. Heller SR, Cryer PE. Reduced neuroendocrine and symptomatic responses to subsequent hypoglycemia after one episode of hypoglycemia in nondiabetic humans. Diabetes, 1991, 40, 223-226.
31. Lingenfelser T, Renn W, Sommerwerck U, Jung MF, Buettner UW, Zaiser-Kaschel H. Compromised hormonal counterregulation, symptom awareness, and neurophysiological function after recurrent short-term episodes for insulin-induced hypoglycemia in IDDM patients. Diabetes, 1993, 42, 610-618.
32. Cranston I, Lomas J, Maran A, Macdonald I, Amiel SA. Restoration of hypoglycemia awareness in patients with long-duration insulin-dependent diabetes. Lancet 1994, 344, 283-287.
33. Fanelli CG, Epifano L, Rambotti AM, Pampanelli S, Di Vincenzo A, Modarelli F et al. Meticulous prevention of hypoglycemia normalizes the glycemic thresholds and magnitude of most neuroendocrine responses to symptoms and of cognitive function during hypoglycemia in intensively treated diabetes. Diabetes, 1993, 42, 1683-1689.
34. Mitrakou A, Mokan M, Ryan C, Veneman T. Hierarchy of glycemic thresholds for counterregulatory hormone secretion, symptoms and cerebral dysfunction. Am J Physiol, 1991, 260, E 67-71.
35. Hirsch IB, Boyle PJ, Craft S, Cryer PE. Higher glycemic thresholds for symptoms during β-adrenergic blockade in IDDM. Diabetes, 1991, 40, 1177-1186.
36. Debrah K, Sherwin RS, Murphy J, Keer D. Effect of caffeine on recognition of and physiological responses to hypoglycaemia in insulin-dependent diabetes. Lancet, 1996, 347, 19-24.
37. Cryer PE, Fischer JN, Shamoom H. Hypoglycaemia. Diabetes Care, 1994, 17, 734-755.
38. Gale EAM, Tattersall RB. Unrecognized nocturnal hypoglycaemia in insulin-treated diabetes. Lancet, 1979, 1, 1049-1052.
39. Pramming S, Thorsteinsson B, Bendtson I, Binder C. Symptomatic hypoglycaemia in 411 type 1 diabetic patients. Diabetic Med, 1991, 8, 217-222.
40. The Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group Hypoglycemia in the Diabetes Control and complications Trial Diabetes, 1997, 46, 271-286.
41. UK Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) Group Intensive blood-glucose control with sulfonylureas or insulin compared with conventional treatment and risk of complications in patients with type 2 diabetes (UK PDS 33). Lancet, 1998, 352, 837-853.
42. Ohkubo Y, Kishikawa H, Araki et al. Intensive insulin therapy prevents the progression of diabetic microvascular complications in Japanese patients with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus: a randomized prospective 6-year study. Diabetes Res Clin Pract, 1995, 28, 103-107.
43. Avogaro A, Tiengo A. Alcohol, glucose metabolism and diabetes. Diabetes Metab Rev, 1993, 9, 129-146.
44. Gold AE, Mac Leod KM, Deary IJ, Frier BM. Hypoglycemia-induced cognitive dysfunction in diabetes mellitus: effect of hypolycemia unawareness. Physiol Behav, 1995, 58, 501-511.
45. Deary IJ, Crawford JR, Hepburn DA, et al. Severe hypoglycemia and intelligence in adult patients with insulin-treated diabetes. Diabetes, 1991, 42, 341-344.
46. Perros P, Deary IJ, Sellar RJ, et al. Brain abnormalities demonstrated by magnetic resonance imaging in adult IDDM patients with and without a history of recurrent severe hypoglycemia. Diabetes Care, 1997, 20, 1013-1018.
47. Marques JL, George E, Peacey SR, et al. Altered ventricular repolarization during hypoglycaemia in patients with diabetes. Diabetic Med, 1997, 14, 648-654.
48. Van Staa T, Abenhaim L, Monette J. Rates of hypoglycemia in users of sulfonylureas. J Clin Epidemiol, 1997, 50, 735-741.
49. Stahl M, Berger W Higher incidence of severe hypoglycemia leading to hospital admission in type 2 diabetic patients treated with long-acting versus short-acting sulfonylureas. Diabetic Med, 1999, 1, 586-590.
50. Berger W, Caduff F, Pasquel M, Rump A Die relative Haufigkeit der schweren Sulfonylharmstoff-hypoglykämie in den letzen 25 Jahren in der Schweiss. Schweiz Med Wochenschr, 1986, 116, 145-151.
51. Trovati M, Burzacca S, Mularoni E, Massucco P, Cavalot F, Mattiello L et al. Occurrence of low blood glucose concentrations during the afternoon in type 2 (non-insulin-dependent) diabetic patients on oral hypoglycaemic agents: importance of blood glucose monitoring. Diabetologia, 1991, 34, 662-667.
52. Asplund K, Wiholm BE, Lithner F. Glibenclamide-associated hypoglycaemia: a report on 57 cases. Diabetologia, 1983, 24, 412-417.
53. Shor RI, Ray WA, Daugherty JR, Griffin MR. Incidence and risk factors for serious hypoglycemia in older patients using insulin or sulfonylureas Ann Intern Med, 1997, 157, 1681-1686.
54. Stahl M, Berger W. Sulfonylurées: pharmacologie et risque hypoglycémique. Journ Annu Diabetol Hotel Dieu, 1995, 107-119.
55. Grimaldi A, Bosquet F, Davidoff P, Digy JP, Sachon C, Landault C et al. Unawareness of hypoglycemia by insulin-dependent diabetes. Harm Metab Res, 1990, 22, 90-95.
56. Klonoff DC, Barrett BJ, Nolte MS, Cohen RM, Wyderski R. Hypoglycemia following inadvertent and factitious sulfonylurea over-dosages. Diabetes Care, 1995, 18, 565-567.
57. Perros P, Henderson AK, Carter DC, Toft AD. Are spontaneous hypoglycaemia, raised plasma insulin and C peptide concentrations and abnormal pancreatic images enough to diagnose insulinoma. B Med J, 1997, 314, 496-497.
58. Sener A, Gillet C, Verhelst J, De Boeck K, Mahler C, Malaisse WJ. Factitious hypoglycaemia documented by a modified assay for the measurement of plasma sulphonylurea. Diabetic Med, 1995, 12, 433-435.
59. Guillausseau PJ, Mosse A, Lubetzki J. C-peptide in factitious hypoglycemia from sulfonylurea. Diabetes Care, 1983, 6, 314-315.
60. Grunberger G, Weiner JL, Silverman R, Taylor S, Gorden P. Factitious hypoglycemia due to surreptious administration of insulin. Ann Intern Med, 1988, 108, 252-257.
61. Johnson RG, Bauman WA, Warshaw A, Axelrod L. Factitious hypoglycemia due to administration of human synthetic insulin: new diagnostic challenge. Diabetes Care, 1987, 10, 253-255.
62. Avogaro A, Tiengo A. Alcohol, glucose metabolism and diabetes. Diabetes Metab Rev, 1993, 9, 129-146.
63. Lubetzki J, Duprey J, Guillausseau PJ. Notions récentes sur les hypoglycémies spontanées de l'adulte. Diabetes Metab, 1979, 5, 167-180.
64. Arky RA, Veverbrants E, Abramson EA. Ireversible hypoglycemia. A complication of alcohol and insulin. JAMA, 1968, 206, 575-577.
65. Kerr D, Macdonald IA, Heller SR, Tattersall RB. Alcohol causes hypoglycemic unawareness in healthy volunteers and patients with type 1 (insulin-dependent) diabetes. Diabetologia, 1990, 32, 216-221.
66. Marks V, Teale JD. Investigation of hypoglycaemia. Clin Endocrinol, 1996, 44, 133-136.
67. Service FJ, Dale AJD, Elveback LR, Jiang NS. Insulinoma: clinical and diagnostic features of 60 consecutive cases. Mayo Clin Proc, 1976, 51, 417-429.
68. Vallot T, Mignon M, Lewin MJ, Bonfils S. Les insulinomes. In: Endocrinologie digestive pratique: bases cliniques et théoriques. Paris: John Libbey Eurotext, 1996, 57-66.
69. Hammond PJ, Jackson JA, Bloom SR. Localization of pancreatic endocrine tumours. Clin Endocrinol, 1994, 40, 3-14.
70. Guillausseau PJ, Virally-Monod M, Tielmans D, Timsit J. Hypoglycémies de l'adulte. Encycl Méd Chir (Elsevier, Paris), Endocrinologie-Nutrition, 10-364-E-10, 1998, 12p.
71. Nestorewicz A., Wilson BA., Schoor KB. et al Mutations in the sulfonylurea receptor gene are associated with familial hyperinsulinism in the Ashkenazi jews. Hum Mol Genet, 1996, 18, 13-22.
72. Service JE, Natt N, Thompson GB. et al. Noninsulinoma pancreatogenous hypoglycemia: a novel syndrome of hyperinsulinemic hypoglyccmia in adult independent of mutations in Kir. 6.2 and SUR I genes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1999, 84, 1582-1589.
73. Glaser B, Kesavan P, Heyman M, et al. Familial hypcrinsulinism caused by an activating glucokinase mutation. N Engl J Med, 1998, 226-230.
74. Vea H, Jorde R, Sager G, et al. Pre-and postoperative glucose levels for eliciting hypoglycemic responses in a patient with insulinoma. Diabetic Med, 1992, 9, 950-953.
75. Snook JA, Star RV, Weller RO. Insulinoma producing progressive neurological deterioration over 30 years. B Med J, 1986, 293, 214-242.
76. Sakurai A, Aizawa T, Katakura M, et al. Insulinoma in a patient with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Endocr J, 1997, 44, 473-477.
77. Di Maggio EM, Dore R, Solcia M, et al. The use of spiral computerized tomography in the study of pancreatic insulinoma: preliminary results. Radiol Med, 1997, 93, 95-99.
78. Palazzo L, Roseau G, Salmeron M. Endoscopie ultrasonography in the preoperative localization of pancreatic endocrine tumors. Endoscopy, 1992, 24 (Suppl. 1), 350-353.
79. Rosch T, Lightade CJ, Botet JF, et al. Localization of pancreatic endocrine tumors by endoscopie ultrasonography. N Engl J Med, 1992, 326, 1721-1726.
80. Proye C, Malvaux P, Pattou F, et al. Non invasive imaging of lnsulinomas and gastrinomas with endoscopic ultrasonography and somatostatin receptor scintigraphy. Surgery, 1998, 433, 1134-1143.
81. Lamberts SW, Hofland LJ, Van Koetsveld PM. et al. Parallel in vivo and in vitro detection of functionnal somatostatin receptors in human endocrine pancreatic tumors: consequences with regard to diagnosis, localization, and therapy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 1990, 71, 566-574.
82. Lamberts SW, Bakker WH, Reubi JC, Krenning EP. Treatment with sandostutin and in vivo localization of tumors with radiolabeled somatostatin analogs. Metabolism, 1990, 39, 152-155.
83. Doherty GM, Doppman JL, Shawker TH, et al. Results of a prospective strategy to diagnose, localize, and resect insulinomas. Surgery, 1991, 110, 989-996.
84. Service FJ, Horwitz DL, Rubenstein AH et al. C-peptide suppression test for insulinoma. J Lab Clin Med, 1997, 90, 180-186.
85. Cohen RM, Camus F. Update on insulinomas or the (missing) proinsulinoma. Diabetes Care, 1988, 11, 506-508.
86. Service FJ, O'Brien PC, Kao PC, Young WF. C-peptide suppression test: effects of gender, age, and body mass index; implications for the diagnosis of insulinoma. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1992, 74, 204-210.
87. Service FJ. Hypoglycemic disorders. N Engl J Med, 1995, 332, 1144-1152.
88. Moertel CG, Lefkopoulo M, Lipsitz S, Hahn RG, Klaassen D. Streptozocin-Doxorubicin, Streptozocin-Fluorouracil, or Chlorozotocin in the treatment of advanced islet-cell carcinoma. N Engl J Med, 1992, 326, 519-523.
89. Hoffmann JC, Cook CB, Floyd JC. 25 years of successful diazoxide and trichlormethiazide treatment of hyperinsulinism in a 79-year-old woman. Drug Invest, 1991, 3, 230-233.
90. Krenning EP, Breeman WAP, Kooij PPM, et al. Localization of endocrine-related tumours with radioiodinated analogue of somatostatin. Lancet, 1989, 242-244.
91. Timmer R, Koningsbcrger LC, Erkelens DW, Thijssen JHH, Lips CJM, Koppeschaar HPF. No effect of the long-acting somatostatin analogue octreotide in patients with insulinoma. Neth J Med, 1991, 38, 199-203.
92. Arnold R, Neuhaus Ch, Benning R, et al. Sandostatin (SAS) in the control of growth of malignant endocrine GEP tumors. Gastroenterol. 1992, 102 (4/P.2 Suppl.), p.A256.
93. Gama R, Marks V, Wright J, Teale JD. Octrcotide exacerbated fasting hypoglycacmia in a patient with a proinsulinoma; the glucostatic importance of pancreatic glucagon. Clinical Endocrinology, 1995, 43, 117-120.
94. Roy BK, Abuid J, Wendorff H, Nitiyanant W, De-Rubertis FR, Field JB. Insulin release in response to calcium in the diagnosis of insulinoma. Metabolism, 1979, 28, 246-252.
95. DePalo C, Sicolo N, Vettor R, Federspil G. Lack of effect of calcium infusion on blood glucose and plasma insulin levels in patients with insulinoma. J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 1981, 52, 804-806.
96. Proye C, Pattou F, Carnaille B, Lefebvre J, Decoulx M, d'Herbomez M. Intraoperative insulin measurement during surgical management of insulinomas. World J Surg. 1998, 433, 1218-1224.
97. Azzoni C, D'Adda T, Tamburrano G, Coscelli C, Madsen OD, et al. Laparoscopic surgery combined with preservation of the spleen for distal pancreatic tumors. Surg Endosc, 1999, 433, 26-29.
98. Azzoni C, D'Adda T, Tamburrano G et al. Videolaparoscopic excision of insulinoma. A study of 5 cases. Chirurgie, 1998, 433, 461-467.
99. Chung J, Henry R. Mechanism of tumor-induced hypoglycemia with intra-abdominal hemangiopericytoma. J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 1996, 81, 1321-1330.
100. Daughaday WH. The pathophysiology of IGF II hypersecretion in non-islet-cell tumor hypoglycemia. Diabetes Rev, 1995, 3, 62-72.
101. Phillips LS, Robertson DG. Insulin-like Growth factors and non-islet-cell tumour hypoglycemia. Metabolism, 1993, 42, 1093-1101.
102. Ron D, Powers AC, Pandian MR, Godine GE, Axelrod F. Increased insulin-like growth factor II production and consequent suppression of growth hormone secretion: a dual mechanism for tumor-induced hypoglycemia. J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 1989, 68, 701-706.
103. Fryslyk J, Skjaerbaek C, Zapft J, Orskov H. Increased levels of circulating free insulin-like growth factors in patients with non-islet cell tumour hypoglycaemia. Diabelologia, 1998, 41, 589-594.
104. Seckl MJ, Mulholland PJ, Bishop AE, et al. Hypoglycemia due to an insulin-secreting small-cell carcinoma of the cervix. N Engl J Med, 1999, 141, 733-736.
105. Hirata Y, Ishizu H, Ouchi N et al. Insulin autoimmunity in a case of spontaneous hypoglycemia. J Jpn Diab Soc, 1970, 13, 312-320.
106. Virally ML, Timsit J, Chanson P, Warnet A, Guillausseau PJ. Insulin autoimmune syndrome: a cause of hypoglycemia to be kept in mind. Diabetes Metab. 1999, 25, 429-431.
107. Uchigata Y, Eguchi Y, Takayama-Hasumi S, Omori Y. Insulin autoimmune syndrome (Hirata Disease): clinical features and epidemiology in Japon. Diab Res Clin Pract, 1994, 22, 89-94.
108. Eguchi Y, Uchigata Y, Yao K et al. Longitudinal changes of serum insulin concentration and insulin antibody features in persistent insulin autoimmune syndrome (Hirata's disease). Autoimmunity, 1994, 19, 279-284.
109. Uchigata Y, Tokunaga K, Nepom G et al. Differential immunogenic determinants of polyclonal insulin autoimmune syndrome (Hirata's disease) and monoclonal insulinautoimmunc sydrome. Diabetes, 1995, 44, 1227-1232.
110. Ito Y, Nieda M, Tokunaga K, et al. Recognition of human insulin in the context of HLA-DRB1*0406 products by T cells in insulin autoimmune syndrome patients and healthy donors. J Immunol, 1993, 151, 5770-5776.
111. Wilkin TJ. Receptor autoimmunity in endocrine disorders. N Engl J Med. 1990, 323, 1318-1324.
112. Felig P, Brown WV, Levine RA, Klaskin G. Glucose homeostasis in viral hepatitis. N Engl J Med, 1970, 283, 1436-1440.
113. Fischer KF, Lees JA, Newman JH. Hypoglycemia in hospitalized patients. Causes and outcomes. N Engl J Med, 1986, 315, 1245-1250.
114. Frizell M, Larsen PR, Field JB. Spontaneous hypoglycemia associated with chronic renal failure. Diabetes, 1973, 22, 493-498.
115. th edition, Scriver CR, Beaudet AL, Sly WS, Valle D. eds. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1995, pp 935-65.
116. Lang CH, Dobrescu C. Sepsis-induced increases in glucose uptake by macrophage-rich tissues persist during hypoglycemia. Metabolism, 1991, 40, 585-593.
117. Sakurai Y, Zhang XJ, Wolfe RR. TNF directly stimulates glucose uptake and leucine oxidation and inhibits. FFA flux in conscious dogs. Am J Physiol, 1996, 270, E864-E872.
118. Elias AN, Gwinup G. Glucose-resistant hypoglycemia in inanitions. Arch Intern Med, 1982, 142, 743-746.
119. Toft-Nielsen M, Madsbad S, Host JJ. Exaggerated secretion of glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) can explain reactive hypoglycemia. Diabetes, 1996, 45, 223A (Abst).
120. Palardy J, Havrankova J, Lepage R, et al. Blood glucose measurements during symptomatic episodes in patients with suspected postprandial hypoglycemia. N Engl J Med, 1989, 321, 1421-1425.
121. Goldman J. Pathogenesis of functional or idiopathic reactive hypoglycemia: hyperresponsiveness to insulin and increased receptor effector coupling. In: Current Views on Insulin Receptors, Adreani D, DePirro R, Lauro R, eds. New York: Academic Press, 1981, 499-505.
122. Tse TF, Clutter WE, Shah SD, Cryer PE. Mechanisms of postprandial glucose counterregulation in man. J Clin Invest, 1983, 72, 278-286