The cultural production of educational utility in Pere village, Papua New Guinea

Comparative Education Review

Volumn 43, Issue 2, 1999, Pages 162-192

  Demerath, Peter ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0033430522     PISSN: 00104086     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1086/447553     Document Type: Article

References (116)

1. TP: Tok Pisin or Neomelanesian.
2. Here and elsewhere, quotations are identified by date and pseudonyms are used to protect participants' identities. Emphasized words belong to the persons being quoted unless otherwise stated.
3. George Psacharopoulos, "Returns to Education: An Updated International Comparison," Comparative Education 17, no. 3 (1981): 321-41, "Returns to Investment in Education: A Global Update," World Development 22, no. 9 (1994): 1325-43.
4. George Psacharopoulos, "Returns to Education: An Updated International Comparison," Comparative Education 17, no. 3 (1981): 321-41, "Returns to Investment in Education: A Global Update," World Development 22, no. 9 (1994): 1325-43.
5. See John Boli, Francisco Ramirez, and John Meyer's argument: "The triumph of mass education presupposes cultural universalism, emphasizing the primacy of the individual and a strong link between individual growth and national development" ("Explaining the Origins and Expans ion of Mass Education," Comparative Education Review 28, no. 2 [1985]: 164).
6. See John Boli, Francisco Ramirez, and John Meyer's argument: "The triumph of mass education presupposes cultural universalism, emphasizing the primacy of the individual and a strong link between individual growth and national development" ("Explaining the Origins and Expans ion of Mass Education," Comparative Education Review 28, no. 2 [1985]: 164).
7. Alex Inkeles and David Horton Smith, Becoming Modern: Individual Change in Six Developing Countries (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1974).
8. See Peter Demerath, "Social and Cultural Influences on the Decline in Manus School Certificate Examination Performance: Student Dilemmas and Adaptations," Papua New Guinea Journal of Education 32, no. 1 (1996): 55-64,
9. "Friends and Peers in Manus High Schools: Social Fields for the Negotiation of Academic Engagement and Identity, " in The Politics of Trade and Friendship in the Pacific: Essays on the Anthropology of Social Fields, ed. J. Terrell and R. Welsch (submitted for publication).
10. According to Paul Willis, cultural production is "The active, collective use and explorations of received symbolic, ideological, and cultural resources to explain, make sense of and positively respond to 'inherited' structural and material conditions" ("Cultural Production and Theories of Reproduction," in Race, Class, and Education, ed. L. Barton and S. Walker [London: Groom Helm, 1983], p. 112).
11. See, e.g., Bradley Levinson, Douglas Foley, and Dorothy Holland, eds., The Cultural Production of the Educated Person: Critical Ethnographies of Schooling and Local Practice (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1996); Lois Weis, forward to ibid.; Deborah Gewertz and Frederick Errington, Twisted Histories, Altered Contexts: Representing the Chambri in a World System (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991); and Geoff White, Identity through History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991).
12. See, e.g., Bradley Levinson, Douglas Foley, and Dorothy Holland, eds., The Cultural Production of the Educated Person: Critical Ethnographies of Schooling and Local Practice (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1996); Lois Weis, forward to ibid.; Deborah Gewertz and Frederick Errington, Twisted Histories, Altered Contexts: Representing the Chambri in a World System (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991); and Geoff White, Identity through History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991).
13. See, e.g., Bradley Levinson, Douglas Foley, and Dorothy Holland, eds., The Cultural Production of the Educated Person: Critical Ethnographies of Schooling and Local Practice (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1996); Lois Weis, forward to ibid.; Deborah Gewertz and Frederick Errington, Twisted Histories, Altered Contexts: Representing the Chambri in a World System (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991); and Geoff White, Identity through History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991).
14. See, e.g., Bradley Levinson, Douglas Foley, and Dorothy Holland, eds., The Cultural Production of the Educated Person: Critical Ethnographies of Schooling and Local Practice (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1996); Lois Weis, forward to ibid.; Deborah Gewertz and Frederick Errington, Twisted Histories, Altered Contexts: Representing the Chambri in a World System (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991); and Geoff White, Identity through History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991).
15. Carlos Alberto Torres, "Democracy, Education and Multiculturalism: Dilemmas of Citizenship in a Global World," Comparative Education Review 42 (November 1998): 421-47.
16. Martin Carnoy and Henry M. Levin, Schooling and Work in the Democratic State (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1985).
17. See Freeman Butts, The Education of the West: A Formative Chapter in the History of Civilizations (New York: McGraw Hill, 1973), p. 545;
18. and Martin Carnoy, Education as Cultural Imperialism (New York: David McKay, 1974), p. 17 , for contrasting views on the roles these elites played in the creation of their new nations.
19. The same situation occurred in Africa and in much of Asia (Carnoy, pp. 50-51). For a discussion of the negative effect of British technical and literacy education on economic modernization in India, see Butts, pp. 548-49).
20. R. Dore postulated that in developing countries where educational development was driven by labor markets, a direct correlation would soon arise between educational credentialism and individual merit and skill. He theorized that the situation not only led teachers to teach to exams and students to study solely for exam success but also led to an overproduction of graduates who could not find employment (The Diploma Disease: Education, Qualification and Development [Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976]). For a more detailed discussion of these issues in Papua New Guinea,
21. see Sheldon Weeks, "Education in Papua New Guinea, 1973-1993: The Late-Development Effect?" Comparative Education 29, no. 3 (1993): 261-73.
22. See, e.g., Butts, pp. 556-57.
23. Desh Gupta and Mark Bray, "Human Resource Development: Education and Health," in Political Economy of Growth and Stagnation in Papua New Guinea, ed. D. Gupta (Port Moresby: University of Papua New Guinea Press, 1992), p. 179.
24. The gross enrollment rate at the primary level in 1989 was approximately 70 percent (Beatrice Avalos, "Ideology, Policy and Educational Change in Papua New Guinea," Comparative Education 29, no. 3 [1993]: 275-92). Only 56 percent of the students who started grade 1 in 1985 were still enrolled in grade 6 in 1990. Approximately 33 percent of the students from grade 6 transferred into secondary grade 7. Approximately 70 percent of the students who were in grade 7 in 1986 were in grade 10 in 1989, and approximately 10 percent of the students from grade 10 went on to grade 11 in National High School. Thus, around 1.5 percent of the students who start grade 1 complete grade 12. I should also mention that at the beginning of the 1990s, functional adult illiteracy was approximately 70 percent (see Gupta and Bray).
25. Mark Bray, Education and Social Stratification in Papua New Guinea (Melbourne: Longman Cheshire, 1985); Gupta.
26. C. Browne and D. Scott, Economic Development in Seven Pacific Island Countries (Washington, D.C.: International Monetary Fund, 1989).
27. See, e.g., Patricia Broadfoot, "Change and the Search for Identity," Comparative Education 33, no. 1 (1997): 5-7,
28. and "On the Brink of Anarchy," Pacific Islands Monthly 63, no. 6 (1993): 14-17.
29. See Avalos's argument on why secondary education should not be "restricted" in Papua New Guinea (p. 288).
30. This review grew out of Papua New Guinea's involvement in the Unesco, Unicef, and World Bank program for the promotion of Education for All (National Department of Education, Education Sector Review, vol. 2, Deliberations and Findings [Waigani: Measurement Services Unit, 1991]).
31. National Department of Education, School Certificate Examinations Report (Waigani: Measurement Services Unit, 1994).
32. The MRI is the percentage of grade 10 students who scored upper passes or above in the nationally examined subjects of English, mathematics, social science, and science. The MRI is the rating index averaged across all subjects, and a score of 50 percent indicates average performance for a province (ibid.).
33. For a complete review of these factors, including district geography, school organizational factors, school leadership, quality of teachers, student difficulties with the English-only curriculum, and various student-intake factors such as sex, age, and parents' educational background, see Graham Vulliamy, "School Effectiveness Research in Papua New Guinea," Comparative Education Review 23, no. 2 (1987): 209-23; Margaret Gibson and Sheldon Weeks, Improving Education in Western Province, Division of Educational Research Report no. 64 (Waigani: National Research Institute, 1990);
34. For a complete review of these factors, including district geography, school organizational factors, school leadership, quality of teachers, student difficulties with the English-only curriculum, and various student-intake factors such as sex, age, and parents' educational background, see Graham Vulliamy, "School Effectiveness Research in Papua New Guinea," Comparative Education Review 23, no. 2 (1987): 209-23; Margaret Gibson and Sheldon Weeks, Improving Education in Western Province, Division of Educational Research Report no. 64 (Waigani: National Research Institute, 1990);
35. N. Ahai and N. Faraclas, "Rights and Expectations in an Age of 'Debt Crisis': Literacy and Integral Human Development in Papua New Guinea," in Knowledge, Culture and Power: International Perspectives on Literacy as Policy and Practice, ed. P. Freebody and A. Welch (London: Falmer, 1993);
36. and Simon Sengi, "School Organizational Factors and Successful Academic Performance: The Case of Yangoru and St. Xavier's High Schools in the East Sepik Province," Papua New Guinea Journal of Education 31, no. 1 (1995): 11-25.
37. See, e.g., Lamont Lindstrom, "Local Knowledge Systems and the Pacific Classroom," Papua New Guinea Journal of Education 26, no. 1 (1990): 5-17; and A. Sanders, "Kamasu Perceptions of Learning," Papua New Guinea Journal of Education 25, no. 2 (1989): 29-39.
38. See, e.g., Lamont Lindstrom, "Local Knowledge Systems and the Pacific Classroom," Papua New Guinea Journal of Education 26, no. 1 (1990): 5-17; and A. Sanders, "Kamasu Perceptions of Learning," Papua New Guinea Journal of Education 25, no. 2 (1989): 29-39.
39. See, e.g., Hans Bosse, Becoming a Papua New Guinean (Waigani: National Research Institute, 1994).
40. B. Waldrip and P. Taylor, "Understanding Students' Cultural Background: A Prerequisite for Effective Teaching," Papua New Guinea Journal of Education 31, no. 1 (1995): 3.
41. Marty Zelenietz and Jill Grant, "The Ambiguities of Education in Kilenge, Papua New Guinea," Pacific Studies 9, no. 3 (1986): 35.
42. See Mark Bray, Counting the Full Cost: Parental and Community Financing of Education in East Asia (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1996).
43. Levinson et al., eds. (n. 8 above).
44. See Thomas Shaw, "Taiwanese Schools against Themselves: School Culture versus the Subjectivity of Youth," in Levinson et al., eds.; and Laura Rival, "Formal Schooling and the Production of Modern Citizens in the Ecuadorian Amazon," in Levinson et al., eds.
45. Charles Taylor, Sources of the Self (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1989).
46. See, e.g., Paul Willis, Learning to Labor (New York: Columbia University Press, 1977); Donna Deyhle, "Navajo Youth and Anglo Racism: Cultural Integrity and Resistance," Harvard Educational Review 65, no. 3 (1995): 405-44; Signithia Fordham, Blacked Out: Dilemmas of Race, Identity and Success at Capital High (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996).
47. See, e.g., Paul Willis, Learning to Labor (New York: Columbia University Press, 1977); Donna Deyhle, "Navajo Youth and Anglo Racism: Cultural Integrity and Resistance," Harvard Educational Review 65, no. 3 (1995): 405-44; Signithia Fordham, Blacked Out: Dilemmas of Race, Identity and Success at Capital High (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996).
48. See, e.g., Paul Willis, Learning to Labor (New York: Columbia University Press, 1977); Donna Deyhle, "Navajo Youth and Anglo Racism: Cultural Integrity and Resistance," Harvard Educational Review 65, no. 3 (1995): 405-44; Signithia Fordham, Blacked Out: Dilemmas of Race, Identity and Success at Capital High (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996).
49. Importantly, Sykes points out that in Melanesia, the reproduction of class and status differences is mediated by wide-ranging and more or less egalitarian kinship networks (see Karen Sykes, "Raising LeLet: Education, Knowledge and the Crisis of Youth in Central New Ireland, Papua New Guinea" (Ph.D. diss., Princeton University, Department of Anthropology, 1995).
50. See Noel McGinn, "Education, Democratization, and Globalization: A Challenge for Comparative Education," Comparative Education Review 40, no. 4 (1996): 341-57;
51. and Anthea Taylor, "Education for Democracy: Assimilation or Emancipation for Aboriginal Australians," Comparative Education Review 40, no. 4 (1996): 426-38.
52. See, e.g., Margaret Mead, Growing up in New Guinea: A Comparative Study of Primitive Education (1930; rev. ed., New York: William Morrow, 1975), and New Lives for Old: Cultural Transformation - Manus, 1928-1953 (1956; rev. ed., New York: William Morrow, 1975); Reo Fortune, Manus Religion (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1935); Ted Schwartz, "The Paliau Movement in the Admiralties, 1946-1954," Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History 49 (1962): 207-421, "Relations among Generations in Time-Limited Cultures," Ethos 3, no. 2 (1975): 309-22; Ton Otto, "The Politics of Tradition in Baluan: Social Change and the Construction of the Past in a Manus Society" (Ph.D. diss., Australian National University, Department of Anthropology, 1991).
53. See, e.g., Margaret Mead, Growing up in New Guinea: A Comparative Study of Primitive Education (1930; rev. ed., New York: William Morrow, 1975), and New Lives for Old: Cultural Transformation - Manus, 1928-1953 (1956; rev. ed., New York: William Morrow, 1975); Reo Fortune, Manus Religion (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1935); Ted Schwartz, "The Paliau Movement in the Admiralties, 1946-1954," Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History 49 (1962): 207-421, "Relations among Generations in Time-Limited Cultures," Ethos 3, no. 2 (1975): 309-22; Ton Otto, "The Politics of Tradition in Baluan: Social Change and the Construction of the Past in a Manus Society" (Ph.D. diss., Australian National University, Department of Anthropology, 1991).
54. See, e.g., Margaret Mead, Growing up in New Guinea: A Comparative Study of Primitive Education (1930; rev. ed., New York: William Morrow, 1975), and New Lives for Old: Cultural Transformation - Manus, 1928-1953 (1956; rev. ed., New York: William Morrow, 1975); Reo Fortune, Manus Religion (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1935); Ted Schwartz, "The Paliau Movement in the Admiralties, 1946-1954," Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History 49 (1962): 207-421, "Relations among Generations in Time-Limited Cultures," Ethos 3, no. 2 (1975): 309-22; Ton Otto, "The Politics of Tradition in Baluan: Social Change and the Construction of the Past in a Manus Society" (Ph.D. diss., Australian National University, Department of Anthropology, 1991).
55. See, e.g., Margaret Mead, Growing up in New Guinea: A Comparative Study of Primitive Education (1930; rev. ed., New York: William Morrow, 1975), and New Lives for Old: Cultural Transformation - Manus, 1928-1953 (1956; rev. ed., New York: William Morrow, 1975); Reo Fortune, Manus Religion (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1935); Ted Schwartz, "The Paliau Movement in the Admiralties, 1946-1954," Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History 49 (1962): 207-421, "Relations among Generations in Time-Limited Cultures," Ethos 3, no. 2 (1975): 309-22; Ton Otto, "The Politics of Tradition in Baluan: Social Change and the Construction of the Past in a Manus Society" (Ph.D. diss., Australian National University, Department of Anthropology, 1991).
56. See, e.g., Margaret Mead, Growing up in New Guinea: A Comparative Study of Primitive Education (1930; rev. ed., New York: William Morrow, 1975), and New Lives for Old: Cultural Transformation - Manus, 1928-1953 (1956; rev. ed., New York: William Morrow, 1975); Reo Fortune, Manus Religion (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1935); Ted Schwartz, "The Paliau Movement in the Admiralties, 1946-1954," Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History 49 (1962): 207-421, "Relations among Generations in Time-Limited Cultures," Ethos 3, no. 2 (1975): 309-22; Ton Otto, "The Politics of Tradition in Baluan: Social Change and the Construction of the Past in a Manus Society" (Ph.D. diss., Australian National University, Department of Anthropology, 1991).
57. See, e.g., Margaret Mead, Growing up in New Guinea: A Comparative Study of Primitive Education (1930; rev. ed., New York: William Morrow, 1975), and New Lives for Old: Cultural Transformation - Manus, 1928-1953 (1956; rev. ed., New York: William Morrow, 1975); Reo Fortune, Manus Religion (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1935); Ted Schwartz, "The Paliau Movement in the Admiralties, 1946-1954," Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History 49 (1962): 207-421, "Relations among Generations in Time-Limited Cultures," Ethos 3, no. 2 (1975): 309-22; Ton Otto, "The Politics of Tradition in Baluan: Social Change and the Construction of the Past in a Manus Society" (Ph.D. diss., Australian National University, Department of Anthropology, 1991).
58. Wayne Fife, "Education and Society in Papua New Guinea: Toward Social Inequality, 1870-1945," Man and Culture in Oceania 11 (1995): 61-79.
59. Otto.
60. Pierre Bourdieu, Outline of a Theory of Practice (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977).
61. Schwartz points out that the Manus valued many different kinds of knowledge, including genea-logical knowledge and knowledge of songs, which were not necessarily "efficacious" in the same sense (personal communication, April 15, 1998).
62. The Baluan people are a cultural group living on a volcanic island approximately 30 km south of Manus Island; see Otto, p. 122.
63. Theodore Schwartz, "The Cargo Cult: A Melanesian Type-Response to Change," in Ethnic Identity: Cultural Continuities and Change, ed. G. De Vos and L. Romanucci-Ross (Palo Alto, Calif.: Mayfield, 1975).
64. Butts (n. 11 above), p. 526.
65. Ibid.
66. Mead, New Lives for Old.
67. Theodore Schwartz, "Kastom, Custom and Culture: Conspicuous Culture and Culture-Constructs," Anthropological Forum 6, no. 4 (1992): 515-40.
68. Butts, p. 532.
69. Mark Bray, Educational Planning in a Decentralised System: The Papua New Guinean Experience (Port Moresby: University of Papua New Guinea Press, 1984).
70. The Paliau Movement was a comprehensive program intended to address local dissatisfaction with the colonial order by stressing village unity, pooling resources, and abolishing traditional feasts and exchanges (Schwartz [n. 36 above]).
71. John Wilson, e.g., reported that Ghanaians who had some education had a great "desire to escape from low subsistence farming economy and all that goes with it" (Education and Changing West African Culture [New York: Teachers College Press, 1963], pp. 30-31).
72. Otto (n. 36 above).
73. Manus District Annual Reports (1956), in Otto, pp. 194-95.
74. James Carrier and Achsah Carrier, Wage, Trade and Exchange in Melanesia: A Manus Society in the Modern State (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1989).
75. In 1995, community school fees were approximately K 20.00, and high school fees or boarding students were between K 350.00 and K 400.00 (K = kina). A subsidy from the government of Papua New Guinea reimbursed parents for half of all students' high school fees. At that time, one Papua New Guinean kina was worth approximately 85 U.S. cents.
76. James Carrier, Education and Society in n Manus Village (Waigani: University of Papua New Guinea, Education and Research Unit, 1984), p. 49.
77. Otto, pp. 191-98.
78. Many of the participants in the study were from the Pere clan, which had historically had the closest ties with visiting anthropologists and, indeed, had provided accommodations for this field stay. However, the study also included participants from the other three major clan divisions of the village.
79. Manus Division of Health and Spiritual Development, Six Month Summary Report (Lorengau: Department of Manus, 1992).
80. Gupta, ed. (n. 15 above).
81. Manus Division of Health and Spiritual Development.
82. C. Swatridge has described wantokism as "friendly society, welfare system, and iife-assurance all in one" (Delivering the Goods: Education as Cargo in Papua New Guinea [Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1987], p. 127).
83. Typical exchanges involved fish for either sago, root vegetables, or betel nut.
84. See Shaw (n. 31 above).
85. Indeed, subsistence, spiritual, and family needs were given priority over money and education in the list of 12 basic minimum needs identified by the people of Manus in a 1992 Department of Manus survey. These needs were: (1) shelter, (2) spiritual development, (3) medical care, (4) family life, (5) peace and harmony, (6) population and family planning, (7) water, (8) food, (9) communication, (10) money, (11) education, and (12) land (conversation with Kule'en Hamou, Lugos, Manus, July 6, 1995). For a discussion of the important new role of imported religion in the lives of Papua New Guineans, see Maurice Godelier, "Is the West the Model for Humankind? The Baruya of New Guinea between Change and Decay," International Social Science Journal 43 (1991): 387-99; and Michael Smith, Hard Times on Kairiru Island: Poverty, Development and Morality in a Papua New Guinea Village (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1994).
86. Indeed, subsistence, spiritual, and family needs were given priority over money and education in the list of 12 basic minimum needs identified by the people of Manus in a 1992 Department of Manus survey. These needs were: (1) shelter, (2) spiritual development, (3) medical care, (4) family life, (5) peace and harmony, (6) population and family planning, (7) water, (8) food, (9) communication, (10) money, (11) education, and (12) land (conversation with Kule'en Hamou, Lugos, Manus, July 6, 1995). For a discussion of the important new role of imported religion in the lives of Papua New Guineans, see Maurice Godelier, "Is the West the Model for Humankind? The Baruya of New Guinea between Change and Decay," International Social Science Journal 43 (1991): 387-99; and Michael Smith, Hard Times on Kairiru Island: Poverty, Development and Morality in a Papua New Guinea Village (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1994).
87. See, e.g., Godelier; Gewertz and Errington (n. 8 above); and Sykes (n. 34 above).
88. See, e.g., Godelier; Gewertz and Errington (n. 8 above); and Sykes (n. 34 above).
89. Smith.
90. Maurice Leenhardt, Do Kamo: Person and Myth in the Melanesian World (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979).
91. See Schwartz, "Relations among Generations" (n. 36 above); Daniel Miller, Modernity: An Ethnographic Approach (Oxford: Berg, 1994); and Broadfoot, "Change and the Search for Identity" (n. 19 above.
92. See Schwartz, "Relations among Generations" (n. 36 above); Daniel Miller, Modernity: An Ethnographic Approach (Oxford: Berg, 1994); and Broadfoot, "Change and the Search for Identity" (n. 19 above.
93. See Schwartz, "Relations among Generations" (n. 36 above); Daniel Miller, Modernity: An Ethnographic Approach (Oxford: Berg, 1994); and Broadfoot, "Change and the Search for Identity" (n. 19 above.
94. Gewertz and Errington.
95. See Arjun Appadurai, Modernity at Large: Cultural Dimensions of Globalization (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1996).
96. See, e.g., Rena Lederman, What Gifts Engender (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1986); Jocelyn Linnekin, "The Politics of Culture in the Pacific," in Cultural Identity and Ethnicity in the Pacific, ed. J. Linnekin and L. Poyer (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1990); Nigel Grant, "Some Problems of Identity and Education: A Comparative Examination of Multicultural Education," Comparative Education 33, no. 1 (1997): 9-28.
97. See, e.g., Rena Lederman, What Gifts Engender (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1986); Jocelyn Linnekin, "The Politics of Culture in the Pacific," in Cultural Identity and Ethnicity in the Pacific, ed. J. Linnekin and L. Poyer (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1990); Nigel Grant, "Some Problems of Identity and Education: A Comparative Examination of Multicultural Education," Comparative Education 33, no. 1 (1997): 9-28.
98. See, e.g., Rena Lederman, What Gifts Engender (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1986); Jocelyn Linnekin, "The Politics of Culture in the Pacific," in Cultural Identity and Ethnicity in the Pacific, ed. J. Linnekin and L. Poyer (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1990); Nigel Grant, "Some Problems of Identity and Education: A Comparative Examination of Multicultural Education," Comparative Education 33, no. 1 (1997): 9-28.
99. Carnoy (n. 11 above), p. 3.
100. Leenhardt (n. 66 above).
101. See Butts (n. 11 above), p. 528, for a discussion of African perceptions of Western Christian missionaries during the colonial period. Also, for a more contemporary account of how Papua New Guineans are able to combine seemingly disparate elements of Christianity with their traditional cosmology, see Godelier.
102. Saksak is sago, the starchy staple of the archipelago.
103. See Richard Harvey Brown, "Cultural Representation and Ideological Domination," Social Forces 71, no. 3 (1993): 657-76.
104. In this section I do not seek to explain actual educational outcomes - which are determined by a multiplicity of factors including intelligence, school effectiveness, and parents' educational attainment. Rather, I show how parents' and their children's aspirations and investment in school were affected by their culturally mediated perceptions of the educational and occupational opportunity structure.
105. Because of personnel changes in the Department of Education, community school examination results for the previous 5-10 years were not available.
106. This was usually done through large-scale group fishing expeditions involving an entire clan and a special net called a lou.
107. An island off the north coast of Manus.
108. For further discussion of this developing subjectivity in Manus youth, see Peter Demerath, "The Social Cost of Acting 'Extra': Student Constructions of Identity, Academic Engagement, and Ideal Social Relations in Manus, Papua New Guinea," working paper (Ohio State University, Columbus, 1999).
109. A limitation of the study is the unequal representation of the voices and experiences of females, owing to difficulties I encountered in establishing informant relationships with them.
110. See Demerath, "The Social Cost of Acting 'Extra.'"
111. In addition, the Board of Management had to made several announcements to collect the K 5 school equipment trust account fee for the 1994 school year. At the end of December 1994, 34 of 92 students in school had not paid it, and the board had to threaten to bar these students from the school the next year until the parents paid it (which they eventually did).
112. See, e.g., Psacharapoulos, "Returns to Education" and "Returns to Investment in Education" (both n. 3 above).
113. See, e.g., Boli et al. (n. 4 above).
114. Inkeles and Smith (n. 5 above).
115. See Gewertz and Errington (n. 8 above), p. 208.
116. See Torres (n. 9 above). In "The Social Cost of Acting 'Extra,'" I describe how this valorized traditionality in Manus villages served as a resource for the counterschool cultural production and academic disengagement of many high school students in Lorengau. In response to their own perceptions of an inhospitable job market, many students adopted a "casual" attitude toward their studies, valorized their own egalitarian village-based identity, and policed their friends and peers for signs of acting "extra" - adopting visible Western identity traits and striving for academic success. I comment on the implications of these behaviors for the attainment of some of the goals of Education for All.