Magical urbanism: Latinos reinvent the US big city

New Left Review

Volumn , Issue 234, 1999, Pages 3-43

  Davis, Mike ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0033425495     PISSN: 00286060     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (164)

1. Mitchell Moss, Anthony Townsend, and Emmanuel Tobier, Immigration Is Transforming New York City, Taub Urban Research Center, NYU, December 1997, p. 1. No borough, except Staten Island, has a majority group any longer.
2. Statistics not otherwise noted are from US Bureau of the Census. Carol Cropper, 'New Turn in Power Struggle Over Dallas School System', The New York Times, 12 October 1997; and Bernard Weinstein, 'An Economy in Full Swing', Urban Land, September 1998, p. 67.
3. Statistics not otherwise noted are from US Bureau of the Census. Carol Cropper, 'New Turn in Power Struggle Over Dallas School System', The New York Times, 12 October 1997; and Bernard Weinstein, 'An Economy in Full Swing', Urban Land, September 1998, p. 67.
4. Census estimates for 1992 and 1997 (September 1998).
5. National Center for Health Statistics, Births of Hispanic Origin, 1989-1995, Washington, DC 1998.
6. The median age of the Mexican population is only 23. US Bureau of the Census, March 1994, CPS: Median Age of Population by Ethnicity.
7. Thaddeus Herrick, 'Jose Most Popular Name in Texas and California', Houston Chronicle, 14 January 1999.
8. Barbara Vobejda, 'Catching a Demographic Wave', The Washington Post National Weekly Edition, 20-27 July 1998; and US Bureau of the Census, Current Population Reports: Population Projections of the United States by Age, Sex, Race, and Hispanic Origin: 1995-2050 (P25-1130), Washington, DC, pp. 1-2, 14, and 16-17.
9. Barbara Vobejda, 'Catching a Demographic Wave', The Washington Post National Weekly Edition, 20-27 July 1998; and US Bureau of the Census, Current Population Reports: Population Projections of the United States by Age, Sex, Race, and Hispanic Origin: 1995-2050 (P25-1130), Washington, DC, pp. 1-2, 14, and 16-17.
10. Whereas Hispanics, as a census category, have both high birthrates and high immigration rates, Asians' high immigration is offset by low fertility.
11. Another twenty-five cities will probably have Latino majorities by 2000. (Data set available at http://migration.ucdavis.edu/hspn-cnus/cityhasp1.htm). See also Elaine Allensworth and Refugio Rochin, 'Ethnic Transformation in Rural California: Beyond the Immigrant Farmworker', Rural Sociology, vol. 63, no. 1, 1998.
12. Another twenty-five cities will probably have Latino majorities by 2000. (Data set available at http://migration.ucdavis.edu/hspn-cnus/cityhasp1.htm). See also Elaine Allensworth and Refugio Rochin, 'Ethnic Transformation in Rural California: Beyond the Immigrant Farmworker', Rural Sociology, vol. 63, no. 1, 1998.
13. Frank Bean and Marta Tienda, The Hispanic Population of the United States, New York 1987.
14. Neil Foley, 'Becoming Hispanic: Mexican Americans and the Faustian Pact with Whiteness', in Relexiones 1997: New Directions in Mexican American Studies, edited by Neil Foley, Austin 1997, p. 53.
15. See Acuna, Anything But Mexican, p. 9; Juan Flores, Divided Borders: Essays on Puerto Rican Identity, Houston 1993, p. 184; Suzanne Oboler, Ethnic Labels, Latino Lives, Minneapolis 1995; and Geoffrey Fox, Hispanic Nation: Culture, Politics and the Constructing of Identity, Tucson 1996, pp. 12-15.
16. See Acuna, Anything But Mexican, p. 9; Juan Flores, Divided Borders: Essays on Puerto Rican Identity, Houston 1993, p. 184; Suzanne Oboler, Ethnic Labels, Latino Lives, Minneapolis 1995; and Geoffrey Fox, Hispanic Nation: Culture, Politics and the Constructing of Identity, Tucson 1996, pp. 12-15.
17. See Acuna, Anything But Mexican, p. 9; Juan Flores, Divided Borders: Essays on Puerto Rican Identity, Houston 1993, p. 184; Suzanne Oboler, Ethnic Labels, Latino Lives, Minneapolis 1995; and Geoffrey Fox, Hispanic Nation: Culture, Politics and the Constructing of Identity, Tucson 1996, pp. 12-15.
18. See Acuna, Anything But Mexican, p. 9; Juan Flores, Divided Borders: Essays on Puerto Rican Identity, Houston 1993, p. 184; Suzanne Oboler, Ethnic Labels, Latino Lives, Minneapolis 1995; and Geoffrey Fox, Hispanic Nation: Culture, Politics and the Constructing of Identity, Tucson 1996, pp. 12-15.
19. Xavier Totti, 'The Making of a Latino Ethnic Identity', Dissent, Fall 1987, pp. 537-42.
20. Flores, Divided Borders, p. 203.
21. CEPAL (UN), 'America Latina: Proyecciones de Poblacion, 1970-2050', Boletin Demografico 62, July 1998.
22. 1990 US Census. What is hidden in these figures, as well as ignored in most discussions of Latino identity, is the rapidly growing population that identifies with multiple nationalities or heritages, ranging from, say, Mexican-Salvadoran to Cuban-Korean or Ecuadorean-Jewish. 'Other' is the spanner in the works of the US ethnic-racial hierarchy.
23. Speaking about the huge German-speaking community in Gilded Age New York, Stanley Nadel writes: 'Selecting from a broad range of historically developed options, they shaped their ethnicity in accordance with whichever set of rules seemed appropriate for the particular context. Then, having molded an image out of a melange of culture, emotion, and ideology, they reified it into a seemingly timeless identity', Little Germany: Ethnicity, Religion, and Class in New York City, 1845-80, Urbana 1990, p. 7.
24. Mario Garcia, Mexican Americans: Leadership, Ideology and Identity, 1930-1960, New Haven 1989.
25. Foley, 'Becoming Hispanic', p. 53.
26. Ignacio Garcia, Chicanismo: The Forging of a Militant Ethos Among Mexican Americans, Tucson 1997.
27. See Harley Browning and Rodolfo O. de la Garza, eds., Mexican Immigrants and Mexican Americans: An Evolving Relation, Austin 1986; and David Gutierrez, Walls and Mirrors: Mexican Americans, Mexican Immigrants, and the Politics of Ethnicity, Berkeley 1995.
28. See Harley Browning and Rodolfo O. de la Garza, eds., Mexican Immigrants and Mexican Americans: An Evolving Relation, Austin 1986; and David Gutierrez, Walls and Mirrors: Mexican Americans, Mexican Immigrants, and the Politics of Ethnicity, Berkeley 1995.
29. Ruben Martinez, The Other Side: Fault Lines, Guerrilla Saints and the True Heart of Rock'n'Roll, London 1992; and Guillermo Gomez-Pena, The New World Border, San Francisco 1996.
30. Ruben Martinez, The Other Side: Fault Lines, Guerrilla Saints and the True Heart of Rock'n'Roll, London 1992; and Guillermo Gomez-Pena, The New World Border, San Francisco 1996.
31. Juan Flores's essays (Divided Borders) are wonderful, jazz-like riffs on the strungles to reclaim Puerto Rican, Latino, and, indeed, American identities from the clutches of messianic US exceptionalism and bottom-line corporate multi-culturalism.
32. On Spanish-language media, see Fox, Hispanic Nation, pp. 42-52.
33. Padilla contrasts two modes of constructing Latinidad: the fundamentally 'weak' mode of passive, symbolic identification with a common language community; and the 'strong' mode of active mobilization as an ethnic political bloc. See Latino Ethnic Consciousness: The Case of Mexican Americans and Puerto Ricans in Chicago, South Bend 1985, pp. 4-11; also, Puerto Rican Chicago, South Bend 1987.
34. Padilla contrasts two modes of constructing Latinidad: the fundamentally 'weak' mode of passive, symbolic identification with a common language community; and the 'strong' mode of active mobilization as an ethnic political bloc. See Latino Ethnic Consciousness: The Case of Mexican Americans and Puerto Ricans in Chicago, South Bend 1985, pp. 4-11; also, Puerto Rican Chicago, South Bend 1987.
35. On relations between Cubans and Nicaraguans, see Sheila Croucher, Imagining Miami: Ethnic Politics in a Postmodern World, Charlottesville 1997, esp. p. 51; and Patricia Fernandez-Kelly, 'From Estrangement to Affinity: Dilemmas of Identity Among Hispanic Children', in Borderless Borders, edited by Bonilla et al., p. 91.
36. On relations between Cubans and Nicaraguans, see Sheila Croucher, Imagining Miami: Ethnic Politics in a Postmodern World, Charlottesville 1997, esp. p. 51; and Patricia Fernandez-Kelly, 'From Estrangement to Affinity: Dilemmas of Identity Among Hispanic Children', in Borderless Borders, edited by Bonilla et al., p. 91.
37. Flores, Divided Borders, p. 183.
38. James Allen and Eugene Turner, The Ethnic Quilt: Population Diversity in Southern California, Northridge 1997, p. 251.
39. See Gabriel Haslip-Viera and Sherrie Baver, 'Introduction', in, Latinos in New York City: Communities in Transition, edited by Gabriel Haslip-Viera and Sherrie Baver, South Bend 1996, p. XIX; and Totti, 'The Making of a Latino Ethnic Identity', p. 542.
40. See Gabriel Haslip-Viera and Sherrie Baver, 'Introduction', in, Latinos in New York City: Communities in Transition, edited by Gabriel Haslip-Viera and Sherrie Baver, South Bend 1996, p. XIX; and Totti, 'The Making of a Latino Ethnic Identity', p. 542.
41. Silvio Torres-Saillant, 'Visions of Dominicanness in the United States', in Borderless Borders, edited by Bonilla et al., p. 141.
42. Flores, Divided Borders, p. 184.
43. Ilan Stavans, The Hispanic Condition: Reflections on Culture and Identity in America, New York 1995, pp. 9 and 13.
44. Alfredo Valladao, The Twenty-First Century Will Be American, Verso, London 1996, pp. 48-49 and 195-96.
45. I quote shamelessly from myself in a review of the work of the border arts collective, Adobe L.A.; see 'Huellas Fronterizas', Grand Street 56, 1996.
46. Table 1 in Borderlink (Economic Profile of the San Diego-Tijuana Region), San Diego State University, 1994; table 2 in Eugene Moehring, Resort City in the Sunbelt: Las Vegas, 1930-1970, Reno 1989, p. 270; and Las Vegas Convention and Visitors Authority (1990 and 1996 figures).
47. Up to a fifth of the populations of some northern Mexican states now reside north of the border, Los Angeles Times, 31 July 1998.
48. Josiah Heyman, 'The Mexico-United States Border in Anthropology: A Critique and Reformulation', Journal of Political Ecology, no. 1, 1994, pp. 49 and 56.
49. Daniel Arreola at the University of Arizona has compared the distinctive spatial organizations of fourteen cities on the Mexican side of the fence in (with James Curtis), The Mexican Border Cities: Landscape Anatomy and Place Personality, Tucson 1993.
50. Population from Demographic Atlas of San Diego/Tijuana, 1996; and maquiladoras from Mexico: Secretaria de Comercio y Fomento Industrial 1998.
51. See Lawrence Herzog, Where North Meets South: Cities, Space and Politics on the US-Mexico Border, Austin 1990; Oscar Martinez, Border People: Life and Society in the US-Mexican Borderlands, Tucson 1994; and M. Kearney and A. Knopp, Border Cuates: A History of the US-Mexican Twin Cities, Austin 1995.
52. See Lawrence Herzog, Where North Meets South: Cities, Space and Politics on the US-Mexico Border, Austin 1990; Oscar Martinez, Border People: Life and Society in the US-Mexican Borderlands, Tucson 1994; and M. Kearney and A. Knopp, Border Cuates: A History of the US-Mexican Twin Cities, Austin 1995.
53. See Lawrence Herzog, Where North Meets South: Cities, Space and Politics on the US-Mexico Border, Austin 1990; Oscar Martinez, Border People: Life and Society in the US-Mexican Borderlands, Tucson 1994; and M. Kearney and A. Knopp, Border Cuates: A History of the US-Mexican Twin Cities, Austin 1995.
54. Devon Pena, The Terror of the Machine: Technology, Work, Gender and Ecology on the US-Mexican Border, Austen 1997, pp. 275-76. 'Instead of adapting the Toyotist regime to cross-cultural dynamics, Japanese transnationals with Mexican maquilas have integrated their production strategies, in basically unmodified form, into a structure that gives management enormous leeway in the mediation and control of industrial conflicts and the micromanagement of shop-floor struggles. This is what I have called hyper-Toyotism, because it involves a strategy that exaggerates tendencies already found in the historical Japanese context.' (p. 276).
55. Demographic Atlas of San Diego/Tijuana.
56. 'Colonias: Problems and Promise', BorderLines, vol. 6, no. 1, February 1998; and Peter Ward, Colonias in Texas and Mexico: Urbanization by Stealth, Austin 1999.
57. 'Colonias: Problems and Promise', BorderLines, vol. 6, no. 1, February 1998; and Peter Ward, Colonias in Texas and Mexico: Urbanization by Stealth, Austin 1999.
58. EPA paraphrased by Pena, The Terror of the Machine, p. 291.
59. Cyrus Reed, 'Hazardous Waste Management on the Border', BorderLines, vol. 6, no. 5, July 1998.
60. US Water News Online, November 1996.
61. Thomas Kelly, Sewage Diplomacy: The Political Geography of Cross-Border Sewage Flows at San Diego-Tijuana, Ph.D. thesis, Law and International Diplomacy, Fletcher School, 1994.
62. Timothy Dunn, The Militarization of the US-Mexican Border, 1978-1992, Austin 1996.
63. Hector Tobar, 'New Border in Tijuana', LA Weekly, 15-21 March 1996.
64. Nate Seltzer, 'Immigration Law Enforcement and Human Rights Abuses', BorderLines, vol. 6, no. 9, November 1998.
65. Nor do they recall the ominous precedent of the 1992 Los Angeles riots when the regular military, federal police agencies (including a huge Border Patrol contingent), the national guard and local police, occupied inner-city neighbourhoods, often in the most brazen defiance of civil liberties.
66. Dane Schiller, 'Mighty Border Patrol Force Finds Deep Ambivalence Along the Rio Grande', New York Times News Service, 1998.
67. Moises Sanchez Limon, 'En Tijuana, 600 ejecuciones en un ano, denuncian abogados', Cronica, 11 January 1998.
68. See chapter 4 in Sebastian Rotella, Twilight on the Line; Underworld and Politics at the US-Mexico Border, New York 1998; and Anne Marie Mackler, 'Another Girl Found Murdered', Frontera NorteSur, January 1999.
69. See chapter 4 in Sebastian Rotella, Twilight on the Line; Underworld and Politics at the US-Mexico Border, New York 1998; and Anne Marie Mackler, 'Another Girl Found Murdered', Frontera NorteSur, January 1999.
70. Christopher Hansen and Angelo Falcon are currently finishing a typological analysis of Latino neighbourhoods in New York, and Morgan Appel is working on a similar project in the metropolitan Los Angeles area as contributions to an ambitious five-city comparative study undertaken by the Latino Urban Policy Agenda - a consortium for tour Latino policy centres.
71. Gregory Squires et al., Chicago: Race, Class and the Response to Urban Decline, Temple 1987, p. 110.
72. Institute for Puerto Rican Policy, New York City Latino Neighborhoods Databook, New York 1996.
73. 'The German-American community grew tenfold within thirty years and by 1875 encompassed one-third of New York City's population. By 1880, it had reached the size of the entire city of New York in 1845. The German New York metropolis, with over half a million people, was thus a third German capital, larger than any German city other than Berlin or Vienna', Nadel, Little Germany, p. 41.
74. When the perceptual plain contains almost equal sized forms that can alternately be recognized as object and context; in this case, the Latino metropolis grows from district to matrix and Anglo areas become the enclaves.
75. In a study of five key metropolitan areas (Los Angeles, San Francisco, Chicago, Miami and New York) a team of economic geographers came to the conclusion that immigration replaced but did not displace natives. The outflow was driven by economic restructuring and rise of edge cities, not by immigration. (Richard Wright, Mark Ellis, and Michael Reibel, 'The Linkages between Immigration and Internal Migration in Large Metropolitan Areas in the United States', Economic Geography, no. 73, pp. 235-40.)
76. See Mike Davis, 'The Empty Quarter', in Sex, Death, and God in L.A., edited by David Reid, New York 1992; and Nancy Abelmann and John Lie, Blue Dreams: Korean Americans and the Los Angeles Riots, Cambridge, MA 1995, especially pp. 137-40. The economic geography of Latino Los Angeles will be a major theme in the important forthcoming book by Victor Valle and Rudy Torres, Latino Metropolis.
77. See Mike Davis, 'The Empty Quarter', in Sex, Death, and God in L.A., edited by David Reid, New York 1992; and Nancy Abelmann and John Lie, Blue Dreams: Korean Americans and the Los Angeles Riots, Cambridge, MA 1995, especially pp. 137-40. The economic geography of Latino Los Angeles will be a major theme in the important forthcoming book by Victor Valle and Rudy Torres, Latino Metropolis.
78. On the residential and occupational geography of Guatemalans and Salvadorans in Los Angeles, see David Lopez, Eric Popkin and Edward Telles, 'Central Americans: At the Bottom, Struggling to Get Ahead', in Ethnic Los Angeles, edited by Roger Waldinger and Medhi Bozorgmehr, New York 1996.
79. Ortiz, 'The Mexican-Origin Population', p. 247.
80. Miguel Szekely, 'Economics of Poverty, Inequality and Wealth Accumulation in Mexico', Inter-American Development Bank study cited in The Los Angeles Times, 7 January 1999.
81. The migradollar estimate is arrived at by adding P. Martin's calculation of Mexican immigrants' annual remittances ($6-$7 billion) to commonly quoted figures for the repatriated money flow to Central America ($2-$3 billion), see P. Martin, 'Mexico, Polls, Remittances and Economy', Migration News, October 1996.
82. Dennis Conway and Jeffrey Cohen, 'Consequences of Migration and Remittances for Mexican Transnational Communities', Economic Geography, vol. 74, no. 1, January 1998.
83. See R. Alarcon, 'Nortenizacion: Self-Perpetuating Migration from a Mexican Town', in US/Mexican Relations: Labor Market Interdependence, edited by J. Bustamante et al., Stanford 1992, pp. 302-18; and N. Glick-Schiller, L. Basch, and C. Blanc-Szanton. 'From Immigrant to Transmigrant: Theorizing Transnational Migration', Anthropological Quarterly, vol. 68, no. 1, 1995.
84. See R. Alarcon, 'Nortenizacion: Self-Perpetuating Migration from a Mexican Town', in US/Mexican Relations: Labor Market Interdependence, edited by J. Bustamante et al., Stanford 1992, pp. 302-18; and N. Glick-Schiller, L. Basch, and C. Blanc-Szanton. 'From Immigrant to Transmigrant: Theorizing Transnational Migration', Anthropological Quarterly, vol. 68, no. 1, 1995.
85. Roger Rouse, 'Mexican Migration and the Social Space of Postmodernism', Diaspora, vol. 1, no. 1, Spring 1991, p. 14.
86. Peri Fletcher, La Casa de Mis Suenos: Migration and Houses in a Transnational Mexican Community, Ph.D. thesis, anthropology, Johns Hopkins University (Baltimore), 1996, p. 4.
87. Robert Smith, 'Transnational Migration, Assimilation, and Political Community', in The City and the World: New York's Global Future, edited by Margaret Grahan and Alberto Vourvolias-Bush, New York 1997, p. 119.
88. See ibid., pp. 117-119; and Robert Smith, 'Mexicans in New York', in Latinos in New York City, edited by Haslip-Viera and Baver, pp. 67-69, 77 and 79.
89. See ibid., pp. 117-119; and Robert Smith, 'Mexicans in New York', in Latinos in New York City, edited by Haslip-Viera and Baver, pp. 67-69, 77 and 79.
90. Michael Jones-Correa, Between Two Nations: The Political Predicament of Latinos in New York City, Ithaca 1998, pp. 128-29 and 164-65. See also the important study: Eugenia Georges, The Making of a Transnational Community: Migration, Development, and Cultural Change in the Dominican Republic, New York 1990.
91. Michael Jones-Correa, Between Two Nations: The Political Predicament of Latinos in New York City, Ithaca 1998, pp. 128-29 and 164-65. See also the important study: Eugenia Georges, The Making of a Transnational Community: Migration, Development, and Cultural Change in the Dominican Republic, New York 1990.
92. 'The New Immigrant Tide: A Shuttle Between Worlds', three-part series, The New York Times, 19 July 1998.
93. See Sam Dillon, 'Mexico Considers Extending Presidential Vote to Immigrants in USA', New York Times News Service, 1998.
94. Los Angeles Times, 25 March 1998.
95. For the historical background of immigrant networks and labour organization in California, see Devra Weber, 'Historical Perspectives on Transnational Mexican Workers in California', in Borger Crossings: Mexican and Mexican-American Workers, edited by John Hart, Wilmington 1998.
96. Sarah Mahler, American Dreaming: Immigrant Life on the Margins, Princeton 1995, p. 21.
97. See Carol Zabin, 'Organizing Latino Workers in the Los Angeles Manufacturing Sector: The Case of American Racing Equipment Company', unpublished research paper, UC Berkeley Labor Center, 1998; Ruth Milkman and Kent Wong, 'The 1992 Southern California Drywall Strike', conference paper presented at 'Immigrants and Union Organizing in California', May 1998; and David Bacon, Unions and the Upsurge of Immigrant Workers, Northern California Coalition for Immigrant Rights, n.d.
98. See Carol Zabin, 'Organizing Latino Workers in the Los Angeles Manufacturing Sector: The Case of American Racing Equipment Company', unpublished research paper, UC Berkeley Labor Center, 1998; Ruth Milkman and Kent Wong, 'The 1992 Southern California Drywall Strike', conference paper presented at 'Immigrants and Union Organizing in California', May 1998; and David Bacon, Unions and the Upsurge of Immigrant Workers, Northern California Coalition for Immigrant Rights, n.d.
99. See Carol Zabin, 'Organizing Latino Workers in the Los Angeles Manufacturing Sector: The Case of American Racing Equipment Company', unpublished research paper, UC Berkeley Labor Center, 1998; Ruth Milkman and Kent Wong, 'The 1992 Southern California Drywall Strike', conference paper presented at 'Immigrants and Union Organizing in California', May 1998; and David Bacon, Unions and the Upsurge of Immigrant Workers, Northern California Coalition for Immigrant Rights, n.d.
100. Diana Marcum, 'The Busboys of San Miguel', Los Angeles Times Magazine, 14 December 1997.
101. Robert Rouse, 'Mexican Migration', in Between Two Worlds, Mexican Immigrants in the United States, edited by David Guiterrez, Wilmington 1996, p. 253.
102. Maria de los Angeles Crummell, 'Gender, Class and Households', in Building With Our Hands: New Directions in Chicana Studies, edited by Adela de la Torre and Beatriz Pesquera, Berkeley 1993, pp. 162-64. Also see Dennis Conway and Jeffrey Cohen. 'Consequences of Migration and Remittances for Mexican Transnational Communities', Economic Geography vol. 74, no. 1, January 1998.
103. Maria de los Angeles Crummell, 'Gender, Class and Households', in Building With Our Hands: New Directions in Chicana Studies, edited by Adela de la Torre and Beatriz Pesquera, Berkeley 1993, pp. 162-64. Also see Dennis Conway and Jeffrey Cohen. 'Consequences of Migration and Remittances for Mexican Transnational Communities', Economic Geography vol. 74, no. 1, January 1998.
104. Fletcher, La Casa de Mis Suenos, pp. 10-11 and 169.
105. Recent, pathbreaking studies of the gendered social structures of immigration include, Donna Gabbacia, From the Other Side: Women, Gender, and Immigrant Life in the US, 1820-1990, Bloomington 1994; and Pierrette Hondagneu-Sotelo, Gendered Transitions: Mexican Experiences of Immigration, Berkeley 1994.
106. Recent, pathbreaking studies of the gendered social structures of immigration include, Donna Gabbacia, From the Other Side: Women, Gender, and Immigrant Life in the US, 1820-1990, Bloomington 1994; and Pierrette Hondagneu-Sotelo, Gendered Transitions: Mexican Experiences of Immigration, Berkeley 1994.
107. See Sherri Grasmuck and Ramon Grosfoguel, 'Geopolitics, Economic Niches, and Gendered Social Capital Among Recent Caribbean Immigrants to New York City', Sociological Perspective, vol. 40, no. 3, 1997, pp. 343-43; and Jacqueline Hagan, 'Social Networks, Gender, and Immigrant Incorporation: Resources and Constraints', American Sociological Review, vol. 63, February 1998, pp. 57-59. See also Greta Gilbertson, 'Women's Labor and Enclave Employment: The Case of Dominican and Colombian Women in New York City', International Migration Review, vol. 29, 1995.
108. See Sherri Grasmuck and Ramon Grosfoguel, 'Geopolitics, Economic Niches, and Gendered Social Capital Among Recent Caribbean Immigrants to New York City', Sociological Perspective, vol. 40, no. 3, 1997, pp. 343-43; and Jacqueline Hagan, 'Social Networks, Gender, and Immigrant Incorporation: Resources and Constraints', American Sociological Review, vol. 63, February 1998, pp. 57-59. See also Greta Gilbertson, 'Women's Labor and Enclave Employment: The Case of Dominican and Colombian Women in New York City', International Migration Review, vol. 29, 1995.
109. See Sherri Grasmuck and Ramon Grosfoguel, 'Geopolitics, Economic Niches, and Gendered Social Capital Among Recent Caribbean Immigrants to New York City', Sociological Perspective, vol. 40, no. 3, 1997, pp. 343-43; and Jacqueline Hagan, 'Social Networks, Gender, and Immigrant Incorporation: Resources and Constraints', American Sociological Review, vol. 63, February 1998, pp. 57-59. See also Greta Gilbertson, 'Women's Labor and Enclave Employment: The Case of Dominican and Colombian Women in New York City', International Migration Review, vol. 29, 1995.
110. Jack Miles, 'Blacks vs. Browns', Atlantic Monthly, October 1992. Miles cites Melvin Oliver and James Johnson, 'Interethnic Conflict in an Urban Ghetto: The Case of Blacks and Latinos in Los Angeles', Research in Social Movements, Conflict and Change, vol. 6, 1984.
111. Jack Miles, 'Blacks vs. Browns', Atlantic Monthly, October 1992. Miles cites Melvin Oliver and James Johnson, 'Interethnic Conflict in an Urban Ghetto: The Case of Blacks and Latinos in Los Angeles', Research in Social Movements, Conflict and Change, vol. 6, 1984.
112. See R. Lalonde and R. Topel, The Assimilation of Immigrants in the US Labor Market', in Immigration and the Workforce, edited by G. Borjas and R. Freeman, Chicago 1992.
113. Richard Wright, Mark Ellis, and Michael Reibel, 'The Linkage between Immigration and Internal Migration in Large Metropolitan Areas in the United States', Economic Geography, no. 73, 1997, pp. 235-37.
114. Vilma Ortiz, 'The Mexican-Origin Population: Permanent Working Class or Emerging Middle Class', in Ethnic Los Angeles, edited by Waldinger and Bozorgmehr, p. 257.
115. In a 1980 study, native-born (34 per cent clerical and 17 per cent factory) and immigrant Latins (37 per cent factory and 16 cent clerical) were represented in manufacturing and clerical office markets in almost inverse proportions. See Dowel Myers and Cynthia Cranford, 'Temporal Differentiation in the Occupational Mobility of Immigrant and Native-Born Latina Worker', American Sociological Review, vol. 63, February 1998, p. 70.
116. Ibid.
117. Ortiz, 'The Mexican-Origin Population', p. 250; and Robert Waldinger, 'Ethnicity and Opportunity in the Plural City', in Ethnic Los Angeles, edited by Waldinger and Bozorgmehr, p. 451.
118. Ortiz, 'The Mexican-Origin Population', p. 250; and Robert Waldinger, 'Ethnicity and Opportunity in the Plural City', in Ethnic Los Angeles, edited by Waldinger and Bozorgmehr, p. 451.
119. Dillon, 'Mexico Considers Extending Presidential Vote to Immigrants in USA'.
120. Ramona Hernandez, Francisco Rivera-Batiz and Roberta Godini, Dominican New Yorkers: A Socioeconomic Profile, 1990, Institute for Urban and Minority Education, Columbia University, New York 1995.
121. The New York Times, 28 July 1997.
122. Mahler, American Dreaming, p. 3.
123. Ibid.
124. See Heather Knight, 'Graduation Rates Rise for Blacks, Whites, Not Latinos', Los Angeles Times, 1 August 1997; Department of Health and Human Services, 'Hispanics Statistics', March 1998; and National Center for Educational Statistics, 'Dropout Rates in the United States: 1995', NCES 97-473, July 1997.
125. See Heather Knight, 'Graduation Rates Rise for Blacks, Whites, Not Latinos', Los Angeles Times, 1 August 1997; Department of Health and Human Services, 'Hispanics Statistics', March 1998; and National Center for Educational Statistics, 'Dropout Rates in the United States: 1995', NCES 97-473, July 1997.
126. See Heather Knight, 'Graduation Rates Rise for Blacks, Whites, Not Latinos', Los Angeles Times, 1 August 1997; Department of Health and Human Services, 'Hispanics Statistics', March 1998; and National Center for Educational Statistics, 'Dropout Rates in the United States: 1995', NCES 97-473, July 1997.
127. Moss, et al., Immigration Is Transforming New York City, p. 2.
128. Rebecca Morales and Paul Ong, 'Illusion of Progress: Lations in Los Angeles', in Latinos in a Changing US Economy, edited by Rebecca Morales and Frank Bonillo, Newbury Park 1993, p. 74.
129. Edwin Melendez, 'Hispanics and Wage Inequality in New York City', in Latinos in New York City, edited by Haslip-Viera and Baver, pp. 191 and 197.
130. Mike Davis, 'Who Killed Los Angeles? Part One', NLR 197, January-February 1993, pp. 3-28.
131. See the conclusions in William Clark, 'Mass Migration and Local Outcomes: Is International Migration to the United States Creating a New Urban Underclass', Urban Studies, vol. 35, no. 3, 1998, p. 380.
132. US Census, press release, 'Disparity Between Hispanics, Whites Increases', Washington, DC 1997.
133. James Allen and Eugene Turner, The Ethnic Quilt: Population Diversity in Southern California.
134. Andres Torres and Frank Bonilla, 'Decline Within Decline: The New York Perspectives', in Borderless Borders, edited by Morales and Bonilla, p. 108.
135. See Los Angeles Times, 2 February 1998; and Clifford Levy, 'New York Times, 8 November 1997.
136. See Los Angeles Times, 2 February 1998; and Clifford Levy, 'New York Times, 8 November 1997.
137. Barry Shlachter, 'Public Caught in Dallas Schools' Meltdown', fort Worth Star-Telegram, 23 September 1997.
138. Los Angeles Times, 1 January 1998.
139. Los Angeles Times, 8 November 1996.
140. Maurillo Virgil, 'Hispanics and the 1996 Presidential Election', Latino Studies Journal, vol. 9, no. 1, Winter 1998, p. 57.
141. See Levy, 'New York City's Hispanic Voters Emerge as Powerful and Unpredictable Force'; and William Schneider, 'Shattering an Urban Liberal Coalition', National Journal, 19 April 1997, p. 790.
142. See Levy, 'New York City's Hispanic Voters Emerge as Powerful and Unpredictable Force'; and William Schneider, 'Shattering an Urban Liberal Coalition', National Journal, 19 April 1997, p. 790.
143. For an analysis of the worst-case scenario of Black/Latino relations (Compton, California), see Mike Davis, 'The Sky Falls on Compton', The Nation, vol. 259, no. 8, 19 September 1994. On chronic Black/Latino gang violence, see my, 'Los Angeles on the Edge of Ethnic Cleansing', in Casino Zombies and other Essays from the Neon West, Berlin, forthcoming; and Ron Russell and Victor Mejia, 'City of Fear' [Hawaiian Gardens], New Times, 12-18 February 1998.
144. For an analysis of the worst-case scenario of Black/Latino relations (Compton, California), see Mike Davis, 'The Sky Falls on Compton', The Nation, vol. 259, no. 8, 19 September 1994. On chronic Black/Latino gang violence, see my, 'Los Angeles on the Edge of Ethnic Cleansing', in Casino Zombies and other Essays from the Neon West, Berlin, forthcoming; and Ron Russell and Victor Mejia, 'City of Fear' [Hawaiian Gardens], New Times, 12-18 February 1998.
145. For an analysis of the worst-case scenario of Black/Latino relations (Compton, California), see Mike Davis, 'The Sky Falls on Compton', The Nation, vol. 259, no. 8, 19 September 1994. On chronic Black/Latino gang violence, see my, 'Los Angeles on the Edge of Ethnic Cleansing', in Casino Zombies and other Essays from the Neon West, Berlin, forthcoming; and Ron Russell and Victor Mejia, 'City of Fear' [Hawaiian Gardens], New Times, 12-18 February 1998.
146. See John Betancur and Douglas Gills, 'Black and Latino Political Conflict in Chicago', and William sales and Roderick Bush, 'Blacks and Latino Coalitions: Prospects for New social Movement in New York City', in Race and Politics: New Challenges and Responses for Black Activism, edited by James Jennings, Verso, London 1997.
147. See John Betancur and Douglas Gills, 'Black and Latino Political Conflict in Chicago', and William sales and Roderick Bush, 'Blacks and Latino Coalitions: Prospects for New social Movement in New York City', in Race and Politics: New Challenges and Responses for Black Activism, edited by James Jennings, Verso, London 1997.
148. Also William Schenieder, 'Shattering an Urban Liberal Coalition', National Journal, 19 April 1997.
149. Grasmuck and Grosfoguel, 'Geopolitics, Economic Niches, and Gendered Social Capital', pp. 346 and 348.
150. Jose Sanchez, 'Puerto Rican Politics in New York', in Latinos in New York City, edited by Haslip-Viera and Baver, p. 295.
151. For the historical context, see Juan Gomez-Quinones, Mexican-American Labor, 1790-/990, Albuquerque 1994.
152. See David Bacon, 'Putting L.A. on the Map', Village Voice, 19 March 1996; and Goetz Wolff, 'The Making of a Third World City: Latino Labor and the Restructuring of the L.A. Economy', unpublished.
153. See David Bacon, 'Putting L.A. on the Map', Village Voice, 19 March 1996; and Goetz Wolff, 'The Making of a Third World City: Latino Labor and the Restructuring of the L.A. Economy', unpublished.
154. Catherine Fisk, Daniel Mitchell and Christopher Erickson, 'Union Representation of Immigrant Janitors in Southern California', conference paper presented at 'Immigrants and Union Organizing in California'.
155. The Labour journalist David Bacon has written scores of insightful articles covering both the labour upsurge in Southern California and the first stirrings of independent unionism in the border maquiladoras, In addition see, Hector Delgado, New Immigrants, Old Unions: Organizing Undocumented Worker in Los Angeles, Philadelphia 1993; and 'The Los Angeles Manufactoring Action Project: Lessons Learned, An Opportunity Squandered?' (about tortilla organizing campaingn); Jose Vadi, 'From "Scarbs" to Pathfinders: Militant Latino Worker in Southern California and Global Economic Restructuring', paper presented to Western Social Science Association, Albuquerque, April 1994; SEIU, a Penny for Justice: Janitor and L.A.'s Commercial Real Estate Market, Los Angeles 1995; and Mike Davis, 'Trojan Fortress', (on USC strungle), LA Weekly, 1-7 December 1995.
156. The Labour journalist David Bacon has written scores of insightful articles covering both the labour upsurge in Southern California and the first stirrings of independent unionism in the border maquiladoras, In addition see, Hector Delgado, New Immigrants, Old Unions: Organizing Undocumented Worker in Los Angeles, Philadelphia 1993; and 'The Los Angeles Manufactoring Action Project: Lessons Learned, An Opportunity Squandered?' (about tortilla organizing campaingn); Jose Vadi, 'From "Scarbs" to Pathfinders: Militant Latino Worker in Southern California and Global Economic Restructuring', paper presented to Western Social Science Association, Albuquerque, April 1994; SEIU, a Penny for Justice: Janitor and L.A.'s Commercial Real Estate Market, Los Angeles 1995; and Mike Davis, 'Trojan Fortress', (on USC strungle), LA Weekly, 1-7 December 1995.
157. The Labour journalist David Bacon has written scores of insightful articles covering both the labour upsurge in Southern California and the first stirrings of independent unionism in the border maquiladoras, In addition see, Hector Delgado, New Immigrants, Old Unions: Organizing Undocumented Worker in Los Angeles, Philadelphia 1993; and 'The Los Angeles Manufactoring Action Project: Lessons Learned, An Opportunity Squandered?' (about tortilla organizing campaingn); Jose Vadi, 'From "Scarbs" to Pathfinders: Militant Latino Worker in Southern California and Global Economic Restructuring', paper presented to Western Social Science Association, Albuquerque, April 1994; SEIU, a Penny for Justice: Janitor and L.A.'s Commercial Real Estate Market, Los Angeles 1995; and Mike Davis, 'Trojan Fortress', (on USC strungle), LA Weekly, 1-7 December 1995.
158. The Labour journalist David Bacon has written scores of insightful articles covering both the labour upsurge in Southern California and the first stirrings of independent unionism in the border maquiladoras, In addition see, Hector Delgado, New Immigrants, Old Unions: Organizing Undocumented Worker in Los Angeles, Philadelphia 1993; and 'The Los Angeles Manufactoring Action Project: Lessons Learned, An Opportunity Squandered?' (about tortilla organizing campaingn); Jose Vadi, 'From "Scarbs" to Pathfinders: Militant Latino Worker in Southern California and Global Economic Restructuring', paper presented to Western Social Science Association, Albuquerque, April 1994; SEIU, a Penny for Justice: Janitor and L.A.'s Commercial Real Estate Market, Los Angeles 1995; and Mike Davis, 'Trojan Fortress', (on USC strungle), LA Weekly, 1-7 December 1995.
159. The Labour journalist David Bacon has written scores of insightful articles covering both the labour upsurge in Southern California and the first stirrings of independent unionism in the border maquiladoras, In addition see, Hector Delgado, New Immigrants, Old Unions: Organizing Undocumented Worker in Los Angeles, Philadelphia 1993; and 'The Los Angeles Manufactoring Action Project: Lessons Learned, An Opportunity Squandered?' (about tortilla organizing campaingn); Jose Vadi, 'From "Scarbs" to Pathfinders: Militant Latino Worker in Southern California and Global Economic Restructuring', paper presented to Western Social Science Association, Albuquerque, April 1994; SEIU, a Penny for Justice: Janitor and L.A.'s Commercial Real Estate Market, Los Angeles 1995; and Mike Davis, 'Trojan Fortress', (on USC strungle), LA Weekly, 1-7 December 1995.
160. Mike Davis, 'Runaway Train Crushes Buses', The Nation, 18 September 1995; and 'Kajima's Thone of Blood', The Nation, 12 February 1996.
161. Mike Davis, 'Runaway Train Crushes Buses', The Nation, 18 September 1995; and 'Kajima's Thone of Blood', The Nation, 12 February 1996.
162. Rachel Sherman and Kim Voss, 'New Organizing Tactics and Immigrant Workers', conference paper presented at 'Immigrants and Union Organizing in California'.
163. Chicago Institute on Urban Poverty, The Living Wage: In the Public Interest, Chicago 1996.
164. For an eloquent perspective, see Edna Bonacich and Richard Appelbaum, Behind the Label: Inequality in the Los Angeles Apparel Industry, Berkeley 1999.