Lawyers and Their Discontents: Findings from a Survey of the Chicago Bar

Indiana Law Journal

Volumn 74, Issue 3, 1999, Pages 735-758

  Heinz, John P ^a   Hull, Kathleen E ^a   Harter, Ava A ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0033424755     PISSN: 00196665     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
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References (135)

1. ANTHONY T. KRONMAN, THE LOST LAWYER: FAILING IDEALS OF THE LEGAL PROFESSION 2 (1993).
2. Id.
3. For at least a century now, critics within the profession have decried the deterioration of the bar. See Robert W. Gordon, The Independence of Lawyers, 68 B.U. L. REV. 1 (1988). Every generation of lawyers appears to think that the golden era of the bar occurred just before they entered it. (Understandably, however, they never make the obvious cause-and-effect inference.) In 1907, John Dos Passos the elder (a lawyer who was the father of the more famous writer) observed: "[T]he lawyer stands before the community shorn of his prestige, clothed in the unattractive garb of a mere commercial agent - a flexible and convenient go-between, often cultivating every kind of equivocal quality as the means of success . . . ." JOHN R. DOS PASSOS, THE AMERICAN LAWYER: AS HE WAS - AS HE IS - AS HE CAN BE 33 (1907). Dos Passos said that the "Augustan Era" of professionalism was before the war - the Civil War, that is. Id. at 31. Going to hell in a handbasket is, apparently, a long, slow journey.
4. For at least a century now, critics within the profession have decried the deterioration of the bar. See Robert W. Gordon, The Independence of Lawyers, 68 B.U. L. REV. 1 (1988). Every generation of lawyers appears to think that the golden era of the bar occurred just before they entered it. (Understandably, however, they never make the obvious cause-and-effect inference.) In 1907, John Dos Passos the elder (a lawyer who was the father of the more famous writer) observed: "[T]he lawyer stands before the community shorn of his prestige, clothed in the unattractive garb of a mere commercial agent - a flexible and convenient go-between, often cultivating every kind of equivocal quality as the means of success . . . ." JOHN R. DOS PASSOS, THE AMERICAN LAWYER: AS HE WAS - AS HE IS - AS HE CAN BE 33 (1907). Dos Passos said that the "Augustan Era" of professionalism was before the war - the Civil War, that is. Id. at 31. Going to hell in a handbasket is, apparently, a long, slow journey.
5. Maura Dolan, Miserable with the Legal Life, L.A. TIMES, June 27, 1995, at A1.
6. Marcia M. McBrien, Fax Poll: Unhappy Lawyers Cite Hard Work, Few Rewards, MICH. LAW. WKLY., Dec. 26, 1994, at 1.
7. Tom Locke, Running from the Law, DENV. BUS. J., Apr. 22, 1994, § 2, at 3.
8. McBrien, supra note 5, at 1.
9. Diane Solov, Runaway Lawyers: Case Closed: Attorneys Quit to Preach, Teach, Find Happiness, PLAIN DEALER (Cleveland), Mar. 26, 1995, at 1 (Business Section).
10. Colin Covert, Grim Reality Has Lawyers Looking for New Career, ARIZ. REPUBLIC, July 25, 1994, at E1.
11. Kate Muir, Counsel for the Depressed and the Stressed, TIMES (London), July 13, 1995, at 16.
12. Glenn Firebaugh & Brian Harley, Trends in Job Satisfaction in the United States by Race, Gender, and Type of Occupation, 5 RES. SOC. WORK 87, 87 (1995).
13. See id.
14. See Randy Hodson, Gender Differences in Job Satisfaction: Why Aren't Women More Dissatisfied?, 30 SOC. Q. 385, 396 (1989) (finding that 1975 Wisconsin data revealed "slightly greater job satisfaction" for women). For similar findings, see also ANGUS CAMPBELL ET AL., THE QUALITY OF AMERICAN LIFE: PERCEPTIONS, EVALUATIONS, AND SATISFACTIONS 300-01 (1976); Roy L. Austin & Hiroko Hayama Dodge, Despair, Distrust and Dissatisfaction Among Blacks and Women, 1973-1987, 33 SOC. Q. 579, 580 (1992); Janet L. Bokemeier & William B. Lacy, Job Values, Rewards, and Work Conditions as Factors in Job Satisfaction Among Men & Women, 28 SOC. Q. 189, 195 (1992); and Clifford Mottaz, Gender Differences in Work Satisfaction, Work-Related Rewards and Values, and the Determinants of Work Satisfaction, 39 HUM. REL. 359, 360 (1986).
15. See Randy Hodson, Gender Differences in Job Satisfaction: Why Aren't Women More Dissatisfied?, 30 SOC. Q. 385, 396 (1989) (finding that 1975 Wisconsin data revealed "slightly greater job satisfaction" for women). For similar findings, see also ANGUS CAMPBELL ET AL., THE QUALITY OF AMERICAN LIFE: PERCEPTIONS, EVALUATIONS, AND SATISFACTIONS 300-01 (1976); Roy L. Austin & Hiroko Hayama Dodge, Despair, Distrust and Dissatisfaction Among Blacks and Women, 1973-1987, 33 SOC. Q. 579, 580 (1992); Janet L. Bokemeier & William B. Lacy, Job Values, Rewards, and Work Conditions as Factors in Job Satisfaction Among Men & Women, 28 SOC. Q. 189, 195 (1992); and Clifford Mottaz, Gender Differences in Work Satisfaction, Work-Related Rewards and Values, and the Determinants of Work Satisfaction, 39 HUM. REL. 359, 360 (1986).
16. See Randy Hodson, Gender Differences in Job Satisfaction: Why Aren't Women More Dissatisfied?, 30 SOC. Q. 385, 396 (1989) (finding that 1975 Wisconsin data revealed "slightly greater job satisfaction" for women). For similar findings, see also ANGUS CAMPBELL ET AL., THE QUALITY OF AMERICAN LIFE: PERCEPTIONS, EVALUATIONS, AND SATISFACTIONS 300-01 (1976); Roy L. Austin & Hiroko Hayama Dodge, Despair, Distrust and Dissatisfaction Among Blacks and Women, 1973-1987, 33 SOC. Q. 579, 580 (1992); Janet L. Bokemeier & William B. Lacy, Job Values, Rewards, and Work Conditions as Factors in Job Satisfaction Among Men & Women, 28 SOC. Q. 189, 195 (1992); and Clifford Mottaz, Gender Differences in Work Satisfaction, Work-Related Rewards and Values, and the Determinants of Work Satisfaction, 39 HUM. REL. 359, 360 (1986).
17. See Randy Hodson, Gender Differences in Job Satisfaction: Why Aren't Women More Dissatisfied?, 30 SOC. Q. 385, 396 (1989) (finding that 1975 Wisconsin data revealed "slightly greater job satisfaction" for women). For similar findings, see also ANGUS CAMPBELL ET AL., THE QUALITY OF AMERICAN LIFE: PERCEPTIONS, EVALUATIONS, AND SATISFACTIONS 300-01 (1976); Roy L. Austin & Hiroko Hayama Dodge, Despair, Distrust and Dissatisfaction Among Blacks and Women, 1973-1987, 33 SOC. Q. 579, 580 (1992); Janet L. Bokemeier & William B. Lacy, Job Values, Rewards, and Work Conditions as Factors in Job Satisfaction Among Men & Women, 28 SOC. Q. 189, 195 (1992); and Clifford Mottaz, Gender Differences in Work Satisfaction, Work-Related Rewards and Values, and the Determinants of Work Satisfaction, 39 HUM. REL. 359, 360 (1986).
18. See Randy Hodson, Gender Differences in Job Satisfaction: Why Aren't Women More Dissatisfied?, 30 SOC. Q. 385, 396 (1989) (finding that 1975 Wisconsin data revealed "slightly greater job satisfaction" for women). For similar findings, see also ANGUS CAMPBELL ET AL., THE QUALITY OF AMERICAN LIFE: PERCEPTIONS, EVALUATIONS, AND SATISFACTIONS 300-01 (1976); Roy L. Austin & Hiroko Hayama Dodge, Despair, Distrust and Dissatisfaction Among Blacks and Women, 1973-1987, 33 SOC. Q. 579, 580 (1992); Janet L. Bokemeier & William B. Lacy, Job Values, Rewards, and Work Conditions as Factors in Job Satisfaction Among Men & Women, 28 SOC. Q. 189, 195 (1992); and Clifford Mottaz, Gender Differences in Work Satisfaction, Work-Related Rewards and Values, and the Determinants of Work Satisfaction, 39 HUM. REL. 359, 360 (1986).
19. Firebaugh & Harley, supra note 11, at 99. The difference between blacks and whites was about one-fourth of a standard deviation. See id. 15. Austin & Dodge, supra note 13, at 579.
20. See Steven A. Tuch & Jack K. Martin, Race in the Workplace: Black/White Differences in the Sources of Job Satisfaction, 32 SOC. Q. 103 (1991), which used data from the 1985 and 1987-1989 General Social Surveys. This study did find a few interesting differences in the determinants of job satisfaction by race. Intrinsic job rewards (specifically, autonomy and authority) significantly increase whites' satisfaction but not blacks' satisfaction, while urban residence and blue collar employment significantly decrease the job satisfaction of blacks but not of whites. See id. at 111-13.
21. See Firebaugh & Harley, supra note 11, at 95; see also RICHARD F. HAMILTON & JAMES D. WRIGHT, THE STATE OF THE MASSES 209-10 (1986) (discussing the higher satisfaction level of older individuals in most of their relationships); Duane F. Alwin & Jon A. Krosnick, Aging, Cohorts, and the Stability of Sociopolitical Orientations over the Life Span, 97 AM. J. SOC. 169 passim (1991) (examining the hypothesis that attitude stability increases with age); Barbara J. Felton, Cohort Variation in Happiness: Some Hypotheses and Exploratory Analyses, 25 INT'L J. AGING & HUM. DEV. 27, 34-36 (1987) (analyzing the correlation between happiness and the sources of happiness among adults of varying ages).
22. See Firebaugh & Harley, supra note 11, at 95; see also RICHARD F. HAMILTON & JAMES D. WRIGHT, THE STATE OF THE MASSES 209-10 (1986) (discussing the higher satisfaction level of older individuals in most of their relationships); Duane F. Alwin & Jon A. Krosnick, Aging, Cohorts, and the Stability of Sociopolitical Orientations over the Life Span, 97 AM. J. SOC. 169 passim (1991) (examining the hypothesis that attitude stability increases with age); Barbara J. Felton, Cohort Variation in Happiness: Some Hypotheses and Exploratory Analyses, 25 INT'L J. AGING & HUM. DEV. 27, 34-36 (1987) (analyzing the correlation between happiness and the sources of happiness among adults of varying ages).
23. See Firebaugh & Harley, supra note 11, at 95; see also RICHARD F. HAMILTON & JAMES D. WRIGHT, THE STATE OF THE MASSES 209-10 (1986) (discussing the higher satisfaction level of older individuals in most of their relationships); Duane F. Alwin & Jon A. Krosnick, Aging, Cohorts, and the Stability of Sociopolitical Orientations over the Life Span, 97 AM. J. SOC. 169 passim (1991) (examining the hypothesis that attitude stability increases with age); Barbara J. Felton, Cohort Variation in Happiness: Some Hypotheses and Exploratory Analyses, 25 INT'L J. AGING & HUM. DEV. 27, 34-36 (1987) (analyzing the correlation between happiness and the sources of happiness among adults of varying ages).
24. See Firebaugh & Harley, supra note 11, at 89.
25. HAMILTON & WRIGHT, supra note 17, at 209-14.
26. See STANLEY ARONOWITZ, FALSE PROMISES: THE SHAPING OF AMERICAN WORKING CLASS CONSCIOUSNESS 406-07 (1973), which offers the interpretation that young workers are less satisfied because they subscribe to a different, less materialistic philosophy of work.
27. Firebaugh & Harley, supra note 11, at 102.
28. See Elzbieta Malinowska-Tabaka, Complex Measures of Job Satisfaction/Dissatisfaction Among Professionals, 19 SOC. INDICATORS RES. 451, 451 (1987).
29. See id. The variables analyzed included income, intrinsic rewards, time measures, service to community, prestige, career, and public image of the profession.
30. See id. at 464; see also Carrie Menkel-Meadow, Feminization of the Legal Profession: The Comparative Sociology of Women Lawyers, in 3 LAWYERS IN SOCIETY: COMPARATIVE THEORIES 225-31 (Richard L. Abel & S.C. Lewis eds., 1988).
31. See Marilyn Tucker et al., Whatever Happened to the Class of 1983?, 78 GEO. L.J. 153, 164 (1990); see also JILL ABRAMSON & BARBARA FRANKLIN, WHERE ARE THEY NOW: THE STORY OF THE WOMEN OF HARVARD LAW SCHOOL 1974 (1986) (discussing the general level of satisfaction of the women in the Harvard Law School class of 1974).
32. See Marilyn Tucker et al., Whatever Happened to the Class of 1983?, 78 GEO. L.J. 153, 164 (1990); see also JILL ABRAMSON & BARBARA FRANKLIN, WHERE ARE THEY NOW: THE STORY OF THE WOMEN OF HARVARD LAW SCHOOL 1974 (1986) (discussing the general level of satisfaction of the women in the Harvard Law School class of 1974).
33. See Janet Taber et al., Project, Gender, Legal Education, and the Legal Profession: An Empirical Study of Stanford Law Students and Graduates, 40 STAN. L. REV. 1209, 1251-52 (1988). Even though females reported more symptoms of stress, an overall satisfaction measure did not find a significant gender difference. Females scored 5.31 and males 5.12 on a seven-point (7.0) scale indicating increasing levels of satisfaction. See id. at 1245.
34. Id. at 1258. The literature cited suggests that women, of all professions, tend to report more psychological disorder symptoms than do men.
35. A.B.A. YOUNG LAWYERS DIVISION, THE STATE OF THE LEGAL PROFESSION 53-54 (1990). See also BERNARD F. LENTZ & DAVID N. LABAND, SEX DISCRIMINATION IN THE LEGAL PROFESSION (1995), for further analysis of the ABA Young Lawyers Division surveys.
36. A.B.A. YOUNG LAWYERS DIVISION, THE STATE OF THE LEGAL PROFESSION 53-54 (1990). See also BERNARD F. LENTZ & DAVID N. LABAND, SEX DISCRIMINATION IN THE LEGAL PROFESSION (1995), for further analysis of the ABA Young Lawyers Division surveys.
37. See A.B.A. YOUNG LAWYERS DIVISION, supra note 28, at 54 tbl.70.
38. See id. at 54 tbl.71.
39. See id. at 54 tbl.70.
40. See CYNTHIA FUCHS EPSTEIN, WOMEN IN LAW 366-78 (1981); Linda Liefland, Career Patterns of Male and Female Lawyers, 35 BUFF. L. REV. 601, 613-17 (1986); Taber et al., supra note 26, at 1228-31.
41. See CYNTHIA FUCHS EPSTEIN, WOMEN IN LAW 366-78 (1981); Linda Liefland, Career Patterns of Male and Female Lawyers, 35 BUFF. L. REV. 601, 613-17 (1986); Taber et al., supra note 26, at 1228-31.
42. See William T. Bielby & Denise D. Bielby, Family Ties: Balancing Commitment to Work and Family in Dual Earner Households, 54 AM. SOC. REV. 776, 778 (1989).
43. See MARILYN TUCKER & GEORGIA A. NIEDZIELKO, OPTIONS AND OBSTACLES: A SURVEY OF THE STUDIES OF THE CAREERS OF WOMEN LAWYERS 32 (1994) (citing COMMISSION ON THE STATUS OF WOMEN IN THE LEGAL PROFESSION, NORTH CAROLINA BAR ASSOCIATION 52 (1983)).
44. See MARILYN TUCKER & GEORGIA A. NIEDZIELKO, OPTIONS AND OBSTACLES: A SURVEY OF THE STUDIES OF THE CAREERS OF WOMEN LAWYERS 32 (1994) (citing COMMISSION ON THE STATUS OF WOMEN IN THE LEGAL PROFESSION, NORTH CAROLINA BAR ASSOCIATION 52 (1983)).
45. See Martha W. Barnett, Women Practicing Law: Changes in Attitudes, Changes in Platitudes, 42 FLA. L. REV. 209, 212-16, 218 (1990).
46. See Patricia MacCorquodale & Gary Jensen, Women in the Law: Partners or Tokens?, 7 GENDER & SOC'Y 582, 582 (1993).
47. See Janet Rosenberg et al., Now That We Are Here: Discrimination, Disparagement, and Harassment at Work and the Experience of Women Lawyers, 1 GENDER & SOC'Y 415, 415 (1993).
48. See id. at 425-28.
49. See id. at 423-25.
50. See Anne Spencer & David Podmore, Women Lawyers in England: The Experience of Inequality, 9 WORK & OCCUPATIONS 337, 357 (1982).
51. See Anne Spencer & David Podmore, Women Lawyers - Marginal Members of a Male-Dominated Profession, in IN A MAN'S WORLD: ESSAYS ON WOMEN IN MALE-DOMINATED PROFESSIONS 113 (Anne Spencer & David Podmore eds., 1987).
52. See id. at 114-16.
53. See id. at 117-18.
54. See id. at 118-19.
55. See id. at 123-25.
56. Id. at 125-26.
57. See id. at 128-29.
58. JOHN HAGAN & FIONA KAY, GENDER IN PRACTICE: A STUDY OF LAWYERS' LIVES 155-56 (1995).
59. See id. at 169. The very small difference between men and women is not large enough to be statistically significant, but it was consistent across practice settings. In a 1985 sample, there was no distinct pattern of difference by gender. The Toronto study also suggested, however, that women tended to express more dissatisfaction than men in group, open-ended discussion settings. See id. at 161.
60. See Paul W. Mattessich & Cheryl W. Heilman, The Career Paths of Minnesota Law School Graduates: Does Gender Make a Difference?, 9 LAW & INEQ. J. 59, 95 (1990). The response rate in this survey was 90%. See id. at 63.
61. See Edward A. Adams, Legal Career Exacts Steep Personal Price, N.Y. L.J., Feb. 7, 1994, at 1.
62. See id.
63. See id.
64. See id.
65. See id.
66. David L. Chambers, Accommodation and Satisfaction: Women and Men Lawyers and the Balance of Work and Family, 14 L. & SOC. INQUIRY 251 (1989). The Michigan study included more than 1000 graduates of the 1976-1979 law school classes. See id. at 260.
67. Id. at 254.
68. See TUCKER & NIEDZIELKO, supra note 34, at 30-36.
69. Chambers, supra note 56, at 265.
70. This project was a partial replication of an earlier survey, conducted in 1975. See JOHN P. HEINZ & EDWARD O. LAUMANN, CHICAGO LAWYERS (1982). Any reference in this Article to the "Chicago survey" is to the 1994-1995 survey.
71. Of the original targets, 8% had died, were over age 80 (the eligibility limit), had moved out of the Chicago area, or could not be located after an exhaustive search of directories (and were thus assumed to have moved to another region). These persons were therefore excluded from the target sample.
72. All lawyers admitted to practice in Illinois are required to be registered with and to pay an annual fee to the Attorney Registration and Disciplinary Commission ("ARDC"), an agency under the supervision of the Illinois Supreme Court. A lawyer who is not registered with ARDC is not in good standing. Though the official list maintained by ARDC is not made public, even for research purposes, the agency agreed to draw a random sample of names and addresses from the list, following our procedures and specifications. We are grateful to the Illinois ARDC and its staff for their cooperation in this project.
73. In an analysis of variance, the satisfaction scores of lawyers in income categories below $100,000 per year were significantly different from those of lawyers earning $250,000 or more.
74. The bivariate correlation between age and satisfaction is .147 (p < .001).
75. Chambers, supra note 56, at 282-83.
76. See generally FAYE J. CROSBY, RELATIVE DEPRIVATION AND WORKING WOMEN 16-33 (1982); Hodson, supra note 13; Karyn A. Loscocco, Reactions to Blue-Collar Work: A Comparison of Women and Men, 17 WORK & OCCUPATIONS 152 (1990); Philip E. Varca et al., Sex Differences in Job Satisfaction Revisited, 26 ACAD. MGMT. J. 348 (1983).
77. See generally FAYE J. CROSBY, RELATIVE DEPRIVATION AND WORKING WOMEN 16-33 (1982); Hodson, supra note 13; Karyn A. Loscocco, Reactions to Blue-Collar Work: A Comparison of Women and Men, 17 WORK & OCCUPATIONS 152 (1990); Philip E. Varca et al., Sex Differences in Job Satisfaction Revisited, 26 ACAD. MGMT. J. 348 (1983).
78. See generally FAYE J. CROSBY, RELATIVE DEPRIVATION AND WORKING WOMEN 16-33 (1982); Hodson, supra note 13; Karyn A. Loscocco, Reactions to Blue-Collar Work: A Comparison of Women and Men, 17 WORK & OCCUPATIONS 152 (1990); Philip E. Varca et al., Sex Differences in Job Satisfaction Revisited, 26 ACAD. MGMT. J. 348 (1983).
79. Karyn A. Loscocco & Glenna Spitze, The Organizational Context of Women's andMen's Pay Satisfaction, 72 SOC. SCI. Q. 3, 16-17 (1991).
80. CROSBY, supra note 66, at 7-8, 160-61.
81. Hodson, supra note 13, at 393.
82. Chambers, supra note 56, at 272-73; see also SPOUSE, PARENT, WORKER: ON GENDER AND MULTIPLE ROLES (Faye J. Crosby ed., 1987) (containing several essays which discuss women and their multiple roles).
83. Faye J. Crosby, Multiple Regressions and Multiple Roles: A Note for the General Reader, in SPOUSE, PARENT, WORKER: ON GENDER AND MULTIPLE ROLES, supra note 70, at 39-40.
84. Hodson, supra note 13, at 393-95.
85. Loscocco & Spitze, supra note 67, at 16.
86. Menkel-Meadow, supra note 24, at 227.
87. See William J. Bigoness, Sex Differences in Job Attribute Preferences, 9 J. ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAV. 139, 144-46 (1988); Jack K. Martin & Sandra L. Hanson, Sex, Family Wage-Earning Status, and Satisfaction with Work, 12 WORK & OCCUPATIONS 91, 98-103 (1985); Michael A. Murray & Tom Atkinson, Gender Differences in Correlates of Job Satisfaction, 13 CANADIAN J. BEHAV. SCI. 44 (1981); Cecily C. Neil & William E. Snizek, Gender as a Moderator of Job Satisfaction, 15 WORK & OCCUPATIONS 201, 213-14 (1988).
88. See William J. Bigoness, Sex Differences in Job Attribute Preferences, 9 J. ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAV. 139, 144-46 (1988); Jack K. Martin & Sandra L. Hanson, Sex, Family Wage-Earning Status, and Satisfaction with Work, 12 WORK & OCCUPATIONS 91, 98-103 (1985); Michael A. Murray & Tom Atkinson, Gender Differences in Correlates of Job Satisfaction, 13 CANADIAN J. BEHAV. SCI. 44 (1981); Cecily C. Neil & William E. Snizek, Gender as a Moderator of Job Satisfaction, 15 WORK & OCCUPATIONS 201, 213-14 (1988).
89. See William J. Bigoness, Sex Differences in Job Attribute Preferences, 9 J. ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAV. 139, 144-46 (1988); Jack K. Martin & Sandra L. Hanson, Sex, Family Wage-Earning Status, and Satisfaction with Work, 12 WORK & OCCUPATIONS 91, 98-103 (1985); Michael A. Murray & Tom Atkinson, Gender Differences in Correlates of Job Satisfaction, 13 CANADIAN J. BEHAV. SCI. 44 (1981); Cecily C. Neil & William E. Snizek, Gender as a Moderator of Job Satisfaction, 15 WORK & OCCUPATIONS 201, 213-14 (1988).
90. See William J. Bigoness, Sex Differences in Job Attribute Preferences, 9 J. ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAV. 139, 144-46 (1988); Jack K. Martin & Sandra L. Hanson, Sex, Family Wage-Earning Status, and Satisfaction with Work, 12 WORK & OCCUPATIONS 91, 98-103 (1985); Michael A. Murray & Tom Atkinson, Gender Differences in Correlates of Job Satisfaction, 13 CANADIAN J. BEHAV. SCI. 44 (1981); Cecily C. Neil & William E. Snizek, Gender as a Moderator of Job Satisfaction, 15 WORK & OCCUPATIONS 201, 213-14 (1988).
91. See Kathleen E. Hull, The Paradox of the Contented Woman Lawyer (May 29, 1997) (paper presented at the annual meeting of the Law & Society Association, St. Louis, Mo.). Because the overall satisfaction measure is highly skewed, with most respondents reporting being "satisfied" or "very satisfied," linear regression is an inappropriate method for analysis of these data. This problem was resolved by using logistic regression and treating the overall satisfaction measure as a dichotomous variable: Respondents were either "very satisfied" or not.
92. See infra text accompanying note 95.
93. Questionnaire on file with the author.
94. Pearson correlation = .13, p < .001, two-tailed.
95. Questionnaire on file with the author.
96. Pearson correlation = .09, p < .02.
97. Questionnaire on file with the author.
98. Pearson correlation = .12, p = .003.
99. In a t-test, p < .03.
100. In a t-test, p < .001.
101. In a t-test, p < .06.
102. HAGAN & KAY, supra note 48, at 169.
103. See id. 89. Chi-square = 4.7, 1 d.f., p < .05.
104. Pearson correlation = .147, p < .001, two-tailed.
105. Pearson correlation = .094, p < .02, two-tailed.
106. Pearson correlation = .143, p < .001, two-tailed.
107. Pearson correlation = .10, p = .008, two-tailed.
108. Pearson correlation = .09, p = .02, two-tailed.
109. On the client choice variable, chi-square = 12.2, 4 d.f., p < .05; on the variable concerned with direction or supervision by seniors, chi-square = 30.2, 4 d.f., p < .001; and on the variable concerning the presence or absence of collaboration, chi-square = 21.4, 4 d.f., p < .001. On another variable, concerning the extent to which the problems addressed by the lawyer "go beyond purely legal issues," the difference between men and women just misses the conventional .05 test of statistical significance, but women appear to be somewhat more likely to report that they deal with extralegal matters.
110. The two variables significantly correlated with satisfaction among male respondents are client choice (p < .001), and the variable dealing with direction by seniors (p < .01). The two that are significant among women are the variable regarding rapidity of change in their area of the law (p < .05), and the one concerning the degree to which exclusively professional expertise is required in their work (p < .05).
111. See supra Table 2 ("Control over Amount of Work" and "Control over Manner of Work").
112. Chi-square = 11.7, 4 d.f., p < .05. 99. Chi-square = 15.4, 4 d.f.,p < .01.
113. Chi-square = 27.7, 5 d.f.,p < .001.
114. Chi-square = 27.7, 5 d.f.,p < .001.
115. Some of this income difference is attributable to the fact that the black respondents are, on the average, somewhat younger than the whites. The mean age of whites is 41.3 and that of blacks is 37.9; t-test significant at .02.
116. In a t-test, p < .001. 103. The differences between whites and nonwhites on the final two variables listed above in Table 3 - "Relationships with Colleagues" and "Opportunity for Pro Bono Work" - also come very close to reaching the .05 level of statistical significance.
117. Chi-square = 63.6, 5 d.f., p < .001.
118. Experience was measured by number of years out of law school. In addition to the simple number of years since graduation, we included a term with the square of that value because income returns to experience are probably curvilinear rather than linear. As expected, the latter term was significantly negative.
119. p < .01.
120. See supra Table 2.
121. See supra Table 3.
122. In a second version of the model, we included an interaction term for gender and race. It was not significant.
123. See KRONMAN, supra note 1, at 2; see also EVE SPANGLER, LAWYERS FOR HIRE 15 (1986).
124. See HAGAN & KAY, supra note 48, at 169 tbl.7.1.
125. See Mattessich & Heilman, supra note 50, at 95 fig.22.
126. See Adams, supra note 51, at 1.
127. See Firebaugh & Harley, supra note 11, at 87.
128. See supra text accompanying notes 11-13.
129. The population from which the respondents were sampled included all lawyers licensed by the state, even those who were retired, unemployed, or doing other sorts of work. Thus, exit from this population would occur only if the lawyers allowed their licenses to lapse. Most lawyers who do other work probably want to retain their licenses, if only as insurance. The respondents to the survey did, in fact, include a number of lawyers who were not practicing at the time, but most of the analyses discussed in this Article have dealt with only the practicing lawyers in the sample.
130. HAGAN & KAY, supra note 48, at 166.
131. Mattessich & Heilman, supra note 50, at 87-88.
132. If we compare the practicing to the nonpracticing respondents, we find that 9.9% of the males and 12.7% of the females were not practicing at the time of the survey. This difference is not statistically significant. For the purposes of this analysis, we excluded judges, judicial clerks, and law professors from both the practicing and the nonpracticing categories. The percentages of men and women in this residual grouping are exactly equal (16 men and 16 women). Thus, women are substantially overrepresented among judges, judicial clerks, and law professors.
133. See Marc Galanter, Predators and Parasites: Lawyer-Bashing and Civil Justice, 28 GA. L. REV. 633, 662-69 (1994).
134. See MELVIN J. LERNER, THE BELIEF IN A JUST WORLD: A FUNDAMENTAL DELUSION (1980).
135. "Between 1993 and 1996 the number of applications filed for admission to American Bar Association (ABA)-approved law schools fell from over 450,000 to about 340,000. Thus, in the space of four years, there was an almost 25% drop in application volume . . . ." CHARLES LONGLEY, WHO GETS THE APP? EXPLAINING LAW SCHOOL APPLICATION VOLUME, 1993 TO 1996, at 1 (1998).